5) Cell Structure

Cannas 2, 10:28, 29 Brenton tm ae, aH Garagstater yA, 20 Brenton 1 122,509) ‘ey Learning Objectives Compile your own glossary from the KEY WORDS. clplayed in bold type in the learning objectives bolow. a1. Cell theory and microscopy (page 57, 62-65) G2 Discuss the coll thoory with respec tothe rganizetion lliving tings. Recognizo the contnbuton ot iicrascopy tothe development of cll theory and our resent knowedge of coll structure, Distinguish between optical and electron microscopes, outning tho structure of exch, With respect o ight and electron microscopy, explain and Astnguish between: magnification and resolution, ‘wt respect to structure, operation, and type of image produsod,cisingush between TEM (ransmission electron microscopy) and SEM (scanning electron microscopy) Recognize elcton microscopy as an important toa in investigating cel suche Dietingush betwoen compound and stereo light microscopes. Ident the tutions in which these ferent miroscones would be used. Demonstrate an ability to correctly use a microscope to locate material and focus images. identy the steps required for preparing a temporary mount fo: viewing ‘wih a eompoun ght microscope Demonstrate an abity to use simple staining techniques o show specitc features of cols. Demonstrate a knowledge of some spect sans, i¢enttying the purpose of each named example. Features of cells (pages 39-39, 58-61, 66-75, 88) D8. Dotino a cell and recognize tas the basic unit of iving things. In simple terms, describe the main features of 2 cell (plasma membrane, cytoplasm, organelles. Tentty the features that characterize living things and plain vty cals are considered to be living entities, Appreciate the range of cal sizes and use diferent Units of measurement (mm, ym, nm) to express cel sizes. Compare the relative sizes of molecules, plasma ‘memoane thicknass, viruses, bacterla, cell organelles, ‘and cols using appropriate SI units. Appreciate the Importance of suface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cel size (s06 Cell Membrans and Transpor. 2 10, Contrast tho gencralized structure of prokaryote end eukaryote cals and provide examplos of each typo IWrequied, describe the spacific features of protistan calls. Explain why viruses are regarded as non-callla. C11. dontiy specie derencee between fungal cells and the colls of other eukaryotes. Consider fungal structure In relation to ell theory. 12, Describe the structra ofa prokaryotic (bacteria) cell and its inclusions, as ilustrated by @ named example en (649, & col). dently the cell wall and the structures associated wih i (6.9, flagella), plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and the nucleold region, ‘bacterial chromosome, and plasmids. dnt the {unalone of esch of thece structures. Recognize them Inelecon micrographs and identify which of them are unique to prokaryotes. NOTE: Mesosomes, once ‘thought tobe structural features, are row known to be artfacis of cel preparation for electron microscopy. 113, Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of ‘ypical plant and enimal cells (e.g. ea palisace cel ‘nd iver cal) as S90n Using ight microscopy. 14, Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of ‘ypical plant and animal cols, as seen using electron ‘microscopy. Identity and describe tne role of ‘+ nucleus, nuclear envelope, nucleolus mitochondria, chloroplasts (present), rough’smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, plasma membrane, cell wall (f eresart) Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles (f presen), cytoplasm, eytoakeleton (of microtubules), centrioles, cilia (present). O15. Identity which ofthe collar structures above would be ‘stole under fight microscopy, transmission electron microscopy. and scanning electron microscopy. D 16. List the ciferences between plant and animal ceils, noting relative size and shape, end presence ot absence of particular structures and organelles, Separating cellular components (page 72) ‘5. 17. Desoibe the principies of cell fractionation (ciffeential centrtugation) and expiain now itis Achieved theugh homogenization of a sample ‘oliowod by uitracentritugation. 18. identity the components ofthe four fractions normally biained ftom ciferantial centrifugation: he nuclear fraction, the mitochondrial fraction, the microsomal ‘raction, end the soluble fraction. plan the role of speed of centrfugation in separating these factions, Mitosis and cell division (pages 76-79) 19, Recall the structure of chromosomes. Using diagrams, describe the behavior af chromosomes during a mitt cell cycle in eukaryotes. inciude reference to: mitosis, ‘growth (G1 ard Ga), and DNA replication (8). 1D 20, Demonstrate appropriate staining techniques in the study of mitosis in plant material 8. rot fp squash 1D 21, Recognize and describe the following events in mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. 122, With respect to both plant and animal cet, uncerstanc the lorm cytokinesis, and dstinguish between nuciear Gnorl one 007 JS hidsett arty and ow do they opr. Tosoitces;= pccezeExctenee » 0009): 2 : Inractveanmatons = Kev bend resoena i Mitosis and cell differentiation ‘TEACHER'S REFERENCE ‘tnd others > Glossaries: Celkiar aiogy. Mile and eal etferontieten ya yzuos Ale? Sst Aan, soya terme anos belo ese 8 The Coll Cycle and Mitosis Biol. Sci, Rev., December 2004, pp. 77-81. although viwuses: Glossary st : "a {s(t} Apri 2008, po. 87-41. Call growth and Cchalenge our concept of what “ving” moans, they CELL BIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY: + Cet H- ——Sison ey amgee nin cat arsine utters othe moe of la Ts vcolart SP Mobos DOWRY eine » Col Suter Gi Snpcceantelover corn stage feos, Stour coarse naire ures Reuang an lunelon web ks NIT logy hyperacook - IB To Divide or Not to Divide Biol Sci. Fev, ‘account of vial replication and a critical evaluation > Microscopy: * A guide to microscopy and Fe i er Seceti fine iauschvmsee nthe nia! 0nd.” rlswanayais» lobgoal pater oSozben 4, Wie aes Scr cvobs ordi Cont nding Moats and loss Tra amaccon SRR rcoocepy = Heloeny Meveoopy =.” a Reta wtnouta Cause New Soest 3 uy Boy Tee 82) Maer 2000 op 20ea08, UE + Seung Eero Merstop » Sle Ge oct insuescancey Me races ocancosthe” Pronotng poten slag fr sie 2 har MECEOP)eGiatanl asouces ad oer ee RRS ARIS ee tae’ Ree amon ain, ge Ste aera iaton Beasicorceacaso camp, a Cateby Design New Gcerta dane toe, CELLS alte” Col eaape nd texnaion gets os i poune ese, Chat « Nenowet»Tehawer col ogy © %%, —Calletructue and orgenctios Beate Aurea prodiced colt he Geen, evn cat» Tecan oo tetonston WY conser corre New Sais 17 uy 998 Stabehg matri win. allen, cesar oe ian ae _leside Scenes) Ar excl! page ave on Eukaryotic Gall Function The Amoreen eo let es cert eT "aes the role ofthe nucteus" iis origin, the organization ology Teacher, 61(7}, Sept 1999, pp. 539-542. An ©YS!