Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

www.elsevier.com/locate/carbpol

Banana starch: production, physicochemical properties,

and digestibilitya review*
Pingyi Zhang, Roy L. Whistler, James N. BeMiller, Bruce R. Hamaker*
Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette IN 47907-2009, USA
Received 25 August 2004; accepted 27 October 2004
Available online 15 December 2004

Abstract
The large quantity of green cull bananas has the potential of being used industrially and, thereby, to improve banana economics and
eliminate the large environmental problem presented by banana waste. This review summarizes the present knowledge of the composition,
structure, physiochemical properties, modifications, and digestibility of banana starches and provides suggestions for needed research to
improve the utilization of green cull bananas.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Banana; Starch; Structure; Physicochemical properties; Modifications; Digestibility

1. Introduction Bananas are produced in large quantities in tropical and

subtropical areas. World production of Musa in 2003 was
Banana is a general term embracing a number of species or estimated at 102 million MT of which about 68% was
hybrids in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae. Almost classified as bananas and 32% as plantains (FAO, 2003).
all of the known edible-fruited cultivars arose from two The crop is of major importance to the people in the growing
diploid species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, areas as it forms a major portion of the annual income and a
which are native to southeast Asia. There are diploid, source of food. As is the case for most tropical products, due
triploid and tetraploid hybrids composing subspecies of to the special climatic conditions needed to grow bananas,
M. acuminata, and between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana they are mainly produced in developing countries. Devel-
(Robinson, 1996; Stover & Simmonds, 1987). Convention- oped countries are the usual destination for export bananas.
ally, the haploid contributions of the respective species to the Production, as well as exports and imports of bananas, are
cultivars are noted with the letters A and B. Cavendish highly concentrated in a few countries. Ten major banana-
subgroup banana cultivars (M. cavendishii), which are the producing countries accounted for about 75% of total
mainstays of the export trades are pure triploid acuminata production in 2003 with India, Ecuador, Brazil, and China
(AAA group). The two Linnaean epithets, M. paradisiaca accounting for half of the total (Table 1). Latin America and
and M. sapientum, are members of the AAB group (Stover & the Caribbean islands supplied more than 80% of world total
Simmonds, 1987). Plantains are generally the larger, more exports (ca. 15 million MT), with the four leading banana
angular starchy fruits of hybrid triploid cultivars in the exporter countries (Ecuador, Costa Rica, Philippines and
banana family intended for cooking, but also edible raw when Colombia) accounting for about two-thirds of world exports
fully ripe (Robinson, 1996). (FAO, 2003).
About one-fifth of all bananas harvested become culls.
When banana bunches arrive at central collection stations,
*
Paper No. 17432 from the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station. bananas too small for shipping are removed, along with
* Corresponding author. Address: Department of Food Science, Purdue
University, Food Science Building, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2009, USA.
those that have damaged or spoiled areas that could cause
Fax: C1 765 494 7953. microbial contamination of the bunch. Rejected bananas are
E-mail address: [email protected] (B.R. Hamaker). normally disposed of improperly. Attempts are made to use
0144-8617/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2004.10.014
444 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

Table 1 the resistance was largely overcome by cooking to

World production statistics of banana and plantain in 2003 (Source: FAO, gelatinize the starch, other studies showed that the easily
2003)
hydrolysable starch fraction of cooked banana starch was
Country Production Country Production as low as 47% and was comparable to the known low-
(!1000 MT) (!1000 MT) digestible cooked yam starch (40%) (Cerning-Beroard & le
Asia 37,140 Central Amer- 8519 Dividich, 1976; Lozano, Cabrera, & Salazar, 1973). While
ica and Carib- there is limited commercial use for raw starch in foods, there
bean
is substantial application for such a trait in cooked starch.
India 16,450 Mexico 2027
China 5827 Costa Rica 1863 The value of slowly digestible and low-glycemic-index
Philippines 5500 Guatemala 1000 starch is embodied in the current diet craze of low carb
Indonesia 4312 Honduras 965 foods.
Thailand 1800 South America 15,152 In conclusion, banana starch has potential, both from its
Viet Nam 1220 Brazil 6518
digestion properties and functional properties, to have
Bangladesh 654 Ecuador 5609
Africa 6813 Colombia 1450 application in processed foods and become a commercially
Burundi 1600 Europe 441 viable starch product. Use of culls for production of starch
Egypt 850 Spain 405 would provide a starch that might be competitive in the
Cameroon 689 Oceania 1174 world starch market, improve banana economics, and
Uganda 615 Papua New 870
eliminate a large environmental problem presented by cull
Guinea
Total banana 69,286 bananas.
Africa 23,308 South America 6362
Uganda 10,000 Colombia 2925
Rwanda 2408 Peru 1600
Ghana 2300 Ecuador 860
2. Occurrence and transformation of banana starch
Nigeria 2110 Venezuela 760
Cote dIvoire 1420 Central Amer- 2261
ica and Carib- The composition of bananas changes dramatically during
bean ripening. von Loesecke (1950) classified banana ripening
Congo 1250 Cuba 797 into eight stages according to peel color. Starch is the
Cameroon 1200 Asia 1040
principal component of green bananas, which undergoes
Kenya 830 Sri Lanka 610
Total plantain 32,974 important changes during ripening. The average starch
content drops from 70 to 80% in the pre-climacteric (prior to
starch breakdown) period to less than 1% at the end of the
these culled bananas in animal feed and products such as climacteric period, while sugars, mainly sucrose, accumu-
late to more than 10% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Total
chips, flakes and powders, but they are used only to a limited
soluble sugar content can reach 16% or higher of the fruit
extent for these purposes due to the low value of such
fresh weight (about 80% water content), indicating a high
products. Therefore, in countries such as Costa Rica,
rate of conversion (Cordenunsi & Lajolo, 1995). Amylases
dumping of the rejected bananas into rivers is a common
participate in starch hydrolysis, but they are probably not
practice. The high carbohydrate content of the crop creates
linked to sucrose synthesis. Starchsucrose transformation
high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the rivers and,
during ripening of bananas involves several enzymes and
hence, reduces aquatic animal populations. more than one pathway. In spite of the importance of this
A successful industrial use of the culled bananas would transformation in terms of fruit physiology, little is known
alleviate the problem while offering employment and about the mechanisms involved.
financial return to the inhabitants. Most likely, the first Lii, Chang, and Young (1982) investigated changes
practical application of culled bananas would be use of the during ripening of dessert bananas with respect to physical
pulp for starch production or production of a low-cost and chemical properties of their starch and their content of
banana flour ingredient. Banana starch has the potential to reducing sugars and sucrose (shown in Table 2). Terra,
be a commodity starch because of its specific properties and Garcia, and Lajolo (1983) followed starch, sucrose, glucose,
its potential production from low-cost, cull bananas. Green and fructose concentrations and activity of some enzymes of
banana pulp contains up to 7080% starch on a dry weight sucrose synthesis during ripening of pre-climacteric (prior
basis, a percentage comparable to that in the endosperm of to starch breakdown) bananas (M. acuminata). As starch
corn grain and the pulp of white potato. was degraded, sucrose content increased and preceded
Native raw banana starch is known to be resistant to the accumulation of glucose and fructose. UDPglucose
attack of a-amylase and glucoamylase, with in vivo results pyrophosphorylase activity remained constant, while the
showing that 7584% of the starch granules ingested activity of sucrose synthase and invertase increased. The
reached the terminal ileum (Englyst & Cummings, 1986; observed sugar and enzyme changes indicated that starch
Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995). Although it was found that to sucrose transformation via glucose 1-phosphate
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 445

