System and Issues in Indian Education F

Introduction 1
1
I NTRODUCTION
In order to understand the history of education of a country,

it is very necessary to comprehend the various factors, currents
and cross-currents which effect the onward march. And of all
these, civilization and culture play a very dominant role. They
are closely associated, rather inter-linked, with education.
Anything that causes their rise or decline also has an impact
on the growth of education or vice-versa. India is known to be
a very ancient country. Indian traditions prove this contention.
Even modern historians of the world admit that India is one
of the most ancient of nations with rich legacies of culture and
literary pursuits which very few nations can boast of. It has
had its own vast reservoir of literatures which, again, proves
as to how this country had achieved progress even in those days
when many parts of the world were still in the primitive stages.
History of Education in India according to many historians
starts with the creation of ‘Rigveda’ which broadly narrates the
philosophy of life and the practices in the realm of learning.
Thus history of education in India according to modern thinkers
is nearly 5000 years old. For a comprehensive and systematic
study, it can be classified as following :
1. Vedic Era 3000 B.C. to 500 B.C.
2. Buddhistic Era 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D.
3. Muslim Era 1200 A.D. to 1700 A.D.
4. British Era (the Pre-
Independence Era) 1800 A.D. to 1947
5. Post Independence 1947 onwards
2 System and Issues in Indian Education Introduction 3
OBJECTIVES To motivate learners to undertake research on any aspect

After going through the Unit you will be able to develop of history of education of India.
a historical perspective. It will help you
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
• To be acquainted with the development of educational
India is a very ancient country. It has a very rich social,
system in India in a chronological order
cultural and philosophical heritage. The rich traditions of this
• To appreciate the evolution of rich legacies in education. country have attained the status of legends. The ocean of
• To understand and appreciate the various important literatures is unfathomable. The Vedas are regarded as the
features of ancient systems of education and their oldest among the literatures of the world.The Vedas are not
implications and impact on future. only the original source of philosophy of life in this part of the
sub-continent since times immemorial but also of the system
• To enthuse to learn and fathom deep into the ancient
of education in ancient India.
Vedic and Buddhistic scriptures in order to get a clear
view of their philosophy of life. ‘Vedas’ : As for the derivation of the word ‘Veda’, it is
found in the four roots-viz., “Vid Sattaym”, “Vidire Labhe”,
• To understand and appreciate in depth and details about “Vid Vichare” and “Vid Gyane”. Generally speaking, the word
the functioning of ancient and Buddhic centres of ‘Veda’ means “to know”. This meaning has deeper implications.
learning. Knowledge did not mean merely the knowing of some literatures
• To appreciate the place, status and role of teachers and in the general sense of the term but it connoted knowledge of
compare them with the present position. oneself, knowledge of universe, knowledge of ‘Bramha’ or God.
• To appreciate the basic characteristics and contributions The meaning thus had very wide philosophical ramifications.
of Muslim education which have enabled it to survive. Vedas have not only been the repositories of spiritual knowledge,
but also embody in themselves the sublime, religious feeling
• To understand the processes of evolution of modern of human beings as well as the foundational knowledge of the
system of education in India. manifesto universe.
• To know and appreciate in details about the factors Aspects of Indian life are represented by four Vedas, viz
which influenced the development of modern system of ‘Rigveda’, ‘Yajurveda’, ‘Adharvaveda’, and Samveda’. They
education in India. also represent religions, materialistic, conjugal and spiritual
• To grasp the problems in Indian education in depth and instincts and pursuits through Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
think of their remedies with open mind. Vanprastha and Sanyas ashrams. Hence the Vedas are not
merely the books of philosophies or knowledge but the books
• To understand the multi-linguistic multi-ethnic
of life. The Vedas denote a graphic account of education. What
composition of the Indian population and their needs of
an individual should know and what not is the essence of
education.
education for life. That is why, it laid down four ashrams of
• To think of educational contributions in the global life. The Vedas have also planned out the four levels of existence,
perspectives. viz., of knowledge of action, of devotion, and of wisdom for
• To appreciate the efforts made to improve education an ardent seeker of knowledge. Education of a beginner could
and its opportunities to one and all by various only commence after the thread ceremony of or ‘Upnayan
educational commissions and reports. Sanskar’, conferring him the status of ‘Dwij’ or Dwijanma’.
