Chapter 20 Circuits and Complex Circuits

Section 20.1 Schematic Diagrams

A circuit must contain a source of potential difference, and a

path for the flow of charge. It will probably also contain a load or
resistance (a device that uses the energy). Schematic diagrams are
used to depict the orientation of these parts. The following pictures
are often used to represent some of the more common items.

resistance electrochemical battery capacitor

wire with
or load cell (two cells) (parallel plate)
zero resistance

The diagram above depicts an electrochemical cell and one load in a

circuit.
 This schematic is of a circuit with a battery and two resistances.

Section 20.2 Potential Difference

Charges moving through an electrochemical cell experience a

voltage rise equal to the potential difference between the terminals.
As the charge moves through the external circuit it experiences a
voltage drop equal in magnitude to the initial voltage rise. In any
circuit, the total of all voltage rises is equal to the total of all voltage
drops. This is one of Kirchoff’s laws for electric circuits (Kirchoff’s loop
rule).

The emf of a voltage source is the drop in potential across the

source. Emf is the energy per unit charge provided by a source; thus
the unit is the volt. Emf stands for “electro-motive force”, but it is not a
force, it is the potential difference caused by the voltage source.
Voltage sources include electrochemical cells and generators. The emf
of a voltage source is equal to the voltage drop in the external circuit,
as the previous paragraph implies. Ohm’s law applies equally well to
any part of the circuit that does not include a source of emf. If a circuit
contains a load with a resistance RL, and a source with an emf E,, the
current in the entire circuit is:

I = E/RL

Example 1: A battery has an emf of 12.0 volts . The load has a

resistance of 6 ohms. What are the total resistance and current
of the circuit?
 Answer: The total resistance is 6 W. I = E/RL = 12.0/6 = 2
amps

For a part of the circuit Ohm’s law is: V = IR. We can use Ohm’s
law to find the voltage drop for any part of the circuit.

Example 2: What is the drop in potential across the external

circuit in the previous example?

Answer: V = IR = 2A x 6W = 12 V

Notice that the drop in potential is equal to the total emf of the
battery.

There are measuring devices that can be attached to a circuit to

find the voltage drop and the current. Potential difference is measured
using a voltmeter and an ammeter is used to find the current. A
voltmeter is connected in parallel across the part of the circuit to be
tested. It must have a high resistance, so little current flows through
the voltmeter. If it is connected across the terminals of a source of emf
and the circuit is left open, negligible current is drawn from the source
and the voltmeter registers the emf of the source. An ammeter must be
connected in series as it must measure all the current in that loop of
the circuit.

Example 3: A dry cell gives an open-circuit voltmeter reading of

1.5 V. The voltmeter is then removed from the circuit and a load
of 3 W is added. What will an ammeter in the external circuit
read?

Answer: E= IR 1.5 V = I x 3W I = 0.5 A

Section 20.3 Resistances

We have mentioned series and parallel circuits. It is past time we

formally define those terms. Series wiring means that the devices are
connected in such a way that there is the same electric current
through each device. There is one loop only for the flow of electricity.

1. The current in all parts of a series circuit has the same

magnitude. Since there is only one loop the current is the same
throughout the circuit.

I total = I1 = I2 = I3 etc.

2. The sum of all the separate drops in potential around a series

circuit is equal to the applied emf. Since the total potential
difference of the circuit must be zero Kirchoff’s loop rule), the
total of the voltage drops must equal the total of the voltage
rises.

E = V1 + V2 + V3 etc.

3. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of

the separate resistances. Each load adds resistance to the
circuit.

R total = R1 + R2 + R3 etc.

Let’s review that again: when resistors are connected in series,

current I is constant throughout the circuit, the emf e is divided
between the resistors (V1 +V2 = E), and the equivalent resistance R series
is the sum of the individual resistances (R series = R1 + R2, etc.).

Example 4: A 5.00- W resistor and a 3.00- W resistor are connected

in series with a 12.0-V battery. Assuming the battery contributes
no resistance to the circuit, find the current in the circuit.
 Answer: Rtotal = R1 + R2 Rtotal = 5 + 3 = 8W

E = IR 12 = I x 8 I = 1.5 A
Parallel wiring means that the devices are connected in such a
way that the same voltage is applied across each device. There is
more than one pathway in which the current flows.

1. The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the

currents in the separate branches.

I total = I1 + I2 + I3 etc.

2. The potential difference across all branches of a parallel

circuit must have the same magnitude.

E = V1 = V2 = V3 etc.

3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum

of the reciprocals of the separate resistances in parallel. (This
formula is similar to the formula for focal length from chapters 14
and 15.)

1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + etc.