Table 2
Proximate compositions of the edible portion of banana at different stages as classified by the color of banana peel (Lii et al., 1982)

Stage Peel color Starch (%) Reducing sugar (%) Sucrose (%) Gelatinization temperature (8C)
1 Green 61.7 0.2 1.2 7481
2 Green 58.6 1.3 6.0 7580
3 Green/a trace of yellow 42.4 10.8 18.4 7781
4 More green than yellow 39.8 11.5 21.4 7578
5 More yellow than green 37.6 12.4 27.9 7681
6 Yellow with a green tip 9.7 15.0 53.1 7680
7 All yellow 6.3 31.2 51.9 7683
8 Yellow/a few brown spots 3.3 33.8 52.0 7983
9 Yellow/many brown spots 2.6 33.6 53.2

and UDPglucose might be the mechanism for starch An ethylene burst is the trigger of the banana ripening
disappearance during ripening. process. Indole-3-acetic acid appeared to play a role in
Garcia and Lajolo (1988) detected activities of three a- carbohydrate metabolism in unripe bananas (M. acuminata,
and four b-amylases and a-1,4- and a-1,6-glucosidase AAA group, cv. Nanicao) via delaying starch degradation,
activities at all stages of fruit ripening. They observed that possibly by affecting the activity of hydrolytic enzymes
their activities increased significantly, but only at the such as b-amylase (Purgatto, Lajolo, Oliveira do Nasci-
climacteric peak when much of the starch had already mento, & Cordenunsi, 2001). Also, Rossetto, Purgatto,
disappeared. Only b-amylase activity increased before onset Oliveira do Nascimento, Lajolo, and Cordenunsi (2003)
of the respiration increase, and its activity paralleled starch reported that gibberellins play a role in starch-to-sucrose
decrease. Konishi, Kitazato, and Nakatani (1992) purified conversion in bananas, reinforcing the idea of multiple
and partially characterized one acid a-glucosidase and two regulatory components acting in this metabolic pathway and
neutral isoforms of a-glucosidase from pre-climacteric its dependence on the equilibrium between several hormo-
banana pulp tissue. The acid a-glucosidase was determined nal and metabolic signals.
to be a typical maltase, while the neutral isoforms of The disappearance of the starch reserve during banana
a-glucosidase were 50 times less active on maltose. The ripening appears to be relatively rapid because of the
authors concluded that the acid a-glucosidase is the enzyme activities of several enzymes acting together (Cordenunsi &
responsible for the hydrolysis of maltose and the malto- Lajolo, 1995; Glass & Rand, 1982; Gomes & Lajolo, 1981;
oligosaccharides formed by the combined action of a- and Mao & Kinsella, 1981; Marriott, Robinson, & Karikari,
b-amylases. Only trace amounts of maltose were found in 1981). It is, therefore, necessary to process the green
ripening banana tissue. bananas for starch production soon after harvest.
Changes in sucrose synthase (SS) and sucrose phosphate
synthase (SPS) activities during development and ripening
of bananas and the carbohydrate changes in fruit that was 3. Technologies of banana starch production
left to ripen on the tree, as compared to fruit that was
harvested green, were studied by a Brazilian group 3.1. Alkaline extraction
(Cordenunsi & Lajolo, 1995; Do Nascimento, Cordenunsi,
& Lajolo, 2000; Do Nascimento, Cordenunsi, Lajolo, & A wet-milling process is suitable for banana starch
Alcocer, 1997). Starch contents, respiration rates, SS isolation due to the low level of impurities (Bello-Perez,
activity, and SPS activity in crude extracts and in partially Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000). Lii et al. (1982) reported a
purified preparations were followed during fruit develop- starch isolation technique from green Taiwan dessert
ment and ripening in both attached and detached bananas. bananas that involved cutting them and macerating the
During development of the fruit, SPS was present, but at a pulp in a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration of
very low activity level, while SS activity was high and 0.1 M or less. The slurry was filtered first through cheese-
remained constant during the entire starch synthesis phase, cloth, then bolting cloth. The starch was washed with water
followed by a reduction during starch breakdown (climac- and dried. They found that green banana pulp contained
teric) and then disappearance (post-climacteric). Data 0.24% reducing sugars, 1.23% sucrose, 5.30% protein,
showed that, while SS activity was almost abolished during 0.78% fat, 0.49% fiber, 62% starch, and 3.27% ash, while
ripening, SPS activity increased concomitantly to starch fully ripe banana pulp contained 33.6% reducing sugars,
disappearance and sugar accumulation. The process was 53.2% sucrose, 5.52% protein, 0.68% fat, 0.30% fiber,
slower for attached fruits (final sucrose content 6%, SS 2.58% starch and 4.09% ash. These results are in
activity 5 units, and SPS activity 33 units) when compared approximate agreement with those of other workers
to detached fruits (final sucrose content 12%, no SS activity, analyzing different bananas. Ling, Osman, Fernandes, and
and SPS activity 50 units). Reilly (1982) reported that the starch of green Cavendish
446 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

