Math 121 Homework 7: Notes on Selected Problems

13.1.1. Show that p(x) = x 3 + 9x + 6 is irreducible in Q[x]. Let be

a root of p(x). Find the inverse of 1 + in Q().

Solution. The rational roots test implies that the possible rational roots
of p(x) are 1, 2, 3, 6. Evaluate p(x) to see that none of these are
roots.1 A cubic is reducible if and only if it has linear factors so p(x)
is irreducible in Q[x].
We use the Euclidean algorithm to express 11 as a linear combi-
nation of the relatively prime polynomials x 3 + 9x + 6 and x + 1.
Long division (in LATEX you can \usepackage{polynom} and then type
\polylongdiv{x^3+9x+6}{x+1} to typeset the following calculation)
gives
x2 x + 10
3


x+1 x + 9x + 6
3 2
x x
x 2 + 9x
x2 + x
10x + 6
10x 10
4
so
1
1
4 x 3 + 9x + 6 + 4 (x 2 x + 10) x + 1 = 1.

Therefore (1 + )1 = 41 ( 2 + 10). 

13.1.2. Show that x 3 2x 2 is irreducible over Q and let be a root.

1+
Compute (1 + )(1 + + 2 ) and 1++ 2 in Q().

Solution. The polynomial x 3 2x 2 is irreducible by Eisensteins cri-

terion with the prime 2. (Alternatively, by the rational roots test, the
only possible rational roots of x 3 2x 2 are 1, 2, but none of these
are roots.)
Using the relation 3 = 2 + 2 we compute

(1 + )(1 + + 2 ) = 1 + 2 + 2 2 + 3 = 3 + 4 + 2 2 .

1
In this case, a simple argument shows that no integer (or positive real number)
can be a root of p(x). The coefficients of p(x) are positive so no positive real
number is a root of p(x). For any integer x, x(x 2 + 9) has absolute value greater
than 6, but p(x) = x(x 2 + 9) + 6 so no integer is a root of p(x).
1
 2

We compute
x1
2 3


x +x+1 x 2x 2
3 2
x x x
x 2 3x 2
x2 + x + 1
2x 1
and
12 x 1
4
x2 + x + 1


2x 1
x 2 12 x
1
2
x +1
1
2
x 41
3
4
so

1 1
x 2 + x + 1 x 3 2x 2 (x 1)(x 2 + x + 1) ( 2 x 4 ) = 3/4
or
1 1  1 1 5
( 2 x + 4 )(x 3 2x 2) + 2 x 2 + 4 x + 4 (x 2 + x + 1) = 3/4.
Then
2 2 1
3
x + x + 3 (x 3 2x 2)
+ 23 x 3 13 x 2 + 2x + 53 (x 2 + x + 1) = 1 + x
 

1+
so 1++ 2
= 23 3 31 2 + 23 + 53 , that is 1+
1++ 2
= 31 2 23 + 13 . 

13.1.3. Show that x 3 + x + 1 is irreducible over F2 and let be a root.

Compute the powers of in F2 ().

Solution. Neither 0 nor 1 is a root of x 3 +x+1 in F2 . A cubic is reducible

if and only if it has a linear factor so x 3 + x + 1 is irreducible over F2 .
We compute
3 = 1 = + 1
4 = 2 +
5 = 3 + 2 = 2 + + 1
6 = 3 + 2 + = 2 + 1
7 = 3 + = 1
 3

so
1

if i 0 (mod 7)

if i 1 (mod 7)






2
if i 2 (mod 7)




i = + 1 if i 3 (mod 7)

2 +

if i 4 (mod 7)




2 + + 1




if i 5 (mod 7)

2 + 1

if i 6 (mod 7)
are the powers of in F2 (). 

13.2.2. Let g(x) = x 2 + x 1 and let h(x) = x 3 x + 1. Obtain fields of

4, 8, 9 and 27 elements by adjoining a root of f (x) to the field F where
f (x) = g(x) or h(x) and F = F2 or F3 . Write down the multiplication
tables for the fields with 4 and 9 elements and show that the nonzero
elements form a cyclic group.