# and mosis ton ae \* at DNA in eukaryotic ceils, how genes code for Interactive exercise on eukaryott cell structure and St anh nano icanos an PHA, He eon eget 1 catia Fatren. ow Sorat 1 secret Language of Cals Now Son ge November a00 nous Scenes The stucuro Ta Peouary S00 fae Scere) A aca Saco rateas tn plat and aia cole. far crunching et eres lm Bacteria National Geographic, 184(2) August 99 junctions, hormones, ligandis and receptors. er fF RARRITRS SEIN Rees Eelam a lcncson tow caer © Toaster Gp SEL eStnatehtdiacanons cnn, Siders ny aot pe reteset) ® ~ rotting rid, [9 © oxen tena 201-2005The Cell Theory ‘The idea that al living things are composed of cals developed (such as Leeuwenhoek’s below) opened up a whole new field of ‘over many years end is strongly inked 10 the invention and biology: the study of cel! biology and microorganisms. The call refinement of the microscope. Early miccoscopes in the 1600'S theory is @ fundamental idea of biology. Early Microscopes ‘crow toad adjustment ‘moves spesrnen sros the fei of ew (op and Sou Leeuwenhoek microsoope 6.1673 Aton van Leeiweroek ol Leyeen, Holland, designed andl over 500 rioweazepas enya gated aanieg {ass by dey’ etandards These, Ele lone mleroacepe abova, naa an ‘aserihing magneton of 270 mes Robert Hooke 0.1865, Hecke was fecinate ty microscopy, sendin ns book Mrogrepnia (1888) Da desis ne use ofthe compeund merosoope athe hed devised He ‘ras tho seo foram ool aker ho observed he angular spaces that he sein atin ection o cork The Coll Theory ‘The idea that calls are fundamental units of ite is part ofthe cell theory Theso ideas wore formulated by @ numberof eary biologists {200 Milestones on the right) 1. All ving things are composed of cells and cel products, 2. New celts are format only by the division of preexisting ols 2, The oe! contains inherited information (genes) that are used as Instructions for growah, functioning, and development. 4. The ool isthe functioning unit of tis; he chemical reaction of fe take place within cots. +008 Early e008 1601 1982 1672 17008 1838- 1830 1355, 1880 1. Briefly describe the impact the invention of microscopes has had on biology: Milestones in Cell Biology ‘Convex. lenses with a magnification ‘greater than x5 became availabe, First compound microscopes used in Europe (used two convex lenses to make object look lager). Suflered baaly rom enor distorion; an effect ‘called spherical aberration Antoni van Leuwenhoek of Leysen, Holand, eroduced over 600 single lens microscopes. Discovered bacteria, human blood coll, spermatozoa, and protozoa. Friend of Robert Hooke of England. ‘Marcello Malpighi used lenses to study insects, Discovered capillaries ‘and may have described cols in weing ‘of ‘globules and ‘saccules. Robert Hooke introduced the tem ‘eal in desorbing the microscopic structure of car, He believed thatthe call walls were the important pat of ‘otherwise empty stuctures. Publshod Micrographia in 1685 Nohemlah Grow wroto the fit of two ‘wol ilustrated books on the microscopic anatomy of plans Lite serious work pubished. Boarist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Setwrann proposed the col theory for plants and animals: plants and animals are composed of ‘groups of cells and that the cel s the asic unt of fving organisms, ‘Rudolph Virchow extondad the col theory by stating that: now cols are {ormed only by the dvsion ofpreviousy existing ces. ‘August Welsmann added to Virchows Ioea by pointing out that: al be cats living today can trace thelr ancest'y ‘back fo anciont mas (ho Ink between cell theory and evolution). 2. Before the development of the cell theory, it was commonly believed that living organisms could arise by spontaneous ‘generation. Explain what this term means and why it has been discredited as a theory: fg rearectin 2 FS rr Fs 5 € 3 fA % 4 au Vide ed & ¥ Mea Lo. Tea58 “ee yO age, oh ACh ek TNT, FSG EVI« VE Characteristics of Life Living things share 2 suite of characteristies; movernent, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excration, and ‘nutrition, The cell is the site of life; itis the functioning unit structure from which living organisms are made. Virusos and cells ate profoundly different (see the diagram below).. [Ntbough sme viuses may eosin an eneyme, iieineapebs of working Unkitieinice host as otpiagm Single dousie stinied rckecule ‘of BNA or ONA. A protein coat (Genet mato an neve present ‘hore no osnaae Nometabotiem: The absence of eytoplem means that avis can rotary out any cherie reactions ‘ons own i dependent upon parashizing & cal ‘cd using te cae own machinery Virus feg.Hivy viruses cannot become active outside @ living host cal, ‘Thay smply exist as inet virus particles called virions, Only ‘when they invad a coll and tako over the colfs metabolle ‘machinery, can the virus cary out its Iving program 1. Identity three feetures that all cells have in common: “Tre genetic materia le compozed of romosomes of doube-svanded DNA moleoues. In exaryrs hey Viruses are non-cellular, lack the complex structures found in calls, and show only some of the eight characteristics of ving things. Note the different scale to which the examples below are drawn; reler to the scale bars for comparative sizes (1000 m= 1 pm = 0.001 mm). elaboem: The oa of ane coma reactions orcrig inthe a ay ake pace the etplesn, ‘Al cet ypes contain cytoplasm: ‘ha ug ‘soup of runt ‘enzymes andthe preci of ‘motabotem. Eukaryetes conan ‘mambrane-bcund panei, Plesina membrane Organetes are present in mast sukaryeic cals. Theso re Specaland srutres tat arty fu spect role in hoc cel (e9. Amoeba) Cots remain alive so fong as thelr metabolic reactions inthe cytoplasm are maintzined. With afew rare exceptions (that involve froezing certain types of cols) metabolsm is halted, the col cis, 2. Desoribe how cells lifer trom viruses in the following aspects: (@) Size: (0) Metabolism: (c) Organelles: (@) Genetic material: (0) Lite cycle: 3. Viruses are not considered ving’ when outside a host cell. Give the general name for this state: 4. Explain why many biologists do not consider viruses to be tiving organisms: fo natoeeneeeTypes of Li Living things are called organisms and cells are the functioning unit structure from which organisms are made. Under the five kingdom system, cells can be divided into two basic kinds: the prokaryotes, which are simple calls without a distinct, membrane-bound nucleus, and the more complex. eukaryotes, The eukaryotes can be further organized into bbroad groups according to their basic cell type: the protists, Non-cettuler. —————> Prokaryotic cells, Felavoly sal oas: as-i0um > -—_ Ly cas |——> Eukaryotic cells Felatoy Igo cos: 39.160 ym “Amocta a proistan ving Things fungi, plants, and animals. Viruses are non-cellular and have fo voluar ctinery ofthe ow. Al cafe ust secure & source of energy it they are to survive and carry out metabolic Processes Autetrophe can moot erry roqurements {sing ight or chomial nergy tom to pysealenvronment Otter ypes of cl, caled etertrophe, obtain he energy fem otrIving ocgarsms orth doe remains ruses ~ «@ Meee: Yad on ge:20900 wa. & 1 Seisnetepaate ara s eared ‘eee Be nantes oer . Bacterial cells 1 Singo-oles. Lack a atat membrane ond rusous, ONA ueualy acrgl naked chremooomo. + Have no membrane-bound ergenetes. * Call was of pepbiogean Many sort a capeue Fungal colls + Rarely észeo cole, * posses nuccus and mambrare Sound ganas, + Pant ho ut ac href + Rg cot wala that conta eit, + Hotei Protistan cells Mainly eingle-coed or ext a6 cot clones + Poses nuceus andrmomtrane-boundarganolas + Somo are autoopve [possess eeerophyl and omy out ptosis. + Semo as hath. ‘Animal colls * Elsa part of rutceutar ovgrism wth specication of cls ne many pee + Poseees ruscus and mortvane beundorganeles * Lek ot wale Exit many ol poe, + Rotorckeptie Plant cells + See oe part of matical orgs wth pecienon of ela inio many ype + Poesnss neue and memerane das erganales + Auowophle: potosytnetc cats wih chris (Cal wale of eae, g 4. List the cell types above according to the way in which they obtain thelr energy. Include viruses in your answer as well: (@) Autotrophic: (0) Hetorotrophie: 2. Consult the diagram above and determine the two main ‘features distinguishing eukaryotic calls from prokaryotic calls: (a) ) 3, {a) Suggest why fung) were once classified as belonging to the plant kingdom: {b) Explain win in terms of the distinguishing features of fungi, this classification was erroneous: 4, Suggest why the Protista have traditionally been a difficult group to classify: eeeon maton! 