bananas could be isolated easily by extraction of the pulp obtained from a wholesale warehouse were 2060%,
with 1% sodium hydroxide solution. depending on banana ripeness.
Chiang, Chu, and Chu (1987) appear to have been the In other approaches, Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo,
first to produce banana starch on a pilot-plant scale. Taiwan Sanchez-Hernandez, and Paredes-Lopez (1999) reported
bananas (M. sapientum) were collected (green) 112116 yields of starch from Macho and Criollo banana
days after petal fall. They weighed an average of 82 g per (M. paradisiacal) as 43.8 and 11.8%, respectively. A high
finger, had a pulp to peel ratio of 1.1, a pulp weight basis of yield (80.5%) of starch from commercial green bananas was
30% of the total solids, and a pulp starch content of 81% also reported (Bello-Perez, Pano de Leon, Agama-Acevedo,
(db); the pulp also contained, on a dry weight basis, 6.4% & Paredes-Lopez, 1998). Waliszewski, Aparicio, Bello, and
protein, 8.5% fiber and 2.5% pectin. Peeled bananas were Monroy (2003) reported a 33.8% dry basis yield of starch
sliced and milled with 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution from Valery bananas.
using a stone mill. The starch was washed on a shaker, Different ripening stages and different banana species are
collected by centrifugation, and then dried at 50 8C. The likely the main factors behind the yield differences.
peel contained 5% pectin and 21% fiber. Peel removal was
reported to be necessary for efficient handling. Immersion of
3.3. Production of dietary fiber from bananas
fresh bananas in 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution was
deemed necessary for proper handling of the pulp and to
While starch production could alone produce a creditable
obtain a 70% yield of starch with a purity of ca. 94%.
outlet for cull bananas, there is also a possibility of
Fichtali, Owusu-Ansah, and Chang (1999) developed a
commercial markets for other constituents of the pomace
process to extract starch from green, un-gassed reject
remaining after starch production. The peel of culled
bananas that were diced and disintegrated in a Fitzpatrick
bananas could be a rich, low-cost source of dietary fiber
comminuting mill in a 0.05 M solution of sodium
(mainly hemicelluloses and pectic polysaccharides).
hydroxide. The milled banana slurry was sequentially
Although little is known of the hemicelluloses of banana
screened to pass 60-, 80-, and 200-mesh screens to remove
peel, there is a great likelihood, from initial investigations,
peel fibers and pomace. Crude starch was concentrated,
that the hemicelluloses (constituting ca. 20% of the peel)
counter-current washed with water, and then dewatered to a
will have solution properties, or can be given solution
solids content of 55%. Starch thus obtained had a brownish
properties, that would make them valuable additions as
color and was re-slurried in water for washing in a nozzle
gums/hydrocolloids in the food and non-food industries.
bowl centrifuge. The slurry was further centrifuged in a
basket centrifuge and dried to a moisture content of 9.2%.
Obtained starch (white in color) had a purity of more than
95%, less than 1% protein, and less than 0.07% ash.

3.2. Non-alkaline extraction

Kayisu, Hood, and Vansoest (1981) studied the extrac-

tion of starch from green bananas with water. Sliced
bananas were disintegrated in a Waring blender at low
speed. The mixture was centrifuged, and the dark material
on the top of the pellet was scraped off. Crude starch was
washed with water. The starch-containing suspension was
decanted and allowed to stand 15 min for the starch to settle.
The purity of the thus-obtained starch was 99.5%.
Whistler (1998) developed a cost-efficient process for
producing starch from cull bananas. This process uses a
minimum amount of processing chemicals, machinery, and
processing time. Banana pulp was steeped in aqueous
sodium bisulfite solution at pH of 3.55.5 for 28 h, more
preferably for about 4 h, at ambient to slightly elevated
temperatures. During this steeping period, the endogenous
banana enzymes, such as pectinase and polygalacturonase,
disintegrate the cell walls, allowing starch granules to be
released into the aqueous steeping solution. The mixture
was passed through wire screens to remove cell walls and
other non-starch pulp-mass material, then centrifuged. Fig. 1. Photograph of starch granules from green plantains (Zhang &
Yields of dried starch (white in color) from green bananas Whistler, 2002).
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 447

Zhang and Whistler (2002) investigated isolation and

characterization of hemicellulose from banana peel remain-
ing after starch production. The ability of banana peel
hemicelluloses to activate a macrophage cell line as an
indicator of immune stimulation was determined, indicating
that they have the potential to be used as a health-promoting
dietary supplement (Zhang et al., 2004).
If banana starch is deemed to have potential in the world
starch market, examination of its useful properties would be
undertaken first, followed by a pilot-plant production. In
addition, research emphasis should include realization of
value from residual peels and pomace.

4. Starch granule size and microscopic appearance

In general, starch granules from various banana types,

while being irregular in shape, appear microscopically as
elongated ovals with ridges (Eggleston, Swennen, & Akoni,
1992; Jane, Kasemsuwan, Leas, Zobel, & Robyt, 1994; Lii
et al., 1982; Ling et al., 1982; Kayisu et al., 1981; Zhang &
Whistler, 2002) (Figs. 13). Major axes range from 6 to
80 mm, mostly between 20 and 60 mm. Eccentric birefrin-
gence was observed under polarized light (Fig. 2B) in starch
granules of green Taiwan bananas. The growth rings do not
appear to be elliptical around the hilum (Fig. 1) as they are Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of starch granules from green (A)
and ripe (B) Valery bananas (Kayisu et al., 1981), reproduced with
permission of the Institute of Food Technologists.

in most granules. Cavendish banana starch was highly

irregular in shape and size (Ling et al., 1982). Scanning
electron micrographs of Valery banana starch revealed
irregularly shaped granules among the elongated
and spheroid forms. The spheroid forms varied from 15 to
40 mm in diameter. Elongated granules were 725 mm in
width and 2050 mm in length. The surface of green banana
starch granules appeared smooth, while that of ripe banana
granules had parallel striations (Fig. 3) (Kayisu et al., 1981),
perhaps due to erosion. This likely shows that some areas
are more difficult to hydrolyze that others (crystalline
regions appearing after partial hydrolysis/digestion). Small
granules disappeared more rapidly during ripening than
large granules (Lii et al., 1982), presumably due to their
greater surface area. Waliszewski et al. (2003) reported a
granule shape for Valery banana starches similar to that
reported by Kayisu et al. (1981), but with larger dimensions
(1488 mm in width and 21108 mm in length). Plantain
starches had a broad range of granule sizes (7.861.3 mm),
with a number average diameter of ca. 26 mm (Table 3)
(Eggleston et al., 1992).