This ceremony symbolises the entrance of an individual to new away from the maddening crowd and worldly strifes. The vicinity
or second life in the pursuit of ‘gyan’ or knowledge through the provided an ideal setting for learning through meditation and
‘Brahmacharya Vrata’-life of celibacy. On this occasion, the rigorous ‘Tapas’. It is through the nature’s bountiful environment
preceptor declares him, “Thou art a Brahmachari” and explains that the pupil leant to discard ignoble thoughts and deeds. In
him the supreme goal of life to realize one’s identity with such an environment the pupil could learn the first lessons of
‘Brahma’-the Ultimate and the divine source of this universe. duty, devotion, dedication and discipline. The life of the Gurus
The preceptor also explains that knowledge (Gyan), action used to be the role model for his disciples. He was an ideal Guru
(Karma) and devotion (Bhakti) are the means of realising the in the real sense of the term.
ultimate objective. The ‘Brahma-chari’ or the celibate would
Vedic Era
bid farewell to his home and reside in the hermit/ashram/kuti
of his preceptor. By renouncing worldly and material pleasures In the preceding paragraphs, it has been made amply clear
and comforts of life, he would gradually realize that the only that the ‘Vedas’ were the real source of Indian philosophy and
reality is the “Brahma” and the rest or the world is just an education. Rightly it is, therefore, called the Vedic era in the
illusion. history of Indian education. We have already seen that the
Vedas symbolized the chief objective of human life-the
Vedas lay great stress on action (Karma) which decides the
deliverance from the world of births and deaths and reunion
destiny. The doctrine of ‘Karma’ occupies an important place
with the supreme power. Hence the main aim of education
in the Indian system of life. According to the Vedic philosophy,
during the era has been the attainment of this goal. The other
“Karmas” (Actions) should lead to the ultimate objective of
aims of education may be short listed in the following words:
attaining salvation (Moksha), i.e., the union of ‘Atma’ with
‘Parmatma’. It also means that the ‘Karma’ should not lead an Aims of Education
individual to attaining materialistic happiness or instincts but
(i) To ensure the preservation of the rich legacies of the
its main aim should be to keep him free from worldly bondages.
Vedas, Vedic literature, Vedic rituals and also ensure
Education, according to this philosophy, makes an individual
their smooth transition to the next generations;
judicious, highly spiritual and unattached to greed, lust for
attaining the high degree of individuality. The preceptor leads (ii) To ensure strict adherence to Vedic rituals and ways of
him to meditation and ‘tapas’ (Penance). life and to strive for the enrichment of Vedic traditions;
Thus the philosophy is built upon the tenets of spirituality (iii) To enable to lead one’s life in accordance with the Vedic
which is the corner stone of the ancient system of education. philosophy of life in which spiritual values and moral
The main characteristic of ancient Indian education is the principles should be the sheet-anchor and
inculcation of the spirit of plain living and high thinking, of (iv) To ensure an all round development of personality-
brotherhood, (Vasudheo Kutumbakam) and constant awareness physical, mental, moral, and spiritual.
of the omni-presence and omni-science of the ‘Brahma’ (God).
Gurukulas : The system of education during this period
The ancient system of education lays great stress on strict
revolved round the Gurukulas. The Gurukulas were the centres
adherence to various aspects of life, a high degree of moral and
of learning. The hermits or the abodes of the sages and saints
spiritual values. Ideal ways of life emanated from the actual
were known as Gurukulas where the pupils also resided with
living of the preceptor under whose feet the ‘Brahmachari’ or
their gurus and lived an austere life after leaving their house.
the pupil leant the lessons. The Guru lived in his hermit in a
solitary place on the bank of a river or near the mountains The Gurukulas also known as Rishikulas were situated in
isolated and lonely places far away from the crowded localities
or townships, on the banks of rivers or amidst the woods, the The Curriculum : Various subjects formed part of the
natural settings provided an ideal environment for pursuing curriculum such as grammar rhetorics, astrology, logic, nirukti
learning. There was no distinction between the rich and the (etymological interpretation of words) and kalp. The study of
poor, the royals and the downtrodden. The gurukulas did not the Vedas was compulsory. Upanishhads, Sutras and Samhitas
depend upon the benedictions of the State, they were free from also formed part of curriculum.
their control. They depended on their own resources. These elaborate rules for the construction of altar led to the
The Gurukulas were not only the covetted seats of learning development of the sequences of geometry and algebra. The
but also of great “Yagnas”. Gurus enjoyed a unique position in desire to find out propitious times gave rise to astrology, from
the society. They used to be the most revered persons. They which astronomy developed.
were immensely respected not only from their disciples but also Methods of Teaching : There were mostly two methods
from the entire society, even the kings bowed their heads of teaching practised during this period. The first was oral and
before them and sought their wise counsel. They enjoyed this the other was ‘chintan’ (thinking or reflecting). Oral method
status due to their sharp intellect, chaste character, high means memorisation of Vedic hymns, mantras, richas and
morals and great wisdom. slokas, the various lines of the verses, with correct
Upnayan Ceremony : The pupil was admitted in the pronunciation and meanings. The success of the method lies
Gurukula only after the initial sacred ceremony of ‘Upnayan’. on the fact that the Vedas, their mantras and richas could be
The ceremony had a great importance from the educational preserved in their original form down to the ages. ‘Thinking’
point of view, for the teacher used to purify his physical self was another method which promoted self-understanding and
for the new enlightened body. After this ceremony only, the self-confidence. Thinking led to ‘manan’-a high form of thinking.