200.2008 Photocopying Prohibited fet. a Ney 2 VE i, RES p hak xt ena ey iy : & i: wid late} aBete, > ee ay ROY yb ® ha 104 SENET eae fe) ed Cell Sizes Cells are extremely small and can only be seen properly with a virus and a microscopic animal for comparison. For whan viewed through the magnifying lenses of a microscope. each of those images, note the scale and relate this to the The diagrams below show a variety of cell types, together type of microscopy used. ee Units of length (International System) arinelna co Unit Meters Equivalent [20 tewenma plane Eukaryotic celts 4 mete (ny 1m = 1000 itimsiers (e.g. plnt and animal cls) a Size 0-100 pm dlareter Collar 1 milimeter (mm) 10°" m = 1000 micrometers SrsenaHes TAYDELPO IOL™ | icrometer um) 10m = 1000 nanometoes Mirometers ara sometimes ceered toa microns, Salar = & ver tnarenetr(an) 10m = 160pedomees Prokaryotic ces © (ay) Sle: Tplaly 2-10 um Viruses leew, 02-Pymn ameter. Siaa-0.02-0.25 um structures are usually mesaured in nanometre (om), 09 ‘Upper mat Sm og, (20-2500) molecules (1 nm) and plasma membrane thickness (10m). a 5 1.0mm tum TEM [An Amoeba showing extensions of the Along thin ct of the spiochele Becterign Daphnia showing ts intemal organs. These {poplnam cated pesuceposia. Ths orotst Leptospira pomona, whion eausos tho feshwsler maroeustaceans are pa he changes ls chape, oxpomng is envronmen. dseacelpoaprri, eeplarion une in ake and ponds A foraminitran showing its chambered, Epidermal calls (skin) trom an orion butb (Goluted shat Trace singlvcaled psiasens stewig he ruseus, cal els and cytoplasm. Is pal pet cat (20 aru fae, ‘ie maine pankione amocbes ‘Orcanstes ae not wale al ths fesouon. 12\comar) made of ball shaped lucturos 11. Using the measurement scales provided on each of the photographs above, determine the longest dimension (length or diameter) of the celVanimalvirus in ym and mm (choose the cell marked ‘A’ for epidermal cells) {@) Amoeba um mm — {d) Epidermis: um mm (©) Foraminiferan um mm — {e) Daphnia: um mm (©) Leptospira: wm mm (f) Papillomavirus: pm mm 2, List these six organisms in order of size, from the smallest to the largest: ‘8. Study the scale of your ruler and state which of these six organisms you would be able to see with your unaided eye: 4, Caleulate the equivalent length in milimeters (mm) ofthe following measurements: (2) 0.25 jm (0) 450 pm: {€) 200 am: Photocopying ProhibitedUnicellular Unieellular (single-celled) eukaryotes comprise the majorly of the diverse kingdom, Protista, They are found almost anywhere there is water, including within larger organisme (as parasitos fr symbionts). The protists are a very diverse group, exhibiting some features typical of generalized eukaryalic cals, as well ‘a6 specialized features, which may be specific to one genus. ‘Note that even within the genera below there is considerable Euglena Se 19050 um ren ceraidrely wth epecee) Habla Fresher Eye spot (azo caes etree in Hp detzcton agetum 80:80 fnavio movement Bicester small agate Chloroplasts contractile. a vacuole: Regus vloebalaree Food: Foodie Eukaryotes variation in size and appearence. Amoeba and Paramecium are both heterotrophic, ingesting food, wien accumulates inside a vacuole, Euglena and Chlamydomonas are autotrophic algae, altnough Euglena is heterotrophic when deprived of light. Other, prolisis Include the merine foraminiterans and radolarians, specialized intracellular parasites such as Plasmodium, and zoofiagollales such as the parasites Trypanosoma and Giarala. Amoeba Size 800 4003 Habitat Most moet aint, ing sci Contacte vacuole: enovedin war regulation, Excess waters atest from me ool and expetod to ho ‘vide envieant T's parse Inarme oo os onary. Nucleus > Peoudonod: Flowing projections of eytoptasr aos fovemer, erd ena fod ‘be engafee by phagocytosis ingested oy Paramylon grants: Nagocyees. Food vacuole: Pelle: Ateaie svucure Stfeactarch he oe Contingent Bing wininthe plasma soFohyeate. mente tallovs thecal elantcataiess Contractile vevoles: Food vacuoes: Paramecium Swocttnesoreguse — Consimngoviodtons, ge oy0 394m vitor taco. Sie: 240 x0 y Chlamydomonas ee eed So: 20% 10 um ia: ae cts, Habitat Fessler whieh belo ansat be —~S telinmowes, Soe Cra groove: tines whe, Pyrenoia whic bet hema tne od — ecion of tach formation contractile vacuole Cet wat: Fgulatos nator Composed fechas, Eye spot:tnened In ight dtecion toma base of oral groove twee food vacucles tr, bar, movement / Food: Cone a bectes and mal pote [Anal por: Unigestod ‘ontnts food vacuoles are relsaaed wen the te th {2repon othe oot momar. ‘uncon 4. Filln the table below to summarize diferences in some of the features and ife functions of the protists shown above: Organism Nutrition Movement Osmoregutation | Eve spot | Cel! wal | Amooba Paramecium Euglena Chlamydomonas 2. List the four organisms shown above in order of size (largest first 3. Suggest why an autotroph would have an eye spot: _ Photocopying Prohibited foljp, The ght microscope is one ofthe most important instruments used in biology practicals, and its correct uso is a basic and essential skill of biology. High power light microscopes use a Combination of lenses to magnify oblects up to several hundred, times. They are called compound microscopes because there ‘ ‘are two or moro separate lenses involved. A typical compound light microscoze (bright fis) is shown below (op photograph). “The specimens viewed with these microscopes must be thin and monty vanoperent igs focused up tvaugh to condenser x Gra epecmon tho specimen to thek or opaqu, Ho oF no = ny @ ke 0 o Ko eN ye, ai vet 1 tte) 2 Knob for the adjustment of the microscope cn he arm Optical Microscopes tail wil be visible, The microscope below has two eyepiaces (Dineculan), although monocular microscopes, with a mirror Father than an internal light source, may stil be encountered. Dissecting microscopes (lower photograph) area type of binocular ‘microscope used for observations at low total magnification (x4 to x50), vere a large working distance between abjectives and stage required. A dissecting microscope has ‘wo separate Tens systems, one for each eye, Such microscopes produce 2 &-D view of the specimen and are sometimes called stereo ‘microscopes for this