COST IMPLICATIONS of BUILDING DESIGN

PLANS: a Literature Review Analysis

Ainomugisha Safiki#,MochamadSolikin#, M. NurSahid#
#
Magister TeknikSipilUniversitasMuhammadiyah Surakarta
JL. A. YaniTromolPos 1 PabelanKartasura 5/102
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
Abstract—At the moment, the process of achieving awell- drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams and sewing
designed project in respect to cost constraints dictated by clients, patterns).
both for private and public buildings isnot well understood.It According to [2], [3], design is an iterative process
involves a significant amount of re-design, and rework, thus take through which a set of requirements such as; physical,
long to complete.In order to achieve a higher level of aesthetic, performance, and so on are creatively manipulated,
performance without an increase in product cost and time, it is resulting into a design. In addition, design decisions form
necessary to identify, measure and articulate the major building solutions to problems of function, form and economy for
design variables andtheir cost implications to a building
project.Therefore, this literature review study has been sought to
building [4].
attain two objectives 1)identifying of building design variables Hence, this process, forms a complex interaction of skills,
and their cost implications, and then 2)make appropriate judgment, knowledge, information, and time[5], aimed at
recommendations for the construction practitionersespecially in satisfying the client‟s requirements through manipulations. In
Indonesia. The literature was collected from wide range addition, it requires problem finding, and problem solving,
completed studies on the topic, critically examined and then deduction and the drawing of inferences, inductions and the
results discussed, conclusions and recommendations drawn. The creation of new ideas, analysis and synthesis.
findings established 12 design variables, with main ones being In trying to find solutions for all these constraints
plan shape and complexity, storey height, number of storeys, encountered during the design process, the design team will
building size, and building services. Plan shape was identified to
have the greatest impact on costs, with square shape being the
always try to make adjustments on a wide range of issues,
cheapest while circular shape being most expensive, and complex especially to do with how best the building project could be
shapes also having higher costs. The recommendations made delivered, without compromising the performance and quality.
were that there isneed for the building shape, to be as close as This results into concept of modelling costs, according to [6]
possible to square, avoiding irregular shapes. Further studies this is the different ways the project can be designed and
need to be done to establish how far individual cost elements are constructed, with each method attracting different costs.
affected by these variables, especially in developing countries like Hence, the assessment of different design alternatives produce
Indonesia. better solutions on achieving a particular project. These design
combinations are the ones that have come be known as
Keywords—building design, plans, design variables, cost
building design variables.
implications, cost elements and Construction industry
Previous studies into the area of design process have
I. INTRODUCTION identified a great number of design variables, as models which
account for the construction costs. They include, to mention
As the construction industry continues to be one of the
but few: plan shape; building size; circulation space; perimeter
fastest growing sectors of any economy, be it in developed
to floor area; grouping of buildings; storey height and the total
countries or developing ones, the urge to deliver the best
height or number of storeys for the building[7];[8]; [9];
product output in terms of good designed building project,
[10];[11] and [12].
which is able to satisfy the clients and ultimate users cannot
According to findings, perimeter-to-floor ratio unit
be over emphasized. This has again been added on to by the
construction costs and overall project costs are affected by
scarcity of resources and hence need to put the little available
variation in these design variables. In line with that
ones to the best use. This can be judged by having to incur
forexample researchers have established that the more
costs which cannot be dealt away with, called value for money
complex and irregular the building shape is the more
in projects. With this new phenomena, there is great tendency
expensive it is to construct. This is so because of
that most clients the common initial question they will ask is
constructability problems that come with complexity, plus
“what is it going to cost me?” often followed closely by “can
increase in building elements like external walling with
we do it any cheaper?”[1]As according to Wikipedia, design is
associated finishes like cladding, roofing, setting out costs,
the creation of a plan or convention for the construction of an
foundations, mechanical and electrical services among others.
object or a system (as in architectural blueprints, engineering
As a result researchers have asserted that defining the right
problem and then generate a range of possible solutions,