pupil was entitled to receive learning. Through this, the meaning and implications or the ‘mantras’
were further developed, elaborated and preserved in one’s own
The word ‘Upnayan’ means, “to come” close. In the context
mind. This method of teaching was specially adopted for highly
of education this word signifies that the student should come
intelligent students.
near the teacher for receiving education. Later on this ceremony
became very important for Brahmins. On this occasion the Place of Women : During the Vedic age, women enjoyed
Guru used to give him his “Mantras”. In Atharva Veda, we equal status with men not only in education but also in social,
find elaborate description of the sanskar. The teacher used to religious and other programmes. Education of women during
decide the kind of education to be given to him after keeping this period was at its peak. There had been many eminent
him close for three days. In vedic tradition, human life was women during this era who enjoyed important place in the
divided into four ashrams-viz. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, society. Women like Ganga, Lopa Mudra, Apala Ghosh, Sita
Vanprastha and Sanyas. and Vishwara were some examples.
Antewasi : During the period of stay in the Gurukula the Place of Teacher : The teacher (Guru, Acharya) enjoyed
a very predominant place during this and the later post-vedic
pupil was known as “Antewasi” or ‘Acharyakulavasi’. At the
periods not only in his Gurukul but also in the entire society.
time of his induction, in the gurukula, he was instructed with
Every one looked up to him for guidance and blessings. He was
a number of “do’s and dont’s” by the teacher. These are
a friend, philosopher and guide in the real sense. The
elaborately scripted in ‘Gobhil guhya/sutras’. The daily routine
relationship between the teacher and the pupil was ideal and
prescribed for the student was well organized and life in the
cordial. The Guru was the protector of his students and in turn
gurukuls was disciplined and orderly.
students accorded more respect to him than even the father.
The teacher shouldered the responsibility of the students during distressed right from early age to see people in the old age,
the period of his study in the gurukulas. deaths and sufferings. He renounced his comforts and took to
Daily Routine of Student : The student had to adhere penance for years and was in search of the ways to get rid of
to the Gurukul rules of discipline, punctuality and conduct. griefs and sufferings. Ultimately he got enlightenment.
No distinction was made in this regard between students. Monasteries : Budhist movement led to the establishment
Observance of celibacy, performance of daily sacred rituals like of monasteries known as Viharas and Maths. His disciples
yoga, mediatation, Yagya recitation of vedic richas were an lived in them. These institutions functioned on democratic
inseparable aspect of education. Besides this practical education lines and were open to all without any discrimination of caste
formed an integral part of the system-viz., collecting fire woods and even sex. The inmates in these monasteries were called
for yagya kundas, begging alms and looking after the cattle. ‘Bhikhus’ (males) and ‘Bhikhunis’ (females). They led a simple
Students were also supposed to help the Guru and his wife in and austere life under the supervision of Gurus.
daily and domestic chores. Monasteries became the centres of learning during this
Duration of Education : There was no fixed or rigid period. Only Bhikhus and Bhikhunis could get education here.
duration of education. It depended solely on the caliber and There was no place for Yajnas or religious rituals as it was
desire of the students to pursue their education and also on the prevalent in the Vedic period.
Guru who had the final say in the continuance or discontinuance Pabbajja Ceremony : Admission in these monasteries was
of education. There are examples of students who continued to given to a prospective disciple only after going through certain
stay in the Ashrams for an indefinite period. But in most other formalities. For admission the student was to present himself
cases the duration was of twelve years. There used to be holidays, before the teacher and request him for giving education. After
known as ‘Anadhyay’. These were given on the important the teacher’s willingness to admit a student in the monastery,
festivals or on days like Ashhtmi, Chaturdashi and natural he had to go through an initiation ceremony called ‘Pabbajja’.
disasters like heavy rains and floods. Pabbaja was an accepted and important ceremony of admission
Buddhist Era in the monastery.
In the post-vedic age, though the system of education of ‘Pabbajja’ meant ‘going out’. According to this ceremony the
ancient times continued to hold its ground steadfastly, some student had to renounce all his worldly and family relationships.
of its features started showing signs of decline. In Vedic period The minimum age for admission was eight years of age. After
people started giving place to Brahmanic religion. The caste this ceremony he had to change clothes and old style of living.