reason. Typical compound light microscope Impuit ight source, arm, coarse focus knob fin focus knob, condenser, achanical stag. ‘ypiece lone objective lone @ Resolution ‘One Imports ear that determines he usefulness of a microscope is Is resolving power. tho ably o separate ‘ut object that are cise togother art a to eae gieater dll Bol lean xarplo cf high, medium and low resolution for ‘separating to objects viewod unor the se magniaton Hionrescuion — @® - - Medium resolution Low resolution ‘Ataced tight sous (ootatveys presen) Dissecting microscope Focus knob, stage, eyepiece tens, objective lens, eyepiece focus Photocopying Prohibited‘Phage contaatikminaieninaeases Lalehmenfs tains usedinahowred Slandars right fled lightng shows Dark eld uminaten'scxeateat for fconateftraneperontepesmensby Deodcalt a eds, while staring calle wth Ite data ony eal wals, ning near Wansperertspocrmons. froduaingteerereren choos fe vstus of we andes hse “nu berayetia ‘The msous of eschcal a, : Stain Final color Application Steps in preparing a permanent mount tn a PPR Temporary siains 1. ination: Pesones teh kid tsevsinaitekce ste by ana sllion”twack ~~ Stren Imes ems chemical oes) er app heat Anne stacey Lone (asinine cas of msn) Ame ae ° 2. Seetoning: Cun very hin secters: tn enough alti Secs olton No ssren ‘rough. Mey embeded wax or sc ad sce vi tive eels! Cotuose A tome or coor wi ghee azarae. yetou Pra, ote, swe 5 Staining Byes ae apple ha stain some structures while poe leaving ethers unafeted (se aie on a. Motylenotue ‘ue ‘4. Dehydration: The tin sections inmeraedin a sees of Ineteasng concenaarscf anole gral remove water Salanin a eel eubern ae ino plants ‘tom to sample. This hops to make te sve Varsparet Ante 049 ue Frngal spores and hyphae : ‘prepocothoohere! —-—(Lelshmarestan—eaink Festiood ots 5. Clearing qi such 8 ny ite to eplace the elena gee RESEESSAE stood cote (sed above) and eraures the atari remains ranepeent cote patos ytelasmveetose 6, Mounting: Te ihn ecione ve mounted on a mlreseapo Hematoxn te Netto aria ots lgeina medium (eq. buscn) thatoxcio at and prtocs (NOTE: many used aca eourtrstan fo soe) eet Foulgen’s stain radipurple DNA (chromosomes in cal division} 41. Label the two diagrams on the left, the bright field microscope (a) to (h) and the dissecting microscope () to (m), using ‘words from the lists supplied, 2, Describe a situation where phase contrast microscopy would improve image quality: 8. List two structures that could be seen by light microscopy in: (@) A piant cet (©) An animal cell: 4, Name one cell structure that can not be seen by light microscopy: 6. Identify a stain that would be appropriate for improving definition of the following: (2) Blood cells (6) Fungal spores: (b) Stach: Ge) Nutet of animal celts: (c) DNA: ______ (H) Cellulose: 6. Determine the magnification of a microscope using (a) 1 X eyepiece and 40 X objective lens: _____(b) 10 X eyepiece and 60 X objective lens: 7. Describe the main difference between a bright field light microscope and a dissecting microscope. 8. Explain the difference between magnification and resolution (resolving power) with respect to microscope use: Photocopying Prohibited fa) ‘a g < a c cit VES “i BND EF HHO we® o, Electron Microscopes Electron microscopes (EMSs) uso a boam of electrons, instead of, light, to produce an image, The higher resolution of EMs is due to the shorter wavelengths of electrons. There are two basic types: of electron microscope: scanning electron microscopes (SEM) ‘and transmission electron microscopes (TEN). In SEMs, the electrons are bounced off the surface of an object to produce, elailed images of the external appearance. TEMs produce very clear images of specially prepared thin soctions. ‘Trangmission Electron Microscope (TEM) “The tranamission elacton microscope is used to view estremely thin sections of malarial. Elecrons pass trough the specimen land are stattored. Magnetic lenses focus the image onto @ flvorescont eraen or photographic plate. The sections are 60 ‘hin thet they have te be prepared with a special machina, called an ultramicrotome, that can cut wafers to just $0 thousandths of a milimeter thick, It can magnfy several hundred thousand times. Elscton gen << — atecron beam elscrer condenser Specimen Vacuum pune mn Etecsomagreie | = ttlecve ens Elecioriaanete faut ae veriece Fuorescontecroon o Photograph te Gig (@) ana a ntochonaton (hh, human hmphooye. ‘Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) ‘The scanning electron micrascope scans a sample with a beam of pemary elections tnt knack electrons tom ts surface. These secondary electrons are picked up by @ collector, ampliied, and transmitted onto a viewing screen oF Photographic plate, producing @ super 3D image. A rmieroscope ofthis pawer can easily obtain clear picturos of ‘organisms as small as bacteria and viruses. Tho image produced is ofthe outside sutace only Elocten 99 Pray laaon beam -— Eecromagneto esa pun Eloeton allot Viewing ‘roier Stem and epidermal cls Upper surface of a Hal louse clinging to two alo on ‘Hoc seston cee namatoes 200:2H05 Photocopying ProhibitedLight Transmission Electron Scanning Electron Microscope Microscope (TEM) Microscope (SEM) | Faaon source: fight electrons lectrons Wavelengt 4004700 nm 0.005 am 0008 nm Lenses: gjoss electiomagnetc electromagnetic Specimen ving or nonving roniving supported on a nonving support on a Supported on giass side smallcopper gd ina vacuum metal dscina vacuum Meximum resouion: 200m tom tonm Meximam magnieaton: 100% 250 000 x 100 000 x Stains colored ayes impregnated wth heavy metals _coaled with carbon or gold Type of inage colored monectrome ack & wie) rrorectroe ack 8 wits) 1. Explain why electron microscopes are able to resolve much greater detail than a light microscope: 2, Describe two typical applications for each of the following types of microscope: (@) Transmission electron microscope (TEM): 7 (©) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) (©) Bright field microscope (thin section): (@ Dissecting microscope: 3. Identify which type of electron microscope (SEM or TEM) or optical microscope (compound light (bright field) microscope Cr dissecting microscope) was used to produce each of the imagas in the photos below (A-H): i “ e - ae be o x %. feces dasBacterial Cells Bacterial (prokaryotic) cols are much smaller and simpler than the cells oF eukaryotes. They lack many eukaryotic features (29 ‘a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound cellular organelles). The bacterial cell wall is an important feature. Its complex, muli- layered structure and often has a role in virulence. These pages lstrate come foatures of bacterial structure and aiversiy. Structure of a Generalized Bacterial Cell The caliacks a nuclear merbeane, so there iene dine nol and tw cromoscmee fre incre contact wih tha ayplasm Ris oui foro oocomes to tach mF ‘nile te ANAS SOF he prooess cg traneeabed ram ne DMA Plaemids: Sat cersar ONAelecles (acsesS09) ‘hromasomes) wich can produce independent ofthe main evomosome. They can move beween all and even betneen specs, by conjugtion. “Taspropery aos fo renemiden clanibate resiiane beeen Seles, inom ae eso ured ‘Se voir in rosombinan DNA tcrnabay. ‘Single, crcuar