5. Composition and structure of banana starch granules

Fig. 2. Photograph of green banana starch granules: (A) under normal light;
(B) under polarized light (Lii et al., 1982), reproduced with permission of The functionality of starches is dependent on the
the Institute of Food Technologists. proportions of their amylose and amylopectin components,
448 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

Table 3
Granular characteristics of plantain starches (Eggleston et al., 1992)

Starch Density at 30 8C (mL/g) Water-binding capacity (%) Granule size (mm)

Average diameter Range
Plantains
Ihitisim 1.625 63.6 26.5 7.853.1
Agbagba 1.637 62.9 26.6 9.751.6
Obino LEwai 1.621 63.3 26.0 7.861.3
Bobby Tannap 1.621 71.7 24.1 9.156.4
Plantain hybrids
548/4 1.639 64.6 26.4 6.469.8
548/9 1.628 62.5 26.6 9.465.6
582/4 1.625 62.0 29.0 6.469.8
566.32 1.631 62.4 35.1 7.174.3
Cooking bananas
Blugoe 1.629 63.5 30.9 7.276.4
Fougamou 1.641 69.9 16.4 3.950.8

their molecular size and structures, starch granule proper- (Macho) and 589 nm (Criollo) (Bello-Perez et al., 1999;
ties, and to some degree, other components (lipids and Nunez-Santiago, Bello-Perez, & Tecante, 2004; Waliszewski
proteins) associated with the granules. et al., 2003), which gives an additional indication of the
Amylose contents of banana starch were reported to be rather high amylopectin contents of these starches. Amylo-
16% by Kayisu and Hood (1981), 19.5% (Cavendish) by pectin has a lmax of about 560 nm as compared to amylose,
Ling et al. (1982), ca. 17% (Cavendish) by Garcia and Lajolo which is about 620 nm. Banana Naegeli dextrin had a lower
(1988), and 40.7% (Valery) by Waliszewski et al. (2003). concentration of singly branched chains (Fig. 4c) as
Chemical compositions of starches from bananas (plantains, compared with normal maize Naegeli dextrin (Fig. 4a).
plantain hybrids, and cooking bananas) were reported by Chromatographic analysis of Naegeli dextrins indicated a
Eggleston et al. (1992) (Table 4). Amylose contents in closely clustered branching pattern of the banana amylo-
plantains were mostly in the 1011% range. Cereal starches, pectin (Jane, Wong, & McPherson, 1997). The molecular
on the other hand, typically have amylose contents in the weight and molecular distribution (polydispersity) of
2025% range. The molecular weight of banana starch banana starch amylopectin has not been published.
amylose was reported to be 270,000 (Greenwood, 1960). Raw starch is a semi-crystalline material, and the degree
Debranching of the starch and its b-limit dextrin with and type of crystallinity present is dependent mainly on the
pullulanase revealed that banana amylopectin has popu- structural characteristics of amylopectin, though retro-
lations of DP n 45 and DP n 15 chains in a molar ratio of 1:6 graded (re-associated) amylose also produces a unique
(Kayisu & Hood, 1981). The b-amylolysis limit of banana type of crystalline structure. Katz (1937) distinguished three
starch was 67.3%, and the average chain lengths of the types (A, B, and C) of crystalline structure for starch
pullulanase-debranched starch and the debranched b-limit granules. Most cereal starches give A patterns; tuber,
dextrin were 26 and 10, respectively. The lmax of the starch amylomaize, and retrograded starch yield B patterns; and
iodine complex (Valery) was reported as 563, 577, 583 nm certain root and seed starches, such as pea and bean starches,
Table 4
Composition of starches from plantains (Eggleston et al., 1992)

Starch (%) Amylose (%) Protein (%) Ash (%) Phosphorus (%) a-Amylase susceptibility (%)
Plantains
Ihitisim 11.2 0.94 0.34 0.022 1.10
Agbagba 11.9 0.87 0.27 0.020 1.27
Obino LEwai 11.1 0.98 0.32 0.020 1.70
Bobby Tannap 11.3 1.07 0.30 ND 1.83
Plantain hybrids
548/4 10.3 1.08 ND 0.024 1.87
548/9 10.3 1.06 ND 0.031 1.83
582/4 9.1 ND 0.28 0.031 1.82
566.32 12.0 ND 0.32 ND 1.51
Cooking bananas
Blugoe 12.9 0.99 0.41 0.021 2.64
Fougamou 17.2 1.02 0.35 0.027 2.23

ND, not determined.

 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 449

Fig. 4. HPAEC-ENZ-PAD chromatograms of normal maize (a), potato (b),

banana (c) Naegeli dextrins with 66, 63, and 65% of total acid hydrolysis,
respectively (Jane et al., 1997), reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

show C patterns. B-type diffraction patterns for banana

starch (Fig. 5A) have been often reported (Faisant, Buleon
et al., 1995; Lii et al., 1982; Teixeira, Ciacco, Tavares, &
Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction patterns (A) and differential scanning calorimetry
Bonezzi, 1998). Chang, Li, and Yang (1991), Jane et al. (DSC) (B) for (a) raw green banana flour, (b) a pooled ileal sample
(1997) and Waliszewski et al. (2003) assigned a C-type containing undigested banana starch, and (c) a resistant starch residue
pattern to banana starches. Bello-Perez et al. (2000) reported prepared in vitro from green banana flour (Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995),
a typical A-type diffraction pattern for banana (Macho and reproduced with permission of CAB International.
Criollo) starches. So the crystalline type is not clear. We can
only assume that the results of these various investigations granules as they swell. Continued swelling results in
were properly interpreted and that, therefore, banana starch rupturing of the swollen granule structure and solubilization
can have A-type crystallinity, B-type crystallinity, or a (at least partially) of amylose and some amylopectin
mixture of the two depending on the varietal source and/or molecules. Networked amylose and amylopectin molecules
the growing conditions (environment) and/or the isolation and entrapped swollen granules and fragmented starch
technique. Percentage crystallinity has not been addressed structures are responsible for viscosity and gel character-
in the literature so far. istics. The ability of amylose to retrograde rapidly and
Overall, it appears that the complete picture with respect amylopectin to retrograde more slowly produces gels and
to fine structure of banana starch from different plant affects the texture of starch-based products over time. The
sources and its relationship with functionality to application versatile physical structures of starch granules and the fine
remains undetermined. structure of their constituent polysaccharides are respon-
sible for a wide variety of applications.
It is, thus, pertinent to review the numerous factors that
determine banana starch functionality in foods (or for
6. Physicochemical properties of banana starch industrial purposes) and to compare them to current
commercial starches.
In terms of food applications, the functionality of starch
is largely related to its gelatinization and pasting character- 6.1. Swelling power and solubility
istics. When heated in water, starch granules swell
dramatically, as well as lose their crystallinity, at their Swelling power and solubility provide evidence of the
gelatinization temperature. Amylose typically leaches out of magnitude of interaction between starch chains within both
450 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