system spread its vicious influence leading to discrimination For this ceremony, he had to get his head shaved clean and
in education. Yajnas became the main activities of Gurukulas put on yellow robes. Then he would bow before the Guru
and Ashrams besides education. Violence, both human and in- (Bhikshu) and pray to him for admission. He would recite as
human, became the order of the day. In the name of ‘Karma follows :
kand’ or ‘Yagnas’, many excesses were committed. Under these “I take refuge in Buddha” (Budhham Sharanam
conditions there was a need of reforms. The society found its Gachhami)
reformer in Lord Buddha who propounded, founded and
“I take refuge in religion” (Dharmam Sharanam
propagated the real and the time meaning of life. His sayings
rapidly overlook the sub-continent. The teaching of Gautam
Gachhami)
Budha gave birth to the Budhistic philosophy of life and “I take refuge in the order” (Sangham Sharanam
education. Siddharth, as he was known, was upset and much Gachhami)
After his admission he was called ‘Shraman’. He was given allowed to meet any male in loneliness. They lived separately
few advices to follow, such as speaking truth, shunning violence, from the male counterparts.
preaching non-violence and celibacy, renouncing wealth and During this period of education many institutions became
comfortable life. Admission was not given to those who were very famous not only in India but also in other parts of the
suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy and contagious diseases. world. Buddhism as a religion was propagated and accepted in
Parent’s consent was necessary for admission. Sri Lanka, China, Afghanistan, Thailand, Combodia, Vietnam,
‘Up sampda Ceremony’ : During the Vedic and the Post- Japan and flourished there. In many parts of India several
vedic periods the students, after the completion of education, dynasties were great followers of Lord Buddha.
could join their families and lead Grihastha Ashram but under
Famous Centres of Learning in Ancient India
this system a ‘Sharaman’ after 12 years of education or at the
age of 20 years had to undergo another ceremony, the Upsampda Taxila : Takshila was an ancient city in India on the north-
Ceremony. west frontier region, now in Pakistan. Even today it is famous
with the name of Taxila. It is widely believed that the city was
This ceremony was different from the ‘Pabbajja’. After 12
founded by Lord Ram’s brother-Bharat’s son, Taksha. At that
years of education, the Shraman had to present himself before
time it was the capital city of Gandhar Kingdom.
all other monks. Ceremony was performed to declare him
complete monk. This symbolized the end of his relation Although there was no institution on a very organised
completely with his family and relations. Now he was a monk system, the Acharyas provided education in their hermits on
of the monastery, completely devoted to Buddhism. the Vedic pattern and attracted a large number of students
from far and wide. Taxila had been a centre of higher learning.
Curriculum : The main aim of education in this era was
to attain salvation (Moksha). The curriculum was mainly Students used to go there for education after 16 years of
spiritual in nature. The study of religious books on Buddhist their age. From the old literature it is found that there were
religion and the philosophy of Buddha formed an integral part two types of curriculum, literary and scientific. Under the first,
of curriculum. There were two types of curriculum, one for religious education on Buddhism was imparted while under
monks and the other one for common people. The first one the second, 18 shilps, auyrveda, Military science, agriculture,
included such subjects like ‘Vinaya, Dhamma and Suttanta’. commerce, medicines, etc. were taught. Emphasis was given
The second one included subjects like spinning, weaving, on practical training.
printing, medicine, surgery and accountancy. This centre of learning started to decline from the 5th century
Methods of Teaching : Methods of teaching were not very onwards. Eminent people like Panini, Jeevak, Koutilya and
different from the Vedic Age but special emphasis was laid on many others received education in Taxila.
personal purity and probity of conduct. During the lectures of Nalanda : Nalanda was also a famous centre of education
the teacher, the student was supposed to hear him with rapt during the Buddhistic era. It is situated 60 kms from Patna
attention. and 10 kms from Rajgir in Bihar. Nalanda was the birth place
Women education suffered a great setback during this of Lord Buddha’s dear discipline Somputta. Emperor Ashoka
period. During his life time he discouraged their admission in built a Vihara here.
the monasteries. But after some time, women were admitted Nalanda became famous as a centre of learning during first
with many reservations and restrictions. Strict rules were century. Acharya Nagarjuna Dev was an Acharya of Nalanda.
imposed for women Bhikhunis and monks. They were not Many rulers received their education at Nalanda. Rulers from
the Gupta dynasty did everything to develop Nalanda into an
international institute of learning. Foreigners used to come to Sindh. After this there was no external invasion for about two
receive education there. Nalanda University had a huge building, hundred and seventy five years till the Moghuls came and
a large hostel fully equipped with kitchens and other facilities. established rule in India.
About ten thousand students received education at Nalanda Muslims were greatly influenced by Indian Literature, Arts,
free of cost. The university had two hundred villages as grants Culture and above all its fabulous wealth. From eleventh century
from which the expenses were met. Fifteen hundred teachers onwards there were spates of external invasions by hordes of
worked here. Muslim tribes and rulers. Some of them made deep inroads into
Vallabhi : Vallabhi was situated in Kathiawad (Gujarat). India and established their dynasties which ruled for a number
It was a famous centre of Buddhistic education. When Tsang of years. Among these were the Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1286
had described about one hundred Maths here. Vallbhi could be AD) the Khilji dynasty (1290 AD to 1316), the Tuglaq dynasty
compared with Nalanda. Besides religious education, economics, (1322 AD to 1389), the Sayyad dynasty (1414 AD to 1451), the
political science and medicine were taught. Lodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD) the Mugal dynasty (1526
AD to 1707 AD).