Solution. The polynomials g(x) and h(x) do not have roots in F2 or

F3 and are of degree at most 3 so are irreducible over F2 and F3 .
Then F2 [x]/g(x), F2 [x]/h(x), F3 [x]/g(x), F3 [x]/h(x) are fields with
4, 8, 9, 27 elements, respectively, as can be seen by considering the de-
gree over the base field.
Let and be the images of x in F2 [x]/g(x) and F3 [x]/g(x), re-
spectively. Then 2 = + 1 = + 1 and 2 = + 1. Using these
relations we may compute the multiplication table for F2 [x]/g(x):
0 1 1+
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1+
0 1+ 1
1+ 0 1+ 1
and the multiplication table for F3 [x]/g(x):
0 1 1 1+ 1 + 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1+ 1 + 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 + 1+
0 1 1 1+ 1 + 1 1
1+ 0 1+ 1 1 1 + 1 1
1 + 0 1 + 1 1+ 1 1 1
0 1 + 1 1 1 1+ 1
1 0 1 1 + 1 1 1+ 1
1 0 1 1+ 1 1 1 1 + .
 4

To show that the respective multiplicative groups of we show there is

an element with multiplicative order equal to the number of nonzero
elements. In F2 [x]/g(x) we may take (or 1 + ) of multiplicative
order 3. Similarly in F3 [x]/g(x), we seek an element of order 8. From
the diagonal of the multiplication table, we see that 1 is the unique
nontrivial square root of 1. Both of 1 + and 1 are square roots
of 1. The square roots of 1 + are 1 + and 1 and the square
roots of 1 are and . Thus each of 1 + , 1 , , and have
multiplicative order 8.2 

13.2.3. Determine the minimal polynomial over Q for the element 1+i.

Solution. Conjugation shows that any polynomial with real coefficients

and root a + ib must also have root a ib. So 1 i is also a root of the
minimal polynomial of 1 + i, and (x (1 + i))(x (1 i)) = x 2 2x + 2
must divide the minimal polynomial of 1 + i. Since 1 + i is not in Q,
this is the polynomial of smallest degree with rational coefficients and
root 1 + i. Finally, the minimal polynomial of 1 + i is x 2 2x + 2. 

3

3
13.2.4. Determine the degree over Q of 2 + 3 and of 1 + 2 + 4.

Solution. The degree over Q of Q(2 + 3) = Q( 3) is 2 since 2has
3
minimal polynomial x 2 2. Similarly the degree over Q of Q(1 + 2 +
3

3

3

3

2
3
4) = Q( 2) (note that 4 = 2 ) is 3 since 2 has minimal
polynomial x 3 2. 
Note. Irreducibility of the minimal polynomials can be seen either by
the Eisenstein criterion or the rational roots test.

13.2.7.
Prove
that Q( 2 + 3) = Q( 2, 3). Conclude that
[Q(
2+ 3) : Q] = 4. Find an irreducible polynomial satisfied by
2 + 3.

2
In general, a finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field must be
cyclic: Let d be the natural number generating the annihilator of the finite abelian
subgroup considered as a Z-module. There exists an element of the subgroup with
order precisely d. (This follows by showing that the set of orders is closed under
taking the least common multiple. Alternatively consider the structure theorem,
invariant factor form, for finite abelian groups.) All of the elements of the subgroup
are elements of the field satisfying x d 1 = 0, of which there are at most d.
Therefore the order of the subgroup is at most d, but it contains at least one
element of order d so it must be cyclic of order d.
 5

Solution.
Since
2 + 3 isa Q-linear
combination
of the generators 2
and 3 of Q( 2, 3), Q( 2 + 3) Q( 2, 3). Since
p p
( 2 + 3)3 = 11 2 + 9 3,

Q( 2 + 3) contains each of 2 and 3. Explicitly,
p p
2 = [( 2 + 3)3 9( 2 + 3)]/2

and
p p p
3 = [( 2 + 3)3 11( 2 + 3)]/(2).