the amorphous and crystalline domains. The extent of this stages (Lii et al., 1982). At 95 8C, swelling power and
interaction is influenced by the amylose: amylopectin ratio solubility were in the ranges 30.135.3 (method of Leach,
and by the characteristics of amylose and amylopectin in McCowen, & Schoch, 1959) and 16.321.7%, respectively,
terms of molecular weight distribution, degree of branching, and in addition, banana starch exhibits rapid increases in
length of branches, and conformation of the molecules swelling power (from 2.1 to 35.3) and solubility (from 0.14
(Ratnayake, Hoover, & Warkentin, 2002). Certain amylose to 21.7%) within the temperature range 6595 8C. Viscoa-
lipid complexes restrict swelling and solubilization (Hoover mylographic data suggested cross-bonding in the granule
& Hadziyev, 1981). Also, protein within granules play an (Eggleston et al., 1992; Lii et al., 1982).
important role in controlling the swelling of granules (Han, Ling et al. (1982) reported that Cavendish starch
Campanella, Guan, Keeling, & Hamaker, 2002a,b; Han & granules, which were variable in both shape and size,
Hamaker, 2002). exhibited surface cracking when heated in water to 65 8C;
The swelling and solubility patterns of green Valery progressively greater swelling, deformation, and erosion
banana starches were compared to those of other starches occurred between 708 and 90 8C (Fig. 7).
(Fig. 6) (Kayisu et al., 1981). Valery banana starch had a
two stage-swelling pattern (Fig. 6a). Dissolution of banana 6.2. Gelatinization
starch was also compared to that of tapioca, potato, and milo
(sorghum) starches (Fig. 6b). As in the case of swelling Starch, when heated in the presence of excess water,
power, the solubility of banana starch was close to that of undergoes the order to disorder phase transition known as
milo (sorghum) starch, and much lower than that of tapioca gelatinization over a temperature range characteristic of the
and potato starches. starch source. This phase transition is associated with
Taiwan green banana starch exhibited a wide variation in diffusion of water into the granule, water uptake by the
swelling power and solubility depending on the ripening amorphous background region, hydration and radial swel-
ling of the starch granules, loss of birefringence, loss of
crystalline order, uptake of heat, uncoiling and dissociation
of double helices in the crystalline regions and amylose
leaching (Donovan, 1979; Evans & Haismann, 1982).
Gelatinization is followed by pasting. The gelatinization
process, which is a function of the starch: water ratio, can be
followed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Initial
(To), peak (Tp), and completion (Tc) gelatinization tempera-
tures can be obtained from DSC thermograms.
The gelatinization temperature was reported to be
6770 8C (Table 5) (Kayisu et al., 1981) and 69.5 8C
(Waliszewski et al., 2003) for Valery banana starch and in
the range of 70.174.6 8C for Cavendish banana starch
(Ling et al., 1982). For Macho and Criollo banana starches,
gelatinization temperatures of 77 and 74 8C were reported,
respectively (Table 6) (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al.,
2000). Lii et al. (1982) investigated some physiochemical
properties of dessert banana starches as a function of
ripening stage; for stage 1, temperatures of 75, 77.5 and
80 8C for To, Tp and Tc, respectively, were found. These
values are somewhat different from those reported by
Waliszewski et al. (2003) (Table 6). Gelatinization enthalpy
(DH) of Macho banana starch was found to be 14.0 and
16.8 J/g (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000; Nunez-
Santiago et al., 2004). The gelatinization temperature of
starch from green bananas was found to be 69.4 8C with an
enthalpy 17.1 J/g by Faisant, Buleon et al. (1995) (Fig. 5B).

6.3. Pasting properties

In general, banana starches show restricted swelling

Fig. 6. Swelling (a) and solubility patterns (b) of green Valery banana starch patterns with good stability, behaviors that are very similar
() with other starches for comparative purposes (Kayisu et al., 1981), to those of slightly chemically cross-linked starches. A
reproduced with permission of the Institute of Food Technologists. banana starch paste had a Brabender viscoamylograph peak
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 451

Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrographs at about 1100! magnification of green Cavendish banana starch granules: (a) room temperature, (b) 65 8C, (c) 70 8C, (d)
75 8C, (e) 85 8C, (f) 90 8C (Ling et al., 1982), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.

viscosity four times that of a corn starch paste of the same Kayisu et al. (1981) reported Brabender viscosity curves for
concentration (6%) (Ling et al., 1982). Banana starch Valery banana starches (Fig. 8a). At low concentrations, the
paste showed the highest viscoamylograph viscosities after banana starch granules apparently resisted mechanical
958C compared to the common food starches in Table 5. fragmentation. This explains the absence of a peak viscosity
Table 5
Brabender pasting temperature and viscosities of banana and common food starches

Starch Pasting temperature (8C) Brabender viscosity units

Peak 95 8C 95 8C hold 50 8C 50 8C hold
Banana 6770 w960 w860 w800 w1190 w1050
Potato 61 2500 850 340 600 630
Tapioca 59 1400 520 280 500 510
Waxy corn 69 1000 400 250 390 370
Corn 73 470 470 350 830 760
Wheat 77 65 60 60 300 270

Adapted from Zobel (1984) with banana data from Kayisu et al. (1981) (Conditions: 7% starch; 1.5 8C/min heating rate; regular 60 min hold at 95 and 50 8C).

Table 6
Thermal properties of banana (Musa paradisiacal) starches (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000; Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004)

Type of starch To (8C) Tp (8C) Tc (8C) TcTo (8C) DH (J/g) T (8C)

Macho 69.6 74.5 81.6 12.0 13.0 77.3
Macho 75.5 80.7 90.0 14.5 16.8 75.0
Criollo 71.4 75.0 80.4 9.0 14.8 74.3

T, pasting temperature from RVA curves.

452 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

7, and 8% concentrations (Fig. 9), which indicates that the

swollen granules were rather resistant to breakdown on
prolonged cooking. In conclusion, banana starch may have
the superior property of behaving somewhat like a lightly
cross-linked starch.

6.4. Rheology

Rotational viscometers are often used to examine the

rheological properties of gelatinized starches. Bello-Perez
et al. (1998) cooked banana starch in a boiling-water bath
for 15 and 30 min, cooled the paste to 25 8C, and then
measured the apparent viscosity with a Brookfield
viscometer. The apparent viscosity of the pastes decreased
when the shear rate increased from 2 to 20 rpm, indicating
shear-thinning behavior (Fig. 10a) (Bello-Perez et al., 1998;
Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004). Higher values of apparent
viscosity of banana starch pastes were found when the
suspension was heated for a longer time, and the viscosity of
banana starch pastes remained stable at constant shear rate
20 rpm (Fig. 10b). The cited study did not compare the
rheological properties of banana starch with those of other
commercial starches.