Vikramshila : This centre was established in the eighth
century. King Sharanpat had built a large Vihara at Vikramshila The Muslims established mosques, makbaras and madarsas
which was the centre of education. Deepshanker was the famous for giving education in Islam. In short, external invasions
teacher of Vikramshila. Curriculum consisted of education on sowed the seeds of Muslim education in medieval India, which
Buddhism, Vyakarana, Philosophy, Logic, Astrology. Many took shape under these rulers and depended for its progress
books of Pali and Sanskrit were translated here in Tibetan mostly on the attitude and enthusiasm of the individual rulers.
language. This great institution was destroyed by Bakhtiar Salient Features of Muslim Education
Khilji.
1. Replacement of ancient institutions of Indian education:
Other centres of learning were Kashi, Ujjayini, Amravati,
When the Muslims invaded and started their rule, the
Mithila, Odantpuri and Kanchi. It is thus evident from the
system of ancient Indian education was at its peak and
above description that the ancient system of education in India
a number of institutions attracted the foreigners from
had deep roots. That is why it survived and continued for
far off countries. Rulers like Bakhtiyar, Mohammed
several hundred years. Even the foreigners who visited this
Gazni and Aurengzeb dealt fatal blow to them. They
country highly acclaimed the merits of the system.
destroyed the old systems and built Maktabs and
These included Megasthnes, Strabo, Huen Tsang, Marco madarasas in place of Gurukulas, Ashrams and Maths.
Polo and Ibn Batuta. The principles, ideals and philosophy
2. Predominant place to Persian : Persian foreign language
which ancient Indian system of education followed are still
with the State patronage replaced Sanskrit and Pali-
useful today.
the oriental languages of India. Persian became the
EDUCATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA State language of administration and education.
Literature was produced in Persian and Arabic
A new religion was propounded by Prophet Mohammed
languages.
called Islam in Arabic. Its followers, known as Muslims, are
spread it in many parts of the world. India was soon acquainted 3. Education at the mercy of rulers : For the first time in
with this religion after successive Muslim invasions during the the history of Indian education, freedom in the field of
medieval period. The first to invade India was in 712 AD was education was replaced by the ruler’s gross interference,
Mohd. Bin Kasim, an Arab, but he could not move beyond fancies and whims. The rulers had the final say and
educational system changed forms from ruler to ruler. was required to write a few words. At this time, his relatives
This proved to be great setback in the progress of were invited.
education. Besides reading, writing and arithmetic, the children were
4. Imparting education in Mosques : With the establishment also taught Persian literature, grammar, letter writing,
of Muslim rule in India, a large number of mosques accountancy. Children of the royal families, princes and
were built primarily for offering prayers but princesses were taught in palaces by old Moulvis. The curriculum
subsequently they became the place of dissemination of for them consisted of various subjects, like Persian and Arabic
Islamic knowledge. literature, political science, law, science, jurisprudence,
military science, etc. Practical training in war fare was also
5. Religious bias to Education: Religious education was
imparted.
the core of Muslim education. Strict adherence to the
ways of life enshrined in holy Quran formed part of Madarsas : Maktabs essentially provided elementary
Muslim education. The object of education was to tailor education, madarsas were established to give higher education
one’s life according to Islamic principles. during this period. Madarsas became the centres of higher
learning. These institutions subsisted often on the royal
Organisation of Islamic education in India benedictions, who gave them lands, jagirs, financial grants
After the establishment of their rule in India, Muslim etc. The madarsas were generally well managed. The kings
ruler’s agenda was to draw people of other religions to the fold took interest and did not interfere in their working.
of Islamic religion by preaching or by force. The primary form The curriculum in madarsas was broad based and catered
of education in this era was fully religious. In the early period, to various needs. It was religious as well as comprehensive.
education was provided in the mosques but subsequently Under the religious curriculum, intensive study of holy Quran,
“Maktabs” were started which were attached to mosques. its philosophy, Islamic history and Islamic law were included.