mala chvomosome: Makes thom hapot fer met genes Is posse for sme genes fo be found ‘en bon te plas and chromosome {ahd ore may bo saver copies of ‘gene ana grup of plasmids. ‘lmbne: Haidka stetures nt ars shore sai, and s Firmen lente ae Fo Sowttaanen re ie ‘movement Pm ae slr to ) rete ogarstes Rance hy rae oo. Tareas p Smret ah La FP consmoce meres ineomposin fo ouearyoso SSp manos tia ri Ls - ‘Giycocalyx. Avisoous, gelatinous layer ‘aia the ce wats corposes af Cli wat complex. sembigs structure tal ies the cal oF Snape, prevans rope andsonos as sn ercnorge pant Flagellum (9 Rape). Some basta fevfageta, Te cal wal isconpzsed ola mactoneleese ‘have ong,famsniousappendogos, wm ‘ated pepidopiyean:repsaing Sreceheldeestarhed ty cad age haar ved or ‘ ‘ime lyoe.Capmios ey corte 0 febpostboste erm atatco. he wal ala contanevening _losomaton Tharemay be = sg polar “je titlncoin pathogens span, by mounts ipeptaehasies and fagetum (monotienaus. one o more Py protecting the bactor rm tn sts ‘ pepogijean present nthe wall fageda at each and of ie cl orthe fag —_nmune ata some specs, 0 Siagnste gram stan mary sper, cella age may be rad ve fi Sboveaycions tach sibsates, _cooeto mar rae (areorosg DM) ere eo perch). Pag Bacterial cell shapes Bacterial conjugation * est bacterial cels range between 0.20-20 ymin ameter and The two becteriilusraied below are invovod in ‘peouc sex iy 2-10 um length. Athough they area very verse group, much of THis invelves 3 one-way exchange of geaticinformaton fom a 'e Je thonni tor mesosie. nial gis mapmcgy dane cal oa vedpon cel, The plana, wie must boo there are oni few basic shapes found (llustated below), The \way fa whion members of esan group aggregate after dision is ‘oll charactris and is helpful in identifying certain specs. ‘conlugatve type, passes thvough a tube called a sex pilus to the other cet, Which is donor and which is reipient appears to be ganatcaly determined, WS : S & x Bacil Rod-haped bacovahet vise a nly eros he Shor ei Most ost 7 sp siglo rode, athough pate ord oct thane are ao urd Toterm bates f eatshepes an reer (az here) 10 shape. I may R: Dotnoda gave, Recipient > 4 oes: usualy roun, but somatnes a id or elongate. When ty & Y Srl or elangetea When they vio ivan posi Sextus pi Tee a the cell stay atached fo oar cet Conaninennamic 7 Say aro ra tipr cal. - fd remein in aggrenats ©. pals Fite ae trae hon Cosel {Splocoe) or cur captyooes) ff ftmaojonbacataesi Aa Balrshaped that are usualy a feature of tho gon, {conde Oa Dotwoen hom, 4 e - Spiila and vibe: Bacteria wits one seveenicset a Prot os Spe estes end apout case c hotel (cortocrew) shape which may ee gentle “+ Serger tale fo eponratesh fas < spits Bacteria tha look ike curved ros .Dandt tei 2 Spishapod {comma shaped) ae ested vibes. erm Neve fet ded Photocopying ProhibitedFlagetium CCameyiobactsrjejunaspkalbacarum Heicabacter pylori a cormma-sheped species ol Spirtum, «epi eheped Becta usualy Side by binary etn ‘eepenabie for foodborne intetnal rio bactrim inal ess slomach Bacterium wih a tu ol paar lagola. Ding this proces, ONA eeepc ard ‘estes, Nota tne single Ragollm at ore nfurare. Ths bsdorun mares Mest ofthe speces th ganus are {8 c81 sls ro wo cls, a these ‘secnend farphirchove arargemen) by means of muliple pas agela” hamoss aque organs. ‘ram postive cos Lahr maces? region. Eschovehia co, a common gut ctarium wth TEM showing Enirobacar ters, when Delong 9 SEM showing @ args rodshapes bacterum wih peritiehous (around he ent cea imbrie. E oferty of gut bac conrnonly own eseneis, an aperoachingbactrophage (wil patice). The alls gram negalve oo: ftdoes not ae up the They are wel detutedin wale, sewase, end-all becterum hes hake pl (Pt Ws) pretring {Tar stanbul cans courtor stained wih saferin, The fay includes male and non-mcti fom te surace which at as phage ecepor. 41. (a) Describe the function of flagella in bacteri: (©) Explain how fimbriae difer structurally and functionally from flagella: 2. (@) Describe the location and general composition of the bacterial cell wall; (©) Describe how the glycocalyx lfers from the cell wall: 3. (a) Desoribe the main method by which bacteria reproduce: (©) Explain how conjugation differs from this usual method: {c) Comment on the evolutionary significance of conjugation: 4, Briefly describe how the artiiclal manipulation of plasmids has been used for technological applications: eb hon ‘ed Cente eyPlant Cells « jp Plant cols are encosod in a coliose cell well The cll wal! and function ofa typical pant cl and ts organales Also see protects the cel, maintain its shape, and prevents excessive pages 89-71, where further information is provided on the (ator lake doesnot intrire withthe passage of materials oreanelis listed here but not described fee) nto and cut ofthe cell The ckagram below shows the Stuctre re Utochoeion: 13 X2-99m . Mtschoninare oe tts oo” cnsosy a deble momorone z ‘ha arte cen) % strc raul Casas tard cowering chem 2@ Sedna ace soy moi < forecaned sooo, i: Fast are urigo'a int Cytoplaen:& watery slsen ~ Nernst este cram aeeod sibarens Uaioe matt ‘Ssoyres aa no cel gest Be Large cohtral vacuote: nd.avocures re sieo! az aly filed wth en aqueous Tensatontn twee $oluion often Necodles ae Enopisn eu EF) se, Chops: Speen prominent in pars a crovacs arena Sn ad gaa tundim ‘etoninetorago, waste ‘Stata hls tne Crus be een pt wih sme monbrae ane eg hires ay coin Sept ned promt ‘Homies mambrere ane may be smeath cr have ataches eesomes (9h EF) Gonae lacs of membranes (Gears) wanin a caltass aroma, They ar the ss for hotosynhass and ocr ‘matin aves. Nuclear pore: 100 nm aot nuclear mamerane: A soutle ‘ayeresstucturepeneteeaby roles (nucoar pores) Cell wal: A cami siructre oui th plasma ‘membrane, 1 rf eevr timitick ie composed rai of alors Meuppecte the et an ita vale, tiueleus:A conspicuous orgarlecontaing mest of he (caTS DNA, 5 um dare. ucla flbosomes: These svat (20 07) structires ranutacure poets Plasma membrane: ‘bocomes are ede of rooscmal Local side ne BNA and pot They maybe ‘ol wallin pint, fr nthe ojoplasm or Sto tOnmini orate wi th suace of Be fendoplasme racuum Gol apparatus |. The two photographs (lott) show plant ces as seen by a light ‘microscope. Identify the basic features labelled A-0: “ iz A ¥ B x °: a ea ‘Onion epider cas a aceegaeenngeagensannee sx 2 Cyloplasmic streaming is a feature of eukaryotic cells, often Clearly visible wth a light microscope In plant (and all cells = (0) Explain what is meant by cytoplasmic streaming ae. “ = - (0) For the Elodea cell (lower, left), draw arrows to indicate He oda cas ceytoplaamic streaming movements. 