7. Modified banana starches

7.1. Chemical modification

Bello-Perez, Contreras-Ramos, Jimenez-Aparicio, and

Paredes-Lopez (2000) reported the effect of acetylation (DS
0.04) on banana (M. paradisiacal L., var. Macho) starch.
The modified starch had a minor tendency to retrograde. At
high temperatures, acetylated banana starch had a water
retention capacity similar to that of the native starch.
Acetylation considerably increased the solubility and
swelling power of banana starch compared with native
banana starch. When freezethaw stability was studied,
Fig. 8. Brabender viscoamylograms of green Valery banana starch (Kayisu acetylated banana starch drained approximately 60% of
et al., 1981) (a), and Taiwan dessert banana starch (Lii et al., 1982) (b), water in the first and second cycles, but in the third and
reproduced with permission of the Institute of Food Technologists. fourth cycles, the percentage of separated water was low.
Acetylation increased the viscosity of banana starch pastes.
and only a slight increase in viscosity during cooking. Usefulness of the modified starches as additives in frozen
Viscosity profiles at higher concentrations (7 and 8%) desserts and as thickeners in soups was suggested.
demonstrated a pronounced peak viscosity and breakdown. Waliszewski et al. (2003) carried out a study on properties
This behavior may be explained by the fact that, at higher of native and pregelatinized, phosphorylated (with sodium
concentrations, swollen granules occupy most of the space tripolyphosphate), phosphate cross-linked (with sodium
and cannot move apart from each other, resulting in trimetaphosphate) and hydroxypropylated banana starch.
fragmentation. Banana starches at higher concentrations Molar substitutions (MS) of the three chemically modified
underwent pronounced setback (retrogradation) during starches were reported to be 0.16, 0.20, and 0.017,
cooling. Lii et al. (1982) reported similar result for Taiwan respectively. Hydroxypropylated banana starch had more
dessert bananas, but viscosities for were somewhat higher. than 50% higher water-binding capacity than the native
Amylograms of 5% starch pastes showed no pasting peak starch. Phosphorylated and hydroxypropylated banana
and belonged to the restricted-swelling type (Fig. 8b). starches showed improvement in paste clarity; phosphory-
Eggleston et al. (1992) reported that no maximum paste lated starch showed the best freezethaw stability. Hydro-
viscosities were observed from plantains (AAB group) at 6, xypropylated and phosphorylated starches showed
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 453

Fig. 9. Brabender viscoamylograms of 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8% green plantain hybrid starch (starch suspension was heated from 25 to 95 8C, kept at this temperature
for 20 min, then cooled to 50 8C and held at this temperature for 20 min). (Eggleston et al., 1992), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.

significant decreases in initial temperature of gelatinization. 80 8C for 30 min. This study greatly improved the digestibility
Results of water-binding capacity and swelling power of of the banana starch by glucoamylase and resulted in good
native and chemically modified starches submitted to heating alcohol production by yeast. The addition of pectic enzymes
from 50 to 90 8C are given in Table 7. Chemical also accelerated the fermentation process.
modifications improved starch water-binding when hydro- Verhoff, Blatteis, and Barrett (1997) developed a process
philic groups were incorporated. At the lowest temperature for conversion of green bananas to syrups using a sequence of
(50 8C), the greatest increase in water-binding was observed steps involving grinding the bananas, heating the pulp, and
in phosphorylated starch. When the temperature was treatment with an a-amylase to convert the starch into malto-
increased to 90 8C, water-binding capacity increased, with oligosaccharides (liquefaction). They then changed con-
the highest value obtained for hydroxypropylated starch. At ditions and treated the degraded starch molecules and other
90 8C, this modified starch showed over 50% higher water- substances in the liquefied fluid with enzymes such as amylo-
binding capacity than the native starch. The results again glucosidase, pectinase, cellulase, macerase, etc. Finally the
indicate that Valery banana starch has fairly restricted product was filtered and evaporated to a suitable concen-
swelling power. Hydroxypropylated starch showed small tration. A 6769% conversion of the total solids to sugars was
increases in swelling power; however, phosphorylated and achieved. pH and temperature controls in each of the con-
cross-linked starch did not. Overall, native banana starch had version steps were deemed important to the yield of glucose.
low solubility that was improved by chemical modification or A granular cold-water-swelling starch was prepared from
pre-gelatinization. Phosphorylated starch had the best banana starch by treating it with ethanolic sodium hydroxide
stability in freezethaw cycles, with no syneresis being solution. (Bello-Perez, Romero-Manilla, & Paredes-Lopez,
observed after four cycles. After 10 cycles, only 10% 2000). Solubility and swelling profiles were similar for the
syneresis occurred. Hydroxypropyl and phosphorylated modified starches and the freezethaw stability of the
starch showed significant decreases in initial temperature modified starches was increased as compared with the poor
of gelatinization. All chemically modified starches showed stability of the native starch (Bello-Perez et al., 1999).
significant increase in gelatinization enthalpy. Apparent viscosity of the modified banana starch pastes was
higher than that of the native starch pastes. The granular
cold-water-swelling starch was suggested to be useful as an
7.2. Enzymic and physical modifications
ingredient of instant foods.
There are a number of products that may be made by
treating starches with enzymes. Adams (1979) reported a 7.3. Prospects and challenges
small-scale production of vinegar from banana starch. Iizuka,
Uenakai, Svendsby, and Yamamoto (1985) reported a process New and more useful commercial starches can poten-
to enhance the fermentation by heating of green fingers at ca. tially be developed using chemical, physical, and biological
454 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

physically (mainly via pre-gelatinization) or by slight and

relatively simple chemical modifications to fulfill the needs
of various industries.
Chemically modified food starches generally show better
paste clarity and stability, increased resistance to retro-
gradation, and better freezethaw stability. Banana starch,
along with rice, pea, and amaranth starches, are promising
for new base starches to be employed in modification
processes (BeMiller, 1997). However, it should be pointed
out that the use of chemically modified starches in the food
industry is somewhat restricted in some regions by
sophisticated consumers, legislation, and economics (Lill-
ford & Morrison, 1997). The value of modified banana
starch, if any, will be superior properties for specific niche
applications since no starch competes economically with
native and modified corn starches at this time. However, the
full range of allowable modifications of different banana
starches has not been investigated.

8. Digestibility of banana starch

8.1. Raw starch digestibility

Digestibility of raw native starches has been attributed to

the interplay of many factors, such as starch source, granule
size, amylose:amylopectin ratio, extent of molecular associ-
ation between starch components, degree of crystallinity,
amylose chain length, and presence of amyloselipid com-
plexes (Cummings & Englyst, 1995). Large granules such as
Fig. 10. Effect of mechanical shear on paste viscosity (a) and paste viscosity
those of raw potato and banana starches are known to be rather
at constant shear 20 rpm of 5% (db) (b) banana starch paste determined
using a Brookfield viscometer at 25 8C: & spindle No. 2 and cooked in a susceptible to mechanical alteration, especially after being in
boiling bath for 30 min, % spindle No. 2 and cooked for 15 min, ! spindle the low pH environment of the stomach (Gallant et al., 1992).
No. 3 and cooked for 30 min, : spindle No. 3 and cooked for 15 min Factors imparting resistance to native starches remain obscure,
(Bello-Perez et al., 1998), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH. but several have been proposed: the type and degree of
crystallinity (Ring, Gee, Whittam, Orford, & Johnson, 1988),
modification. The potential is even greater that new useful amylose content (Behall, Scholfield, Yuhaniak, & Canary,
starch products will result from combinations of these 1989; Cone & Wolters, 1990), and granule size (Franco, do
modifications with allowable reagents and levels of Rio Preto, Ciacco, & Geraldo, 1992). Morphology and
addition. Native starches represent many disadvantages, ultrastructure, such as the specific area and porosity of
such as a high tendency of their pastes to retrograde and granules, should also be considered (Colonna, Leloup, &
synerese, and the poor freezethaw stability and cohesive- Buleon, 1992; Gallant et al., 1992).
ness of their pastes, thus limiting their application for food The principal commercial starch, corn starch, is digested
and industrial products (Fleche, 1985; Wurtzburg, 1986). by hydrolytic enzymes (amylases) which access the interior
Many starches available commercially have been modified of granules via channels, i.e. corn starch granules are
Table 7
Water-binding capacity (g of water retention/g of starch!100) and swelling power (g of water/g of dry starch!100) of native and chemically modified Valery
banana starch (Waliszewski et al., 2003)