Maktabs : Maktabs provided elementary education to The other parts of the curriculum had subjects like Persian and
children of general public. Children of rich people did not go Arabic literature, their grammar, history, mathematics,
to the Maktabs, their education was arranged privately in the geography, Unani medical science. Agriculture, philosophy,
confines of their homes. The main emphasis in these institutions law, jurisprudence, astrology, economics, accountancy etc.
was to acquaint the children with the verses of holy Quran The period of education was 10 to 12 years. Arabic was generally
which was compulsory as an integral part of instruction. Besides, the medium of instruction, libraries used to be attached with
the religious education, they were also taught reading, writing big madarsas.
and arithmetic. Stress was given on memorising. The students used to
The Bismillah Ceremony : Like the Vedic and Buddhist memorise verses of holy Quran. Generally the method of learning
systems, admission in the Maktabs was given only after the was oral, writing work was also done, but there was no
first ceremony. On the occasion of admission, the child was scientific method of teaching. In madarsas lectures were given.
taken to the Maktab in new clothes. He was required to repeat Some practical training was also imparted.
some verses of the “Quran”. If he could not do this, he was There was no formal examination system as such. The
just asked to pronounce “Bismillah” and thus started his Moulvis or Mullahs who were generally the teachers decided
education. The “Bismillah” ceremony heralded his educational as to whether the student was competent to go ahead. They
career. The ceremony was held when child was 4 years 4 had his own method of assessing the capacity of the student.
months, 4 days old. After a few days of this ceremony the child They used to be examined form time to time in practical
situations of life. Their intelligence was put on test in solving objective of Muslim rulers in India was to expand territories
some difficult problems. of their rule, which required to fight battles. Training in war
Pupil-teacher Relationship : During the Muslim period fare to them was essential to keep the kingdom safe as well
also the teachers enjoyed great respect as they were supposed as annexing other kingdoms. It is no secret that Muslim rulers
to help the pupil in developing his personality. Even the kings established their rule in India due to their supremacy in warfare
respected the teachers. The teachers enjoyed complete obedience skills and military prowess. The armed forces required new
of their pupils, hence their relations were very cordial as equipment and military training. Muslim rulers placed great
during the ancient period. As the number of students was not emphasis on this aspect of education.
very large, it was easy for the teacher to know each and every Role of the State
student thoroughly well. This solved many unknown situations
Education during the Vedic and Buddhist periods were
and problems of indiscipline or disobedience. The teacher had
completely independent in every respect. The state had no role
immense power to punish indisciplineed students. But good
to play and exercised no control. Unlike these, the Muslim
students used to be rewarded also.
system of education enjoyed the patronage of the state. Muslim
Women Education : Women were not supposed to come rule was generally monarchical; hence the monarchs exercised
out of their homes uncovered. They had to cover themselves immense control on the system. There were instances of
from head to toe. Purdah system has been a part of Muslim educational progress only when the rule was stable and if it
culture. During the Muslim rule, it was very strictly and was unstable, education suffered much. Rulers of Slave dynasty
rather ruthlessly imposed. Hence, girls particularly grown ups like Iltumush, Razia Sultan and Balban took keen interest in
were not allowed to attend madarsas. However, they were education and built madarasas. Similarly, the founder of Khilji
permitted to go to maktabs. During the Muslim period, a large dynasty, Jalaluddin was interested in the development of
section of Muslim women population remained without education, so were some rulers of Tughlaq dynasty.
education. Higher education for women was a rare experience.
Muslim education made great strides during the reign of
Some exceptions were there. Princesses and women folk or rich
Mughal dynasty, as almost all the rulers were dedicated to the
and well-to-do people received their education in their homes.
cause of education. Akbar the great left an infallible impression
Women like Razia Sultan, Princess Gul Badan (daughter of
in the field of education by propounding harmonious relationship
Babar), Zebunissa, Noorjehan and Mumtaz Mahal were not
between Hindu and Muslim cultures. He laid stress on secular
only noted women of their times but also they earned their
system of education. Many institutions of repute were
place in history by dint of their contributions in several fields.
established during the mughal reign. Centres of learning at
But such women were very few in number. Development of
Agra, Delhi, Jaunpur, Beedar, Golkunda, Rampur, Lahore,
Literature and Arts : Muslim literature made great progress
Sialkot, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Luknow were some of
during this period. Later on the Arts became part of educational
the examples. Jaunpur was regarded as a very important centre
curriculum. Similarly the era saw rapid strides in art and
of Muslim learning. It was also known as “Shiraz-e-Hind”.
architecture, designing, painting, drawing, etc. These also
found their place in education during this period. Mugal rulers EDUCATION IN PRE-INDEPENDENT INDIA
encouraged the study of arts in education and encouraged the
artists. Mughal Empire started crumbling in the post-Aurangzeb
period. The weak political administration gave way to anarchy,
Military Training : Military training formed a very tyranny, misrule and instability. In such prevailing conditions,
important part of Muslim system of education. The main Europeans came to India. First primarily with trading interests,
they established their companies. Among the visiting Europeans primarily interested in the education of masses and, therefore,
the British were very clever. They successfully exploited the they propounded the theory of “Downward filtration” in
situation in their favour and meddled in Indian politics only education. Only the Indian elite or top class people would be
to establish themselves firmly. They established East India educated and through them the lower class would also be
company which was originally a trading company. During this benefited. The masses will follow the elite gradually and
period of transition, the Indian systems of education viz, the education will reach down to common citizens.