5 * 4, Describe three structuresforganelles present in generalized plant cells but absent from animal cells (also see page 69); ps © ia ) ig ‘ © + fs ‘2iezoneIteratonal 2001-2008 feet. wd Photocopying ProhibitedAnimal Cells ‘Animal calls, uke plant cells, do not have a regular shape. in of atypical animal cell and its organelles, Note the aiferences fact, some animal cells (such as phagocytes) are able to alter between this coll and the generalized plant cell, Also see pages their shape for various purposes (e.g. engullment of foreign 68 and 70-71, where further information is provided on the ‘material. The diagram below shows the structure and function organelles listed here but not described, acts LyosomeAse bo 2 Minin pun aN ‘ecbane ey epee ct etoe lieu sett \ Cepeda ine eras tae ai ebm tarsen oreo ge Sortie ead Seirus tee Seite cad i bier ca tgean cr Og Sen rosie pane CS ox@ oO a7, — Siengon theateesnoaner ae fos agtga cty ( 8 {hey goto that caret detinaton et on Carmuneaton betoen he us ae erst eco A w eS gory ert vom si CCentroles: Sutures associate wah ~é rua dvisen. Thay ate composes of ctoubules but appear 2 a, G_ featureless partcos, 025 um tlamotr ander aight mecreacope ‘They ae abeontin ga lat cle and ome pret. a ‘ytoplasm Nuclzlua: A cenas, sl strucura composed of (ystane pet and ntl ap. They are nvoved Fivosome syshese, Fibosomes: These smal siucures may be revin ie tyoflas or assorted wine sndoplesne ecu (CF, Rough endoplasmic rectum atc poate @)<— rasns mene ‘Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: . including homone synthesis, Bee Mtochondiion (ot. rtiochonctie: CEU ke Coleopenee ane aparece 1. The two photomicrographs (left) show several types of animal cells. Identify the features indicated by the letters A-C: 2, White blood cells are mobile, phagocytic cells, whereas red blood cells are smaller than white blood cells and, in humans, lack @ nucleus. (a) In the photomicrograph (below, loft), circle a white blood coll and a red blood cell: (©) With respect to the features that you can see, explain how you made your decision, Vint bood ote ard od Blond cal (aed emer) 3, Name and describe one structure or organelle present in generalized animal cells but absent from plant cells: 2 Ls 4 ¢ cf i 8 sho RAAF a * aba" } 4 3h. * Photocopying Prohibited fot CH YdBAGG BARGE: ety 4 ETE WS OFEN aad FE Hs coh 4 Cell Structures and Organelles ‘The table below provides @ format to summarize information about structures and organelles of typical eukaryotic cell ‘Completa the table using the Ist at the top of the opposite page ‘and by refering to @ textbook and to other pages in tis topic Fill in the final three columns by writing eth YES" or'NO\. The fist cell component has been completed for you as a guide, Cell Component Details [Present in imal ele Visible under ght microscope ntl tse aco @) ©) mengrane moore © cmsgengeesiee Name: Location: Function: Plasma (cell surface) membrane ‘Surrounding the cell Gives the cell shape and protection. It also regulates the movement of subetances into and out of the cell. yes | YES Yes (butt tine love of dota shown nthe slagram) Name: Location: Function: Name: Location: Function: Name: Location: Function: Name: Location: Function: Name: Location: Function: Photocopying Prohibitedst of structures and organelles: coll wall, milochondrion, chloroplast centrioles, ibosame, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. Prosentin | vw Cell Component Details ant [animal] 2: Ht ten [Sone eroscope Name: Location: Function: Seren yy (th) | Name: Cilia and flagella (some eukaryotic cells) } “Baansion of plasma . J kK Soemeomeae ei be Ae Function: a . 4 e HEEL a ~, oe “) isda ‘ Funetion: 4 9 2 gy Name: Lysosome 5 Lecetion: 2 Fy Furetion: Name: Yacuole (a food vacuole is shown) | Location Maxi Function: 14 LESS, ragiogoss NOES ' i 1 a aye () | Name: Nucleus x “6 Location: ae Function: Lat ae 4 ta . Photocorving Profi a4 . =Differential centrifugation (also called call fractionation) is a technique used to extract organelles from cells so that they can be studied. The alm Is to extract undamaged intact organelles. Samples must be kept very cool so that Differential Centrifugation metabolism is slowed and self digestion of the organelles is prevented. The samples must also be kept in a buffered, Isotonie solution so that the organelles do not change volume land the enzymes are not denalured by changes in pH. ‘The samle Is chiled over The seme is homogenized © Wandetnoanat © tying down bo cole pleces in a cold, butlorod, cuter membranes. Th call ‘The rate is centituged atlow speed to remove partaly pened cals ard ‘The homogenized suspersion is fitered to remavo collar dari. & Baton eatton Stuneice roman tloce—_lstepeca! troup Eran pones ee, ‘4 2 m A SB AOA i Novel AA ryssco rt \ YO. toca / pecners en Srooens *” v eter ~ «, > 1) ty superatnatised Supemaentused Superatnt used | ie teeta feted fete nt ond Seon toaster, Si conntaancn, a i) 8% Tre sportier © Te sompois conttuoed — @ The sarpleiscontiaged The sancelscenrtuged 4 Snaimginocrerates © gtsoo sto gar 3-10 arioovez0ca0 girs. © arico0co gloved minutes ig early ecartog of minutos tno dart. Sominuestbendecened, ——thendecated. 7 NOTE: conttogaton, he rolaivecontituga lore (RF) expressed as 9, where g represents ie graviatonal fed srengh SP 1. explain wy itis possible o soperte cell organelies using centugaton r % 2, Suggest why the sample is homogenized before centrifugation: __ aBESEESEISSESISESS 3. Explain wy the samplo must be kept in a solution that i: Density gradient centritugation (2) Isotonic: (0) Coot: (c} Buttered: 4, Density gradient centrifugation is another method of cell fractionation. Sucrose is ‘added to the sample, which is then centrifuged at high speed. The organelles wil form x layers according to their specific densities. Using the information above, label the Ccantrituge tube on the right with the organelles you would find In each layer. j@ Peet [er 4 ((@ cata aene —] £9 cn noseIdentifying Cell Structures * “a “ _ eel @ fs (e) | © } @ : (ed # © a we o a = —_—_——_, re @ | «. eee SSSR ESE Eee iS *) ce sasenee “Wl 0 o oO Ey Py 5 1. Study the ciagrams on the previous pages to become familar withthe various structures found in plant and animal cols. ES Identity ard label the ten structures in the cell sbove using the following list of terms: nuclear membrane, cytoplasm, fad endoplasmic reiculum, mitochondrion, starch granules, chromosome, vacuole, plasma membrane, cll wall. chloroplast 2. Slate how many cals, or pars of calls, are visible inthe electron micrograph above: : 8. Identify the type of cell illustrated above (bacterial cell, plant cell, or animal cell). Explain your answer: pha a 4, (a) Explain where cytoplasm is found in the cet: Mos a x & (b) Describe what cytoplasm is made up of: 1 5. Describe two structures, pictured in the cell above, that are associated with storage: ne 1 @) :3 30 x ) Photocopying Prohibited fee wdInterpreting Electron Micrographs ae ‘The photographs below were taken using a transmission electron _ parts of cells, not whole cells. Some of the photographs show : mlstercepe (EM, They show some ofthe cel organs in tre tan ons typo of ergarle. The uostone roto tho man gjoet celal Remember that these photos are showing only organelle in he Conte f the photo. 1. (a) Name this organelle (arrowed): —_ (©) State which kind of cell's) this organelle would be found in: {(@) Describe the function of this organelle: (@) Label two structures that can be seen inside this organelle. 2. (a) Name this organelle (arrowed): (©) State which kind of cell's this organelle would be found in: (©) Deseribe the function of this organetie: 3, (@) Name the large, circular organele: {b) State which kind of cell(s) this organelle would be found in: (©) Describe the function of this organelle: (@) Label two regions that can be seen inside this organelle. 