Therefore Q( 2 + 3) = Q( 2, 3).
Note that 3 is not in Q( 2), but is a root
of the
polynomial
x 2 3 = 0 with coefficients in Q( 2) so [Q( 2, 3) : Q(
2)]
= 2. Also
[Q( 2) : Q] = 2 soby multiplicativity of degrees [Q( 2, 3) : Q] = 4
and thus [Q( 2 + 3) : Q] = 4.
An ordered Q-basis for Q( 2, 3) isgivenby (1, 2, 3, 6). With
respect to this basis, multiplication by 2 + 3 has matrix
0 2 3 0

1 0 0 3
.

1 0 0 2

0 1 1 0

This endomorphism satisfies its characteristic polynomial:

4 102 + 1

so 2 + 3 is a root of x 4 10x 2 + 1, and this polynomial is irreducible
by the rational roots test. Alternatively, by Galois theoretic considera-
tions, the minimal polynomial is
p p p p
(x ( 2 + 3))(x ( 2 3))(x ( 2 + 3))(x ( 2 3)). 

13.2.8. Let F be a field of characteristic 6= 2. Let D1 and pD2 bepelements

of F , neither of which is a square in F . Prove that F ( D1 , D2 ) is of
degree 4 over F if and only if Dp 1 D2pis not a square in F and is of degree
2 over F otherwise. When F ( D1 , D2 ) is of degree 4 over F the field
is called a biquadratic extension of F .
p p p p
Solution. Assume that D2 is in F ( D1 ), say D2 = a + b D1 for a
and b in F . Necessarily b is nonzero since D2 is not p a square in F .
Rearranging and squaring gives a2 = D2 + b2 D1 2b D1 D2 . Since the
characteristic of F is not 2 and b is not zero, D1 D2 must be a square
 6

p D1 D2
in F . Conversely, if D1 D2 is a square in F , D2 = D1 D 1 (D1 is
p p
nonzero since it is not a square in F ) so D2 is in F ( D1 ). Therefore

p p 1 if D1 D2 is a square in F
[F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ( D 1 )] =
2 if D1 D2 is not a square in F

and so by multiplicativity of degrees,

p p 2 if D1 D2 is a square in F
[F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ] = 
4 if D1 D2 is not a square in F .
p
13.2.10. Determine the degree of the extension Q( 3 + 2 2) over Q.
p p
Solution. Attempting to write 3 + 2 2 = + we see that we must
have + = 3 and 4 p = 8. Therefore we could take = 1 and = 2

(orpthe reverse). Thus 3 + 2 = 1 + 2 so the degree of the extension

Q( 3 + 2 2) = Q( 2) overpQ is 2.
You could also set = 3 + 2 2 and eliminate radicals to obtain
2 = 3 + 2 2 and ( 2 3)2 = 8 or 4 6 2 + 1. This polynomial is
reducible:
4 6 2 + 1 = 4 2 2 + 1 4 2
= ( 2 1)2 (2)2
= ( 2 2 1)( 2 + 2 1),
so the degree of the extension is 2. 

Problem 2. Let be a root of 3 2 + 1. Write down a polynomial
P with rational coefficients so that P () = 0. Express 1 as a Q-linear
combination of 1, , 2 , . . . .
Solution. Note that

(3 2 + 1)(3 + 2 + 1) = 6 + 23 22 + 1
has rational coefficients so we may let P (t) = t 6 + 2t 3 2t 2 + 1.3
3
The group Aut(Q( 2)/Q) of automorphisms of Q( 2) that restrict to the iden-
tity on Q (every field automorphism restricts to the identity on the prime sub-
field so this condition is vacuous) acts on Q( 2)[x] by acting on the coefficients.

For every element of Q( 2) not in Q, there exists an element of Aut(Q( 2)/Q)
that does not fix this element. Therefore an element of Q( 2)[x] is in Q[x] if
and only
if it is fixed by every element of Aut(Q( 2)/Q). Thus we have a map
Q
: Q( 2)[x] Q[x] taking f (x) to (f (x)) where is over all in
the product
Aut(Q( 2)/Q). Any f (x) in Q( 2)[x] divides (f (x)) 2in Q( 2)[x] so if is a
root of f (x), then it is also a root of (f (x)).
Since
( 2) 2 in
= 0, for any
Aut(Q( 2)/Q), ( ( 2))2 2 = 0 and so ( 2) = 2. Therefore Aut(Q( 2)/Q)
 7

From 1 = 6 23 + 22 we obtain 1 = 5 22 + 2. 