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inform of design variables, as one of the ways value control, has identified four types of constraints faced by
management assists in reducing unnecessary cost [6]. This is designers during the design process, which are as: a) Radical
because it eliminates a particular building component serving Constraint , a range of healthcare policies fall under this; b)
no real function or where costs are expended on unnecessary Practical Constraint, in other words, the constructability issue
material. Hence, great need for more studies in the area. imposed by the design; c) Formal Constraint ; and d)Symbolic
However, much as many studies on the topic have been Constraint. As for [15], he simplified the constraints by
done, they are usually covering one specific area at ago, of grouping them into two broad categories; internal and external
design variable, therefore one of the problems there is constraints.
isolation of the many design variables. Therefore this During the whole of this process, of trying to put up
literature review analysis partly seeks to cover this. So the solutions for economic related constraints, researchers in the
purpose/objectives of this concept paper review is 1) critically field of construction economics have come up with models
examine from the previous studies on the topic, the various called building design variables, accounting for how costs of
building design variables, how their effect building costs, then project are incurred.
2) make recommendationsfor the construction industry in A design variable is a numerical input that is allowed to
Indonesia. change during the design optimization (making it perfect), or a
parameter or unit of a building design that can be kept
II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY constant in a particular case, but which may be varied in
The study reported in this paper essentially was built upon different cases even while providing the same accommodation
an approach of, extensive focus-based literature search [16]. Hence, they form the morphological factors which
conducted on both printed and on-line materials of published influence the cost of building work. [7], they form designers‟
and unpublished studies, with the purpose of identifying forecasts, as it is the building design variable that gives the
relevant studies concerning building design variables and their information for forecasting and determining whether value
construction cost implications. Following this can be achieved at an acceptable cost[17]. They also form a
accomplishment, the literature was carefully reviewed and basis for decision making, as solutions to problems of
examined with the purpose of establishing general findings function, form, time and economy for buildings [4]. This is
concerning the topic. because, they represent as closely as possible the way in
which costs are actually incurred[18].

III. THEORETICAL FRAME WORK IV. RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

BUILDING DESIGN PROCESS
A thorough search of previous studies that have been
According to[13], in arriving at any particular design,
carried by after reviewing have resulted into 12 number of
there is a broad relationship between the client, shape, method major building design variables.
and material of any construction, which is as follows; 1) The
client determines the building shape; 2) The building shape The generalbuilding design variables, which have been
determines the building material; 3) Material determines the identified by the various studies are as shown in the table
structure and construction. below together with some of the authors who have done
“Architectural form/plan is an inclusive term that refers studies on them:
primarily to a building‟s external outline or shape, and to a TABLE I
THE IDENTIFIED BUILDING DESIGN VARIABLES AND PREVIOUS AUTHORS.
lesser degree references its internal organization and unifying SOURCE: COMPILATION FROM ANALYSIS
principles” [14], while “Structural form is a building‟s
primary or most visually dominant structural system” [14], of No. Design Variable Source/Authors
columnar, planar, or a combination of these which a designer
can intentionally use to reinforce or realize ideas, that is A Plan shape and Seeley (1996)[19]; Ashworth
mainly columns, walls and beams. To achieve any design Complexity (2004)[6]; Kouskoulas and Koehn
there two attitudes/views towards structure that have been (1974)[20]; Selley (1983)[4];
articulated in various periods of architectural history are: Staedman et al., 2009[21]; Wing,
A. Structure as form-follower (1999)[22]; Ibrahim et al.
In other words, form is the initial basis and structure the (2015)[8]; Ibrahim, (2003)[9];
necessary result. Ibrahim (2007); Seeley (1997); and
B. Structure as form-giver Ferry and Brandon, (1999)[12];
Zima (2008)[23]; Zima and
Where that the outward appearance of is an expression of
Plebankiewicz (2012)[24]
an efficient structural or constructional reality, in other B Size of Building: Seeley (1997)[11]
words, form must be the necessary result, and not the initial
basis of structure”[14]. C Average Storey Height Ibrahim (2003)[9]; Seeley
During design, there are constraints that exist which are (1996)[19]
entirely internal to the system or object being designed, or D Number of Flanagan and Norman (1999)[25];
Storeys(Total Height) Clark and Kingston (1930)[26];
may be linked with some external factors not under designer‟s Stone (1963); Seeley (1996);

