Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system

υ(τ)

1
0 k
0
1
0
1 m
0
1
0
1 F(t)

Figure 1: Undamped SDOF system

1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
F(t) u(t)
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
M
1111
0000
0000000
11111111111
0000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111

00
11
011
00
111
01 0
1
000
11
00
1100
11
011
00
11
00
11
0
1
0011
00
0
1
00
11

Figure 2: Example of overhead water tank that can be modeled as SDOF system

1. Equation of motion (EOM)

Mathematical expression defining the dynamic displacements of a structural sys-
tem. Solution of the expression gives a complete description of the response of
the structure as a function of time

Derivation of EOM

1. Dynamic Equilibrium (Using D’Alembert’s principle)

2. Principle of Virtual Work

3. Hamilton’s principle (Using Lagrange’s equation)

Dynamic Equilibrium
D’Alembert’s principle states that a mass develops an inertial force proportional to
its acceleration and opposing its motion. (See Figure 3)

mü + ku = F (t) Equation of Motion (1)

for F (t) = 0, the response is termed as free vibration and occurs due to initial excita-
tion.

1
 ..
mu

m
ku F(t)

Figure 3: Dynamic force equilibrium

Free Vibration

mü + ku = 0 linear,homogeneous second order differential equation

k
⇒ ü + u = 0
m s
k k
⇒ ü + ωn2 u = 0 ωn2 = , ωn = ωn = natural frequency (2)
m m
Solution of Equation 2 will be,

u(t) = C1 eıωn t + C2 e−ıωn t

= C1 (cos ωn t + ı sin ωn t) + C2 (cos ωn t − ı sin ωn t)
= (C1 + C2 ) cos ωn t + ı(C1 − C2 ) sin ωn t (3)

Applying the initial conditions,

u(t)|@t=0 = u0 = C1 + C2
u̇(t)|@t=0 = u̇0 = ıωn (C1 − C2 ) (4)

Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 3, we get,

u̇0
u(t) = u0 cos ωn t + sin ωn t (5)
ωn
Again, substituting,

u0 = A cos φ
u̇0
= A sin φ (6)
ωn
into Equation 5, we get,

u(t) = A cos φ cos ωn t + A sin φ sin ωn t

= A cos(ωn t − φ) (7)

2
where, A is the amplitude and φ is the phase angle
v
u µ ¶ Ã !
u u̇0 2 u̇0 /ωn
A = tu20 + and φ = tan −1
(8)
ωn u0

Free vibration of damped SDOF system

Modeling of damping is perhaps one of the most difficult task in structural dynamics.
It is still a topic of research in advanced structural dynamics and is derived mostly
experimentally.
Viscous Damping
The most common form of damping is viscous damping.
Equation of Motion

..
u
111
000
11
00 k
00
11
00
11 F(t)
00
11
00
11
m 11111
00000
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 c

Figure 4: SDOF with viscous damping

mü + cu̇ + ku = 0
c k
⇒ ü + u̇ + u = 0
m m
⇒ ü + 2ξωn u̇ + ωn2 u = 0 (9)
c
where, ξ = 2mω n
is the viscous damping factor. Assuming a solution u(t) = Cest and
substituting in Equation 9, we get,

s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 = 0
q
−2ξωn ± 4ξ 2 ωn2 − 4ωn2
⇒s=
µ q ¶2
= −ξ ± ξ 2 − 1 ωn (10)

Depending on the value of ξ, the nature of s and correspondingly u(t) will be deter-
mined,
√ √
(−ξ+ ξ 2 −1)ωn t (−ξ− ξ 2 −1)ωn t
u(t) = C1 e + C2 e
· √ 2 √ 2 ¸
= C1 e (ξ −1)ωn t + C2 e− (ξ −1)ωn t e−ξωn t (11)

3
Case I Under-damped system, 0 < ξ < 1
For ξ < 1, s1 , s2 are complex numbers and given as,
µ q ¶
s1 s2 = −ξ ± ı |ξ 2 − 1| ωn
(12)

Therefore, µ √ √ ¶
ı |ξ 2 −1|ωn t −ı |ξ 2 −1|ωn t
u(t) = C1 e + C2 e e−ξωn t (13)
q
Considering |ξ 2 − 1|ωn = ωd , Equation 13 can be written as,
³ ´
u(t) = C1 eıωd t + C2 e−ıωd t e−ξωn t
[(C1 + C2 ) cos ωd t + ı(C1 − C2 ) sin ωd t] e−ξωn t (14)

where, ωd is referred as damped natural frequency. Substituting (C1 + C2 ) = A cos φ

and ı(C1 − C2 ) = A sin φ into Equation 14, we get,

u(t) = A cos(ωd t − φ)e−ξωn t (15)

Applying initial conditions as, u(t)|@t=0 = u0 and u̇(t)|@t=0 = u̇0 , we get,

" #
u̇0 u0 ξ
C1 + C2 = u0 and ı(C1 − C2 ) = +√
ωd 1 − ξ2
Thus for these initial conditions, the response can be written as,
à " # !
u̇0 u0 ξ
u(t) = u0 cos ωd t + +√ sin ωd t e−ξωn t (16)
ωd 1−ξ 2

Case II Critically-damped system, ξ = 1

Critical damping is the minimum damping required to stop the oscillations.

s1 , s2 = −ωn

The solution is of the form,

u(t) = (C1 + C2 t)e−ωn t (17)

Even here, C1 and C2 can be obtained from the initial conditions given.
Case III Over-damped system, ξ > 1
There is no oscillatory motion in an over-damped system.

u(t) = (C1 eωd t + C2 e−ωd t )e−ξωn t (18)

For a over-damped system, higher the values of ξ, the slower the rate of the decay
(See Figure 5).

4
Figure 5: Free vibration of under-damped, critically damped and over-damped system