Note. The above solution was motivated by Galois theory. In this case
a direct solution is also available. Square the equation 2 = 3 + 1
to get 22 = 6 + 23 + 1 so 6 + 23 22 + 1 = 0.

Problem 3. Let be a root of x 3 + x + 1 = 0. Compute the minimum

polynomial m of 1 + + 2 and prove that Q[t]/(m) is isomorphic to
Q[x]/(x 3 + x + 1).

Solution. Note that x 3 + x + 1 is indeed irreducible over Q since it is

cubic and has no rational roots. Thus the kernel of the Q-linear map
Q[t] Q[x]/(x 3 + x + 1) sending t to x 2 + x + 1 is generated by
m(t), the minimal polynomial of 2 + + 1. The induced map is an
imbedding Q[t]/(m(t)) > Q[x]/(x 3 +x +1).4 In particular, the degree
of m(t) is at most 3. Then 1 + + 2 satisfies a monic polynomial with
rational coefficients of degree 3. Let p(t) = t 3 + a1 t 2 + a2 t + a3 be a
monic rational cubic polynomial. Using the relation 3 = 1 we can
reduce p(1 + + 2 ) to a quadratic polynomial in with coefficients
in Z[a1 , a2 , a3 ] as follows. We compute

(1 + + 2 )2 = 1 + 2 + 32 + 23 + 4
= 1 + 2 + 32 + 2( 1) + ( 1)
= 1 + 22
(1 + + 2 )3 = (2 + + 1)(1 + 22 )
= 1 2 + 3 + 24
= 1 2 + ( 1) + 2( 1)
= 2 5 22

consists of the identity and the transposition
2 , 2. For the given case, we
took P (x) to be the image under of x 3 2 x + 1.
4
We may immediately conclude, without computing the minimal polynomial,
that the field extension Q[t]/(m(t)) > Q[x]/(x 3 + x + 1) is an isomorphism as
follows. The degree of Q[t]/(m(t)) over Q divides the degree of Q[x]/(x 3 + x + 1)
over Q by multiplicativity of degrees. Therefore m(t) either has degree 1 or 3.
The degree of m(t) must be greater than 1 since the ideal generated by x 3 + x + 1
in Q[x] does not contain any quadratic polynomials and in particular does not
contain any linear polynomial of x 2 + x + 1. The degree of m(t) is thus 3 and the
result follows.
 8

and so
p(1 + + 2 )
= a3 + a2 (1 + + 2 ) + a1 (1 + 22 ) + (2 5 22 )
= (2 a1 + a2 + a3 ) + (5 a1 + a2 ) + (2 + 2a1 + a2 )2 .

Since x 3 + x + 1 is irreducible over Q, {1, , 2 } is independent over

Q. Thus the equation p(1 + + 2 ) = 0 is equivalent to the system of
linear equations

2 = a1 + a2 + a3


5 = a1 + a2


2 = 2a1 + a2

that has unique solution (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (1, 4, 3). Hence the unique
monic cubic polynomial with rational coefficients with root 1 + + 2
is t 3 t 2 + 4t 3, and so m(t) = t 3 t 2 + 4t 3. Finally, since m(t)
has degree 3, the imbedding Q[t]/(m(t)) > Q[x]/(x 3 + x + 1) is an
isomorphism. 
Note. An alternative method to compute the minimal polynomial of
1 + + 2 is as follows. Using 3 = 1 we compute
(1 + + 2 )1 = 1 + + 2
(1 + + 2 ) = + 2 + 3
= 1 + 2
(1 + + 2 )2 = (1 + 2 )
= 1 2

so with respect to the ordered Q-basis (1, , 2 ) of Q(), multiplica-

tion by 1 + + 2 has matrix

1 1 1
1 0 2 .