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 Department of the Environment Some of identified studies that have gone deep in their
(1971); Thomsen (1966), Ferry and analysis include [9] and [8].
Brandon (1991)[12], Schueller Through the studies of construction economics of
(1986)[27]; Tregenza (1972)[28]; buildings, to reflect the effects of these design variables,
Steyert (1972)[29]; Tan (1999);
researchers have provided ways to measure their effect
Picken and Ilozor (2003)[30];
Ellen and Yam (2007)[31]; Lee through a number of building theories which include: W/F
(2005)[32]; Oss and Wamelink (Wall to Floor) index; LBI (Length/Breadth Index) index; PSI
(2007)[33];Yau and Yeung (Plan/Shape Index) index; Cook‟s JC (Cooke‟s JC shape
(2007)[34]. efficiency) index; POP (Perimeter Over Plan) index; building
Jong et al (2007)[33]; Chau et al planning “m” index; VOLM (Volume - block compactness)
(2007)[34]; Newton (1982); index; and Optimumenvelope area [12];[20], [12]; and [6].
Warszawski (2003)[35].
E Building Envelope Seeley (1997)[11] V. EFFECTS OF DESIGN VARIABLES OF COSTS
F Circulation Space Seeley (1996)[19]
G Grouping of Buildings Ashworth (1994); Abuza (2010); Over the years, going by the findings of previous
Seeley (1996) researchers, a great deal of cost implications these design
H Percentage of glazed Swaffield and Pasquire (1996)[36] variables have on the total costs of any construction project.
(Cladding) wall This is because these variations in design variables, can go a
I Mechanical and Carroll (1982)[37]; and Kosonen long way in saving a great deal of materials and enabling
Electrical Services and Shemeica (1997); Turner constructability once they are paid attention to in detail,
Elements (1986);Aeroboe (1995) and Ellis
during design of any building project.
(1996); Swaffield and Pasquire
(1996)[36]; Bojic et al. (2002)[38]; The general effects of the individual building design
Seeley(1996)[19] variables, identified from previous studies, are as shown in the
J Column Spacing Seeley (1996)[19]; Ibrahim table 2 below:
(2003)[9] TABLE II
THE COST IMPLICATIONS OF DESIGN VARIABLES. SOURCE:
K Floor Spans Seeley 1996)[19]. RESEARCH REVIEW
L Constructability CIRIA (1983)[39]; Illingworth
(1984)[40]; CII (1986); Tatum
(1987); and Zainuddin (1997)[41] No. Design General cost Accounting for the
Variable implication probablecost
implication
The table above from the review, shows the highest 1. Plane shape High perimeter- 1.1 High
number or researchers picking interest in mainly plan shape, to-floor ratio high quantities of
total height of a building and services. This because of the unit construction finishes and
extent of effect they have on the costs of individual elements. costs (Square is decorations
Hence, significantly costs expended on a number of building cheapest ratio of like paints and
elements such as foundations, walls, building structure frame, 1) plaster.
greatly affected. For example [11] compared two buildings of 1.2 Increased
rectangular and irregular shapes, each of which have the same volume of
floor area. Irregular shaped building where there is 6% more external
enclosing
external walls to enclose the same floor area, setting out are
block walling.
increased by about 50% excavation cost about 20% and
1.3 Increased heat
drainage cost by approximately 25%. loss surface
Another discovery was that, many based their studies on area.
empirical data and mathematical regression studies and where 1.4 Change in
carried out in developed countries like China, UK and USA foundation
among others, this is partly due to the level of competition in quantities
economies by high. For the nature or researches, this was due 1.5 Longer
to the fact that to cost the data especially the cost data is not service and
easy for researchers. Furthermore,majority of studies waste pipes
concentrated on how these design variables affect overall 1.6 Chances of extra
costs of a project, using cost per square meter (cost/m2) data. doors & windows
Hence, less was found with researchers going as far as, 2 Shape Irregular and 2.1 High roof costs
establishing how alterations in these design variables affected complexity complex shapes due to corners&
have higher the material cutting
the individual cost elements of substructure, block walling, costs wastages.
roofing, windows and doors, finishes and decorations, 2.2 Setting out
electrical and mechanical services, maintenance costs (energy costs&
requirements of a building in relation to its maintenance). timeincrease.
2.3 Excavation costs