Let’s review parallel: the current I is shared with the branches,

the potential difference V is the same in each branch, and the
reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the reciprocals of each
individual resistance. When two resistors are connected in parallel,
each receives current as if the other were not present. This results in
the equivalent resistance being less than either individual resistance.

(Note: You may have noticed that the formulas for total resistance for
series and parallel sets of resistors is the opposite of that for total
capacitance. Total resistance for resistors in series is found by adding
the resistances, total capacitance for capacitors in parallel is also
found by adding capacitances. Total resistance for resistors in parallel
and capacitance for capacitors in series is found using the reciprocal
formulas.)

Example 5: Two speakers connected in parallel have an ac

voltage of 8.00 V. The main speaker resistance is 12.00 W, the
remote speaker resistance is 6.00 W. Determine (a) the
equivalent resistance of the two speakers, (b) the total current
supplied by the receiver, (c) the current in each speaker.

Answer: 1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 1/R total = 1/12 + 1/6 1/R total =4
W

E = IR 8V=Ix4W I=2A

V = IR for each resistance:

For the 12 W speaker: V = IR 8V = I x 12 W I =
0.667 A
For the 6 W speaker: V = IR 8V = I x 6 W I =
1.333 A

Notice that the sum of the current to each resistor is 2 A, the

total current leaving the ac voltage source. This brings us to Kirchoff’s
junction rule, the second of Kirchoff’s laws. The amount of current
entering a junction (a point on the circuit), must equal the amount
leaving the junction. The current is distributed at a junction depending
on the resistance of each pathway. If all the resistances in each
branch are equal, the current is divided equally. If they are not the
same resistance, as in example 5, the current is distributed
proportionally. More current goes to the lower resistance. In the 6 W
and 12 W example, the 12 W resistor will receive half the current of the
6 W resistor. If the total current at the junction was 3 A, the division
would be 2 A and 1 A, with the 2 A current flowing through the 6 W
resistor. In example 5, the total current was 2 A, so the division where
one part is twice the other is 0.667 A and 1.333 A, with the higher
current going through the lower resistance, 6 W.
 Additionally, notice the potential difference across each branch:

For the 6 W resistor: V = IR V = 1.33 A x 6 W = 8 V

For the 12 W resistor: V = IR V = 0.66 A x 12 W = 8 V

The potential is the same for each branch and is the same as the emf
of the voltage source, exactly as we would predict since it is a parallel
circuit.

One of the beautiful things about physics is that there is usually

more than one way to find the solution to a problem. Calculations
involving circuits are a perfect example of that truth. Kirchoff’s laws
can be used instead of V = IR in many cases.

Section 20.4 Complex Circuits

Circuits are often wired partially in series and partially in

parallel. This can be a big mess, but we must learn it anyway. (At least
I’m honest.) Solving problems of this type is often more “feel” than
following a certain method, so practice is essential. In general, one
should isolate certain sets of resistors and find the equivalent
resistance for those sets. Equivalent resistance is the resistance of
one resistor which could replace a set of resistors without changing
the current in the circuit. (We found equivalent capacitance when we
combined capacitors in Chapter 18.) When we found the total
resistance for combined resistors in series and parallel circuits earlier
in this chapter, we were finding equivalent resistance.
Example 6: Three resistors are connected in a circuit as shown.
Determine the current in one of the 16- W resistors.

Answer: First we must find the equivalent resistance of the two

16 W resistors.
1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 1/R total = 1/16 + 1/16 1/R
total = 8 W

If we replace the two 16 W resistors with one 8 W resistor,

it forms a
circuit of two 8 W resistors connected in series.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 Rtotal = 8 W + 8 W = 16 W

If the two 8 W resistors are replaced by one 16 W resistor,

we can use
V = IR to find the current in the circuit.
V = IR 24 V = I x 16 W I = 1.5 A

That is the current in the entire circuit, but it is not the

current in one 16 W resistor. To find that we must find
the voltage drop in the 8 W resistor. V = IR V =
1.5 A x 8 W = 12 V

If there is a 12 V drop in potential at the 8 W resistor,

there must be a 12 V drop at each of the 16W resistors.
Which means the current in one 16 W resistor may be
found from V = IR.
V = IR 12 V = I x 16W I = 0.75 A

Alternate solution: Once you have found the current for

the circuit,
1.5 A, you can use Kirchoff’s junction rule (The amount
of current
entering a junction must equal the amount leaving the
junction.) to find
 the current in the16 W resistor. Since both resistors in
the parallel part
of the circuit are the same resistance, they share the
current equally.
One half of 1.5 A is 0.75 A. (Same answer, different
method, I love it!)

Kirchhoff’s Rules can be used to analyze circuits where

individual groups cannot be combined. Such problems are beyond the
scope of this text. (In other words, they are too hard!)