1 1 0
The characteristic polynomial

1 1 1
det 1 2 = [(1 )(2 + 2) ( + 1) + 2 ]

1 1
= 3 2 + 4 3
is at least divisible by the desired minimal polynomial and in this case
is irreducible and so equals the desired minimal polynomial.
 9

Problem 4. Write down all the irreducible polynomials of degree 5 over

Z/2Z.

Solution. The linear polynomials x and x + 1 are irreducible over Z/2Z.

An irreducible polynomial over Z/2Z of degree greater than 1 must
have nonzero constant coefficient so that 0 is not a root and the sum
of the coefficients must be nonzero so that 1 is not a root. Reducible
polynomials of degree 2 and 3 must have a root so in these cases the
above conditions are sufficient. The only irreducible quadratic polyno-
mial is x 2 + x + 1 and the irreducible cubic polynomials are

x3 + x + 1 and x 3 + x 2 + 1.

The reducible quintic polynomials without roots are then

x 5 + x 4 + 1 = (x 3 + x + 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
x 5 + x + 1 = (x 3 + x 2 + 1)(x 2 + x + 1)

so the irreducible quintic polynomials over Z/2Z are

x 5 + x 2 + 1, x 5 + x 3 + 1,
x 5 + x 3 + x 2 + x + 1, x 5 + x 4 + x 2 + x + 1,
x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + x + 1, x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + 1. 

Problem 5. Assume that f Q[x]. Explain how to test in a finite time

whether or not f is irreducible. Your procedure need not be particu-
larly efficient; it should just be clear that it always terminates in finite
time.

Solution. First note that by Gausss lemma, a polynomial with rational

coefficients is reducible if and only if the associated primitive integer
polynomial is a product of integer polynomials of smaller positive de-
gree. To show that the latter can be tested in finite time, we find an
exhaustive finite set of integer polynomial divisors of a polynomial in
terms of its coefficients and degree.
We first show that the roots in the complex numbers of the polyno-
mial f (z) = an zn + an1 zn1 + + a1 z + a0 with ai C and an 6= 0
are all in the interior of the circle of radius 1 + (max1in1 |ai |)/|an |
 10

centered at the origin. For |z| > 1 we estimate

|f (z)| |an | |z|n ( max |ai |)(|z|n1 + |z|n2 + + |z| + 1)
1in1
n
= |z| (|an | ( max |ai |)(|z|1 + |z|2 + + |z|n ))
1in1
n
> |z| (|an | ( max |ai |)(|z|1 + |z|2 + ))
1in1
n
= |z| (|an | ( max |ai |)(|z| 1)1 )
1in1
n 1
= |z| (|z| 1) (|an |(|z| 1) ( max |ai |))
1in1

so f (z) 6= 0 when |z| 1 + (max1in1 |ai |)/|an |, as desired. In

particular, for any choice of k of the n roots of f (z), the degree `
elementary symmetric polynomial in these roots has absolute value
bounded by !
k
`
Mk,` = 1 + ( max |ai |)/|an | .
` 1in1

Now assume that f (x) is a degree n element of Z[x]. A degree d

divisor in Z[x] of f (x) has leading coefficient divisor b of an and zm
coefficient, for m < d, equal to the leading coefficient times a degree
d m elementary symmetric polynomials in d of the roots of f (x),
which must therefore lie in the range (|b|Md,dm , +|b|Md,dm ). We
have produced an exhaustive list of possible divisors of f (x) in Z[x]
that is finite, of cardinality
n X d1
X Y

2d|b|Md,dm e 1 .
d=0 b|an m=0

To test if a given polynomial of degree n with rational coefficients

is reducible, we check if the associated primitive integer polynomial
is divisible by any of the candidate divisors. (If the given polynomial
is of degree n, it is sufficient to check just those candidate divisors
of positive degree at most bn/2c.) The given polynomial with rational
coefficients is reducible if and only if the associated primitive integer
polynomial is divisible by one of the candidate divisors, of which there
are finitely many.