Starch type Water-binding capacity Swelling power

50 8C 60 8C 70 8C 80 8C 90 8C 50 8C 60 8C 70 8C 80 8C 90 8C
Native 8.9 19.3 35.1 40.4 44.7 1.8 2.2 2.3 7.8 8.7
Phosphate (DS 0.16) 16.7 30.7 41.4 46.1 49.1 3.3 6.1 6.7 9.0 9.8
Cross-linked phosphate (MS 0.20) 9.6 19.6 34.7 42.7 44.7 1.9 3.6 5.9 9.0 9.0
Hydroxypropyl (MS 0.017) 11.5 29.8 48.8 60.8 68.8 2.3 3.2 9.0 12.4 13.8
Pre-gelatinized 40.3 42.8 42.9 43.1 43.0 8.0 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.6
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 455

primarily hydrolyzed from the inside out (Hood & Liboff, excreted in the effluent. Up to 90% of the starch could be
1983; Leach & Schoch, 1961; Nikuni & Whistler, 1957). accounted for in the effluent. The amount of banana starch not
The starch granules of corn and related cereals (sorghum hydrolyzed and absorbed in the human small intestine, and
and millet) have channels connecting the internal cavity therefore passing into the colon, may be up to eight times
with the external environment (Huber & BeMiller, 1997). more than the non-starch polysaccharide (fiber) present in the
The large granules of wheat, rye, and barley also contain banana fruit, of course depending on the degree of ripeness
openings to channels at the equatorial groove (Fannon, when the fruit is eaten. Only 23% of the starch fed was
Hauber, and BeMiller, 1992). On the other hand, starches recovered as starch in the ileostomy effluent, but in those
without pores and channels, such as potato, yam, and lily cases where there was substantial starch in the banana, there
starches, digest through surface erosion of the granule was a large increase in the amounts of maltose, maltotriose,
(Gallant, Bouchet, Buleon, & Perez, 1992; Jane et al., 1997). and other starch-derived saccharides recovered in the
Banana starch is in the latter category, and raw, i.e. effluent. The possible, but not established, difference in the
uncooked, banana starch appears to be resistant to enzyme- breakdown of raw banana starch in the ripening banana
catalyzed hydrolysis (Cerning-Beroard & le Dividich, 1976; versus the mammalian digestive tract could be the result of
Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Englyst & Cummings, 1986; different enzyme systems.
Eggleston et al., 1992; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant, Faisant, Buleon et al. (1995) and Faisant, Gallant et al.
Gallant, Bouchet, & Champ, 1995; Fuwa, Sugimoto, (1995) studied the digestion of freeze-dried green banana
Takaya, & Nikuni, 1979; Sugimoto, Fujita, Takaya, & flour in the upper gut by an intubation technique in six
Fuwa, 1980; Teixeira et al., 1998). healthy subjects over a 14 h period. The banana flour used in
their study was composed of 38 g/kg protein, 92 g/kg
8.2. Resistant raw banana starch dietary fiber, and total a-glucans 770 g/kg (60 g/kg
oligosaccharides and 710 g/kg insoluble starch). Using
Native raw banana starch appeared to be highly resistant the method of Englyst, Kingman, and Cummings (1992),
to hydrolysis by enzymes (Cerning-Beroard & le Dividich, resistant starch (RS) content (see Section 8.2) was 542 g/kg
1976; Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Eggleston et al., 1992;
(Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995). Eighty-four percent of
Englyst & Cummings, 1986; Englyst, Veenstra, & Hudson,
ingested a-glucans reached the terminal ileum, but were
1996; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant, Gallant et al.,
then almost totally fermented in the colon by the microflora,
1995; Fuwa et al., 1979; Sugimoto et al., 1980). Micro-
a potentially positive result relating to colonic health.
scopic observations revealed that raw banana flour con-
Oligosaccharides and the more easily digestible fraction of
tained irregularly shaped starch granules with smooth
RS should ferment more rapidly than the resistant part.
surfaces. A smooth and dense surface of native banana
Structural study of the resistant fraction showed that only a
starch granules could partially account for their resistance. It
small part of the a-glucans that escaped digestion in the
is likely, as indicated by scanning and transmission electron
small intestine was composed of oligosaccharides from
microscope studies (Gallant et al., 1992), that the starch
granule has an external thick layer (several mm) of larger starch hydrolysis; the rest was insoluble starch in granular
blocklets that impede enzyme action and reduce the rate of form with physical characteristics similar to those of raw
hydrolysis. Perhaps the density of such blocklets is higher at banana starch. The gelatinization temperature of the
the periphery of banana starch granules. In addition, some recovered resistant starch was reduced to ca. 61 8C,
residual cell walls present in banana flour may have compared with 69.4 8C for the raw starch (Fig. 5b). The
entrapped starch granules, thereby protecting them from 84% RS value (see Section 8.2) found by Faisant, Buleon
enzymic attack (Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Tester & et al. (1995) was greater than the about 72% RS found in
Karkalas, 2002). In conclusion, it is likely that both intrinsic vivo by Englyst and Cummings (1986) in ileostomized
resistance and encapsulation of starch granules are respon- subjects given unripe bananas. The difference may be due to
sible for the low digestibility of raw banana starch and flour. the degree of banana ripeness in the two studies.
The breakdown of starch during banana ripening occurs It is important to know structures of the a-glucans that
rather rapidly, but over a period of many hours. However, as escape digestion in the small intestine since they will
mentioned above, raw banana starch is known to present a indicate the digestive mechanism involved and be predictive
low susceptibility to non-banana amylases, including the of their fate in the colon. Results with banana flour
a-amylase of rats (Fujita, Glover, Sugimoto, & Fuwa, 1982) confirmed that a substantial starch fraction escaped diges-
and humans (Englyst & Cummings, 1986). Englyst and tion because of limited time and/or capacity for hydrolysis
Cummings (1986) found that up to 78% of ingested (Faisant et al., 1993). The major part of the starch granules
a-glucans from raw banana starch escaped digestion in the collected in the terminal ileum could have been partially
small intestine of ileostomates. They studied the digestion hydrolyzed by amylolytic enzymes. After their passage
and absorption of banana carbohydrates from the small through the small intestine, banana starch granules appeared
bowel by feeding ileostomy subjects raw banana from six to be exo-corroded; some exhibited several irregular pits,
batches of different ripeness and measuring the amounts crevices or holes (Faisant, Gallant et al., 1995).
456 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