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 increase. or dry risers &
2.4 Drainage costs sprinklers)
high due to increase.
extra manholes 6 Building Simple envelope 6.1 Lowest
and longer Envelope adopted (square perimeter/floor
pipes shape) the more hence cost
3 Size of Unit construction 3.1 Economical economical in expended on
Buildings: cost, such as cost costs of total envelope the walls &
per square meter preliminaries finishes plus
reduce (as site offices, the roofing low
water supply, 7 Circulation Lower space 7.1 Associated costs
temporary Space expended of on heating,
roads costs circulation cooling light
etc.) are fixed. elements the more and
3.2 Greater economy economical design maintenance
in using lifts, is. yet no
bathrooms, profitable use,
staircasesetc. low.
3.2 On costs and 8 Grouping of I[8], [9], [11], 8.1 Reduction in the
overheads Buildings [12]nter-linking quantities of
form a smaller buildings often foundations,
proportion of results in savings external
total costs in costs walling
4 Average Storey High construction 4.1 Increased 9 Percentage of High wall to floor 9.1 Due to glazing
Height costs for high volume of glazed wall ratio results in and cladding
storey heights heating and higher costs being a very
longer lenghts expensive
of pipes or element of
cables. building
4.2 Longer service Mechanical & Great proportion 10.1 Since they
and waste 10 Electrical results building costly elements
pipes to supply Services becoming costly 10.2 They are
sanitary biggest
appliances. consumers of
4.3 Higher roof costs energy
due to between up to
increased 30% and
hoisting 40%.
4.4 Increased 11 Floor Spans Floor costs 11.2 Floors and roof
staircases and lifts‟ increase are the most
costs. considerably with expensive
4.5 Cost in applying larger spans. parts of a
finishes building
&decorations structure
high working 12 Constructability The more 12.1 The
at high levels. constructability of complicated
Number of Generally there 5.1 Foundation costs any design plan structures
Storeys are cost items decreasing becomes difficult need
which fall as the 5.2 Beyond a certain the higher the cost specialized
number of storeys number of implication expertise
5 increases, those storeys the form 12.2 Construction
which rise, those of construction time increases
which fall initially changes and where
and then rise and costs rise. construct
those unaffected 5.3 Cost varies with ability is a
by height. the type, form problem.
and construction 12.3 Ease of
of the building. compatibility
5.4 Air conditioning of different
costs likely fall. elements
once its well
5.5 Sophisticated
planned
equipment (wet

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 The results shown in the table above, as discoveries from VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
the previous researches verify why design/construction
The research review revealed that building designs can
economics is taking center stage, during construction
be realized in a wide range of alternatives, called design
management, as opposed to designing where by architects
variables. 1) It has identified 12 variables with major ones
took aesthetic requirements more important.
being plan shape and complexity, storey height, building
This practice, has necessitated the design consultants to
services and height of storeys, this is proved from the extent
have a complete understanding of the fundamental aspects of
of attention researchers gave them and their cost implications
the user requirements for the project, and ability to compare
that have been associated with them. Furthermore, each has its
the ultimate cost consequences of the construction work from
own unique way it affects costs. 2) A recommendation is
different alternatives solutions [42]. Hence, avoiding the client
made calling for more studies on the topic building design
paying undesirable costs from this complex and inappropriate
variables and their cost implications in the Indonesian
design solutions during construction stage. Therefore, the
construction industry. That is the building design
industry is shifting more towards value for money in projects,
considerations used by designers in Indonesia, parties
what has come to be known as practice of value management
involved and the cost impact they have on overall cost of a
or value engineering.
building project.
Furthermore, these previous studies indicate difference in
the way construction costs of substructure, superstructure
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