Vedic and the Buddhist and the Muslim existed but they were
Wood’s Despatch of 1854
decaying due to constant instability and anarchy. The British
described the Indian system as “indigenous system of education”. Charles Wood was then the Chairman of the Board of
Instead of lending it a helping hand they did every thing control of the Company. A charter was issued on July 19, 1854.
possible to allow it to die. In order to gain political sympathies Charles Wood was the main architect of this despatch of
of the local populace, “The Calcutta Madarsa” (1780) for Muslims education. Hence, it is known as Wood’s Despatch of 1854. This
and the “Benaras Sanskrit Vidyalaya” (1791) for Hindus were despatch was a landmark in the education of India. Many
established. things in education even today, owe their genesis to it.
A brief summary of the main recommendations of this
The Charter of 1813
despatch are listed below :
Their design to dabble in the Indian education field became
1. The aim of Education : The aim of education was to
clear from Charles Grant’s famous essay “Observation”. He
develop a man wit useful knowledge to raise his
described the prevailing Indian educational scene as deplorable
intellectual, moral and economic status. He should be
and emphasized the need for reforms. The East India company’s
given such an education which would be useful for
charter of 1813 paved the way for the British education in India
government.
by the company’s charter placing rupees one lakh for the
reconstruction of literature. The charter of 1813 created a 2. The Curriculum : The curriculum should consist of
bitter controversy known as “the occidental-oriental controversy” Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian along with English,
in the history of Indian Education. Protagonists of both the Western Literature, Science and Law.
sides stuck to their guns. Oriental view was in favour of old 3. Medium of Instruction : It should be English along side
Indian system of education and wanted to develop and enrich with Indian languages, which are necessary for
Indian literature through Indian languages. The advocates of education of the masses.
this view were Warren Hastings, H.T.Princep, Lord Minto,
H.H. Wilson etc. The Occidental view ridiculed the Indian 4. Department of Public Instructions : Setting of
system, its literature and its languages. Lord Macaulay, who Department of Public Instructions in every state with
played important role in resolving this controversy, was very the Director, as its head was a very important
bitter and sarcastic. About the Indian literature he said, “A recommendation.
single shelf of European library was worth the native literature 5. University Education : To establish two universities of
of India”. He also ridiculed Indian religions, its practices, Calcutta and Bombay was also recommended. The
ultimately, Lord Macaulay’s views (which were made clear in organisation of administration was to be modelled on
his famous minutes known as Macaulays Minutes) prevailed. the pattern of London University.
Downward Filtration Theory : Thus, the ground for the 6. Graded Education : The despatch recommended the
British system of education was laid. The British were not importance of graded education. With this
recommendation a well structured system of education The Indian Education Commission 1882
came into existence. After the Wood’s despatch the country rose against the
7. System of Grant-in-aid : This recommendation had a British empire in 1857 as a sequel to the transfer of power from
far-reaching impact n the field of education. The main the Company to the British Monarch. At many places the
purpose of this recommendation was to encourage British faced the wrath of the people but the mighty empire
private and individual efforts in education. Expansion quelled the revolt. By 1882 it was thought necessary to assess
of education could not be done by the Government and the development of education in the country and to remove
hence other philanthropic, non-government defects, a commission of education was set up under the
organisations were required to come in the field. By a chairmanship of Willaim Hunter on February 3, 1882. Besides
systematic grant in aid regime, different kinds of him, there were other twenty members in the commission. It
institutions could provide education besides the is also known as the ‘Hunter Commission of education, 1882’.
government. Among other things the main purpose of the commission was
to study the problem of primary education and to suggest
8. Teachers Training : This recommendation led to the remedial measures for the reform. It was also asked to assess
establishment of Training Colleges, Training schools the utility of the grant-in-aid system.
(Normal schools) for teachers of different categories.
The Commission chose to study the affairs of secondary and
Prior to this there was not arrangement for training
higher education also. It submitted a volurninous report
of teachers. It was not realised before this
consisting of 700 pages. The main recommendations of the
recommendation that the teachers also needed well
commission are summarised below :
organised training in the art of teaching.