4, (@) Name and label the riblorviike organelle In this photograph (arrowed: () State which kind of cells) this organelle is found in () Describe the function of these organelles: {@) Name the dark ‘blobs’ attached to the organelle you have labeled: CS Nema mae Code: RA 25. (a) Name this large circular structure (arrowed) (b) State which kind of cells) this structure would be found in: (6) Describe the function of this structure: (@) Label three features relating to this structure in the photograph, 6. The four dark structures shown in this photograph are callod desmosomes, ‘They cause the plasma membranes of neighboring coll to stick together. Without desmosomes, animal cells would not combine together to form tissues. (@) Describe the functions of the plasma membrane: (0) Label the piasma membrane and tne four desmosomes in the photograph. 7. In tho space below, draw a simple, labeled diagram of a generalized cell to show the relative sizo and location of these six structures and organelles (simple outlines of the organelles wil do): ans £3 ccm nomaCell Division ‘Tho ife cycle of diploid sexually reproducing arganisms (euch gametes for the purpose of sexual reproduction. The difference ‘as humans) is ilustrated in the diagram below, Gametogenesis belween meiosis in males and in females should be noted (see is the process responsible for the production of male and female spermatogenesis and cogenesis inthe box below) Huan embryos ave eof when ar aly ing by mitoie. To frm somatio moans oey, sa tha el dvelon are creat new tay cols as opposed to gametes or excels). Te 2N rumba lr to Mow trary whol os of hrrnosomes ave presat ach body cal, Fors normal human embry, al ces wa hve 8 2N rumor of embryo ‘or Acts si eontinuo to proce somatic cals by mitosis for cal eoplacement and growth. Bloed calls are replaced by the body at tho astonshing rate of two million por second, and a layer of ekin cols Is Conctanty lost and raplaced about every 28 day. Gamote production begins at puberty, and lasts unl menopatisa for women, an Indfiiely for men Gameles are procucad by the special type of coll division, called meiosis, which reduces the ‘ehromaeome number tall Human males produce ‘about 200 milion sperm per day (whether thay are used or net), while female usualy release a single Fog ‘29g only once a ment, WN Mosis —_ Gamete production Fetitzation involves fusion ofthe sporm and the ‘28g 1 produce a single cel called the zygote. This cal nasal tne genetic information to but a human ody as well a maintan it motabotsrn) ‘Spermatogenesis ‘Sperm production: Weiotic division of spermatogonia produces the male gametes. This process is called spermatogonoss. The nucleus of the germ cell in the ‘male divides twice to produce four simila-sized spe cela, Mery organisms produce vast quantities of male gametes inthis way (e.g. pollen and eperm) ‘coi stot 2N homesames Somaticcel ‘Mery Oogenesis ‘production — Egg production: n females, melos's in the oogonium ie produces the agg calor ovum, Unika gamate producion In males, the dvison ofthe cytoplasm during oogenesis |s unequal. Most of the cytoplasm and one ofthe four ‘clei form the egg calor ovum, The remainder ofthe cytoplasm, plus the other three nucle, form much ssmaler polar bodies and are abortive (6. do not take att in fortiization and formation of the zygote). 41, Describe the purpose of the folowing types of cell division: (@) Mitosis: () Meiosis: Me! 2. Explain the significance of the zygote: fife —_8. Describe the basic ctfrence between the cel divisions involved in spermatogenesis and oogenesis: Photocopying Prohibited Loy. ae wdMitosis and the Cell Cycle Is part of the ‘cell cyclen which an existing call (the patent call) dhides into two naw onas (the daughter cals). Mitosis does not result in a’ change of chromosome numbers: (unlike meiosis): the daughter cells are identical to the parent call Although mitosis is part of @ continuous cell cycle, itis divided into stages (oolaw). In plants and animals mitosis is ‘Seaosene, wich Blrtome este, Blaeorepaaie, Early Prophase associated with gronth and repair of fssue, and itis the method by which some organisms reproduce asexually. The example below ilustrates the coll cycie in a plant cell. Note that in animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a constriction that divides the cell in two. ILis usually well underway by the end of telophase and does not involve the formation of a cell plate, Cetosones ine ‘isa srtses in ‘arose ba har © isteProphase DNAls repeats io form 2 chromates Fst Gap: tho ot Interphase: Stages G1, S, G2 Diision ofthe eyoplasm (cytokines ie complete. The nA continues condensing ‘hromasemee a a re ‘merbrene bepes to dssohe a second dap begin ecening synesisor — / S DNAtovepbcate BB atosic nuclear cision ‘veranomes oytokiness: vision of m0 coplasm ae saparaon ot ts tno ote, Oyoknene ‘dates rom aor ihn “Two new nlf. The ee plate for across he riding bme parent ea Tis i ware Chromosomes continue ‘weal up and appear as double cnomatise “The miei sino fe omed ergenize he ‘Grormosorns. The Spinal consi of ros rave of mavotbules “nd potas. ‘Tre etvonosones_| sogepate, paling ae hoe Shack. ™ aes ener PEt Ban “ iw \ oO @ cretiesis @ Wopnase 2 ry 1. Tho fe photographs below were taken at varous stages rough the process of mitosis na plant ca They are notin any pariouerordor Study te diagram above and determine the sago that each photograph repesors (2g. ataphese) Ea si i Eg 2 ‘ , ® © © © © 2. Stale two important changes that chromosomes must undergo before col sion can tae pace: f or 6. Summarize he sages of he cll cyte by desing what happening atthe points (A) n the dagram above ay Pd 7 i ¥ a "si c H mie = D. ae € 3 rE “- * 2 none rrr 200-2008 Photocopying Prohibited Code: A1Cancer: Cells out of Control [Normal calls do not live forever. Under certain circumstances, cells are programed to die. particularly during development. CClls that became damaged beyond repair will normally undergo this programed coll death (called apoptosis or cell suicide}. Cancer cells evade this control and become immortal, continuing to divide regardless of any damage Incurred. Carcinogens are Cancer: Cells out of Control Cancerous transformation results from changes in the genes controlling normal cell growth and division. The resulting cells Secomainmotal and rolongorcary out het “} tunaonal ca. Two ypes ct gene arenormaly ‘molved in controling te eel cycle: prot? oneogans, wich start tho call vision Gy process and are essential for normal coll ‘development, and tumor-suppressor genes, wich switch off cel division. In their normal form, both kinds of genes work as a teem, enabling the body to perform vital tasks such as repating defective cele and replacing dead ‘ones, But mutations in these genes can disrupt these finely tuned checks and balances. Prto-cneaganos, trough mutation, ‘can give ise to oncogenes: gones that lead division is greater than in normal cals inthe ‘same tssue because there Iso resting phase ‘between disions, 1. Explain how cancerous cel’ differ from normal cells: Normal et iho damage 19 sae to epar, 53 cites cher genes ‘hat cause to alts lagants capable of causing