Thus, the porosity and surface area may have been altered 2004; Sugimoto et al., 1980; Waliszewski et al., 2003;
during passage through the small intestine. Zhang & Whistler, 2002);
(3) Sufficient strength to maintain granule integrity during
8.3. Cooked banana starch prolonged heating. Pasting and paste properties of
banana starch suggest that it behaves as if it were
Starch can be classified as rapidly digestible starch slightly cross-linked. Brabender amylograph showed
(RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch high break down and cooling viscosities for banana
(Englyst et al., 1992). The designations of rapidly available starch pastes (Bello-Perez et al., 1998; Ling et al., 1982;
glucose (RAG) and slowly available glucose (SAG) reflect Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004; Rodriguez-Sosa & Parsi-
the rate at which glucose becomes available for absorption Ros, 1984);
in the human small intestine. The search for new sources of (4) High resistance of raw banana starch to the attack of a-
slowly digestible and low-glycemic-index starches or amylase and glucoamylase in in vivo and in vitro
techniques to manipulate, and therefore moderate, starch digestions, with 7584% of the starch granules ingested
digestion properties in ingredients will permit the formu- reaching the terminal ileum (Cerning-Beroard & le
lation of starch-based processed foods with low glycemic Dividich, 1976; Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Eggleston
indices and extended energy release characteristics. Starch et al., 1992; Englyst & Cummings, 1986; Englyst et al.,
fractions in raw banana flour (total starch content 75%) were 1996; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant, Gallant
reported to be RDS 3%, SDS 15%, RS 57%, and RAG 6% et al., 1995; Fuwa et al., 1979; Sugimoto et al., 1980).
(Englyst et al., 1992).
Digestion performance of cooked banana starch would The large amount and low cost of cull bananas is a
be of importance to the food industry, since the consumption compelling reason to undertake a determination of the food
of cooked starch in human food is much more common than and industrial value of banana starch. Starch can be isolated
that of raw starch, so the influence of cooking on rate and in a relatively pure state from reject bananas. There is
degree of banana starch digestion needs to be further evidence that the starch is at least as functional as corn
investigated. No recent papers were found on digestion starch and may have superior properties of behaving like
properties of cooked banana starch, although older citations slightly cross-linked corn starch, which would give it a
give an implication that it may have a comparative long higher market value as an unmodified/native starch in many
digestion characteristic. After cooking, the easily digesti- applications. Its potential acceptance in foods is enhanced
ble/hydrolyzable starch fraction of banana starch was only by its absence of flavor. If its properties differ sufficiently
47% of the total, comparable to that of a known low- from starches of other plants, it could command a premium
digestible cooked yam starch (40%) (Cerning-Beroard & le price as a food ingredient. Bananas are a potentially
Dividich, 1976; Lozano et al., 1973). important alternative source of starch for food and non-
food applications. In addition, there is evidence based on
recent hemicellulose research to warrant the speculation that
9. Conclusion and outlook useful hemicelluloses can be isolated from residue peels.
In general, utilization of unmodified starches is restricted
The available literature suggests that banana starch has by the tendency of amylose to retrograde and shear damage
quality attributes that could give it a place in the commercial to swollen granules. Functional properties of starches
starch industry, both as native starch and as modified food available on the commercial market are often slightly
starch. The specific properties of banana starch include, but modified chemically so that they better meet food industry
are not limited to, the following: requirements of freezethaw stability of pastes and gels, gel
transparency, stability of gels to syneresis, proper texture,
(1) Relatively low amylose contents in majority of the improved film formation, adhesion, etc. All starches have
reports (ca. 1020%) (Eggleston et al., 1992; Garcia & similarities that make them somewhat interchangeable in
Lajolo, 1988; Kayisu & Hood, 1981; Ling et al., 1982) both native and chemically modified forms in many
and high (ca. 12%) protein contents (Bello-Perez et al., applications. However, each starch source is also unique
1998, 1999; Eggleston et al., 1992; Lii et al., 1982; in one or more properties, so that the functionalities of one
Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004) compared with protein are not duplicated exactly by another. The challenge with
contents of !0.6% for common commercial starches regards to banana starch is to determine and exploit its
(Tester et al., 2004); uniquenesses.
(2) Restricted swelling, low solubility, and negligible Although considerable knowledge has been accumulated
retrogradation. Comparably low swelling power and in the past two or three decades, a complete picture with
low solubility may reflect a more ordered, more respect to banana starch structure, properties, and appli-
strongly bonded, denser granule structure (Eggleston cations and differences between cultivars remains lacking.
et al., 1992; Faisant, Gallant et al., 1995; Kayisu & The literature provides only a few answers to many
Hood, 1981; Lii et al., 1982; Nunez-Santiago et al., questions regarding banana starch molecular architecture
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 457

and how the component parts (amylose, amylopectin, lipid, Do Nascimento, J. R. O., Cordenunsi, B. R., Lajolo, F. M., & Alcocer,
and protein) interact to provide the three-dimensional M. J. C. (1997). Banana sucrosephosphate synthase gene expression
during fruit ripening. Planta, 203, 283288.
granular structure that provides its properties. Moreover,
Donovan, J. W. (1979). Phase transitions of starchwater systems.
on the issue of the digestion properties of raw and cooked Biopolymers, 18, 263275.
banana starch, a number of questions remain unanswered, Eggleston, G., Swennen, R., & Akoni, S. (1992). Physicochemical studies
such as whether cooked banana starch truly has moderated on starches isolated from plantain cultivars, plantain hybrids and
digestion properties, and, if so, why. By understanding the cooking bananas. Starch/Staerke, 44, 121128.
Englyst, H. N., & Cummings, J. H. (1986). Digestion of the carbohydrates
molecular structure and composition of banana starch, its
of banana (Musa paradisiaca sapientum) in the human small intestine.
properties can be optimized. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 44, 4250.
Englyst, H. N., Kingman, S. M., & Cummings, J. H. (1992). Classification
and measurement of nutritionally important starch fractions. European
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46(Suppl. 2), S33S50.
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