cancer. Roughly 90% of carcinogens: are also mutagens, ie. they damage DNA. Chronio exposure to carcinogens accelerates the rate al which dividing cells make fenors, Susceptbilty to cancer is also influenced by genetic, make-up. Any one or a number of cancer-causing factors, (including detective genes) may interact io induce cancer. Mutations (defects) in ono orto ofthe oontoling ‘genes cause the formation of @ benign tumor: 2 tur thats nonmalignant (net rowing i size). AS the number of controling genes wih mutations Increases, co too does He [05s of Control unt the ‘all becomes cancerous (a Yeniogade ce Tumor cuppressor geno Wihon damage oceut, he tumar-supprescor gore p53 ‘commande ctor genes fo bing ea dion aha, ‘cucontlate cal vision Mision 0 aiceete wersuemeen — ROMMEAEEME ag tumor-suppressor genes into most human heres besoulralpibateshansitiod cancers. The best stusies tumor-eupressor cetyee oconimie, ate ved cal mapeaion. ‘pene i p53, which encodes a prtain that halls the call cycle so that DNA can be repsited betere dvision. “Tho iat my shape oy Features of Cancer Celis ana cescan gn sen pide cidieavereerel ‘The diagram right shows a single lung cell ‘conmvet Yanga fen, / ‘hathas become cancerous Itno longer caries ‘ed ae sad tobe immer, f Metabotim ay be ‘ut the rao ofa lung call, and instead takes Shcangod and ho call ‘ona parasitic Ifestyle, taking rom the body canercstsmayhave NG saat fection na ‘what l needs in the way of nutien's and nua runberset OK castes contin noting in return, The rata of cat ehoresomes | . rove cob lose (OPT ser atatmenss PH ier mans 2. Distinguish between oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes: 8. Explain why a cell with @ faulty oncogene can be likened to a car with a stuck accelerator: 4, Explain why a cell with a damaged tumor-suppressor gene can be likened to a car with no brakes: fel wd Photocopying ProhibitedRoot Cell Development In plants, coll vision for growth (mitosis Is restricted to growing below ilustrates the position and appearance of developing and tips called meristematic issue. These are located atthe tips of growing cells in a plant root. Similar zones of development occur ‘every siem and root. Ths Is unlike mitosis in a growing animal in the growing stem tips, which may give rise to specialized where cell divisions can cccur all over the body. The diagram structures such as leaves and flowers. growingin Zone of thedrecton elongation Zone ot call division ‘The oot cap protects he growing ip ofthe ‘oct immeciatey behing I The cols inthe ‘ook cap undergo cel division to replace cals that are rubbed off ae the root grows. UT) 1. Briefly describe what is happening to the plant cells at each of the points iabelled a to ¢ in the diagram above: a) 1 wv) SEE ee eee eee 4 © 2. The light micrograph (below) shows a soction of the cells of an onion root tip, stained to show up the chromosomes. ro (@) State the mitotic stage of the cell labeled A and explain your answer: ~“- @@ 7 agi] (© Sie mics stage [ist compe inthe cos abo Ban el: D>. co t,intnis campo, 250 cots wore examined and 25 were found to bein ho process of mitosis, stato the proportion ofthe cell eycle occupied by mitosis: 3, Identify he cells that divide and specialize when a tree increases ils girth (diameter): osx rrntana 2002005 Photocopying Prohibited eryTYE 6 =| + € yy #e) BY, BOOS Fe Ee BVI E Vy CE S - Differentiation of Human Cells 5 SS} i ax (i df = as aN LP seosoy ay Lf ™, p> odtonal lore Spinal cort Pererene Ectoderm 1 i ‘An adult human is built from a single fertilized egg osl (the zygote), About 60 cell divisions produce appcoximately 100, billion cells in an adut. During embryonic dovelopment, the calls specialize to take on the roles of 290 different cell, types. Some cels stop dividing once the body has reached a given size, while others keep on dividing for tho rest ofthe Individual’ Wie. At certain slagos in the sequence of cel divisions, depending on the destined role of tne cel, sorne of Pray ’ the genes ao owehed on, whe olor are etch of jt ’ Gets pope log dovetopertl pate by making & { Sores ct dovlopmora done at cotemins te ate & X OF tern ines of ea. melon ee ‘The blastula folds inwards to crete a ( D thoseed enone \ ‘Gorm tine cols (ols hat produce ‘ne gametes) are set asico early Inthe development process. ocala [A sold ba of clin the ently saga of embryonic development. The morula (gfows to form the asl; a hofow bal (of sbout 1000 cols with a conta cay Zygoto ‘The aygote(fortitzed ogg) has all the Information stored inthe chromosomes to make a compete new indie! [or wd g Photocopying ProbiitedDevelopment is the process of progressive change through the {etime of an organism. Part of this process involves growth (increase in size) and cell division (to generate the muticellular body). Cellular differentiation (ine generation of specialized calls) and morphogenesis (tho creation of the shape and form ofthe bady) are also part of development. Differentiation defines. the specific structure and function of a cell. As development proceeds, the possioliies avalabie to individual cells become fewer, untl each cell's fate is determined. The tissues and organs, ‘making up the body form from the aggregation and organization, Cf these dlferentiated cells, In animals, the final body form is, the result of cel migration and the programed death of certain ‘cols during omiaryonio development. The diagram opposite ‘shows how a single fertlized egg (zygote) cives rise tothe large. umber of specialized cell types that make up the adult human body. The morula, blastula, and gastrula stages mentioned at the Bottam of the diagram show the early development of the ‘embryo from the zygote. The gastrula gives rise to the three layers of cells (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), from ‘which specttc cell typos develop, 1. State how many difforent types of cell are found in the human body: —____ 2. State approximately how many cell divisions take place from fertlized eag (zygote) to produce an adult: 8. State approximately how many cells make up an adult human bodys, 4. Name one cell type that continues to divide throughout a person's lifetime: 5, Name one cell type thal does not continue to divide throughout a person’ lifetime: 6. Germ line cells diverge (become isolated) from other cells at a very early stage in embryonic development. (2) Explain what the germ tine is: (©) Explain why necessary for the germ line to become separated at such an early stage of development: 7. Cloning whole new organisms is possible by taking a nucleus from a cell during the blastula stage of embryonic development and placing it into an egg cell that has had its own nucleus removed. (2) Explain what a clone is: (0) Explain why the cell required for cloning needs to be taken at such an early stage of embryonic development: 8. Cancer cells ate particularly damaging to organisms, Explain what has happened to a cell that has become cancerous: ‘8. Explain the genetic events that enable so many different cell types to arise from one unspeciaized cell (the zygote): fy cmorsretamatina 2001-2008 Photocopying Prohibited eT ae}

5) Cell Structure

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