1. Primary Education : It stressed on the importance of
The despatch also made recommendations for the
primary education. It should be related to life, practical
expansion of general women’s education, vocational
and useful. Medium of instruction should be the mother
education and publication of books in Indian
tongue of the students. The Government should give
languages.
more attention to primary education. But the
The despatch according to many educationists and management of primary education should be entrusted
historians is the ‘Magna Carta’ of Indian Education. For to local bodies, such as District Board, Municipalities
the first time a well organised, structured and graded in town areas. Primary school teachers should be suitably
system of education and administration came into trained. Normal schools should be established for their
existence. The process of institutionalisation of education training.
also began. Sir Philip Hartog made this point when he 2. Secondary Education : The commission recommended
said, “As a result of Wood’s despatch an educational that the responsibility of Secondary education should be
policy was evolved as a part of general policy of entrusted to the Indians and it should only give grant-
Government of India in the interest of India and to in-aid. Medium of instruction at this level should be
develop her intellectual resources to the utmost for her English. Its curriculum should be divided into two parts.
own benefits”. The despatch was undoubtedly the main In the first part subjects of general education and
important document of Indian education policy, which vocational courses in the second part should be framed.
had far-reaching impact. A new era in education began The Commission also emphasised the training of
with this. graduate teachers to improve the teaching standards at
the secondary school level. Grant-in-aid should have in 1899 as the Viceroy and earnestly endeavoured to improve
uniformity throughout the country. Indian education.
The Commission also made recommendations for Indian Universities Act 1904
strengthening higher education, Indianisation of resources,
women’s education and other aspects of education. It was the effort of Lord Curzon that for the first time the
Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904. Some of the
The recommendations of the commission have a special important aspects of the Act are detailed below :
place in the history of education. It is worth while to note that
it was the first ever commission to look into educational 1. Universities should provide teaching. They should not
problems. It drew attention to the growing problems of education be merely the examining bodies.
in the country. 2. Number of members and their tenure was fixed.
Progress of Education in the 19 Century : Indian systems
th
3. The executive power of the university would be vested
of education of the Vedic, the Buddhist and the Muslim periods in the syndicate, which would also have professors.
were still surviving within the country when the British people
decided to make a break from the prevailing systems. The 19th 4. Role and power of the Senate were also defined.
century saw the end of a bitter controversy between the The beginning of the 20th century saw the rise of “Swadeshi”
occidental and oriental points of view. A new system of education movement. This motivated several Indians like Gopal Krishna
was formulated by Wood’s despatch of 1854, which gave fillip Gokhale to initiate reforms in education. His demand for reforms
to the establishment of new institutions. During the early in education was presented in the form of a bill before the
period of 19th century not much progress was noticed except Government. Demand of reforms in other fields also became
in the Madra, Bombay presidencies and also in Bengal. A strong but the outbreak of the first world war in 1914 made
number of schools started functioning in these areas. the pace somewhat slow.
In the wake of the recommendations of Wood’s despatch The Calcutta University Commission 1917 : The commission
many initiatives were taken, notable among them were the was appointed in 1917 under the chairmanship of Sir M.F.Sadler.
establishment of Directorate of public instructions in provinces, It is also known as the Sadler Commission. Though the purpose
evolution of the system of grant-in-aid, establishment of if the appointment of the commission was to look in to the
universities, expansion of primary and secondary schools problems of Calcutta University it was also asked to study the
through local efforts, but the problem of finance did not help conditions of other universities as well. The main
in the expansion of primary education as desired. recommendations of the commission are given below :
Missionaries were working in the field of education from 1. The universities should be given enough freedom and
the days of their companies. They were rendering their services autonomy in their functioning. Its powers should be
in other fields also. But their policy of proselytisation came in widened.
for severe criticism. In the field of education they established
some very good institutions. 2. The VC’s should be salaried official.
Political scene had also been volatile and surcharged first 3. Courses should be redesigned and honour’s course should
due to the first abortive freedom movement in 1857 and secondly be introduced.
due to the formation of Indian national congress in 1885. 4. University court should be more representative. This
Education did not receive priority. Lord Curzon came to India should make the place of Senate.
5. There should be a broad and an academic committee, Hartog to study the various aspects of education. It submitted
which would prescribe the curriculum. its report in 1929. Its recommendations with regard to primary
The commission also made recommendations about education were very important.
secondary education, which according to it had several defects. The committee emphasized the importance of primary
It recommended for admission in colleges and universities only education and blamed the provincial governments for its neglect.
after the Intermediate examinations. The main causes of poor progress of primary education were
The graduate course should be of three year’s duration. lack of financial support, poor curriculum and standards, lack
Board of High school and Intermediate examination should be of local efforts, etc. It pointed out that primary education was
established in each province. They should function free of receiving setback due to two inherent weaknesses in the system-
Department of education. wastage and stagnation. By wastage it meant the leaving of the
school without completing education and by stagnation it meant
The commission looked in to other fields, such as women
the retention of a child in a class for more than one year. The
education, teachers training, vocational education, etc. The
other findings of the committee on primary education are given
recommendations of the commission served as guidelines for
below:
not only Calcutta University but also for other universities
also. Its recommendation for an independent body for 1. University education was progressing at the cost of
examination at the secondary level was timely and useful. The primary education.
Commission was criticized also for learning too much on the 2. Most of the areas remain unconnected due to lack of
patterns of Cambridge and Oxford Universities of England for transport and other facilities.
modeling Indian Universities.
3. Superstitious and social beliefs are hindrances to the
Education Under Diarchy growth of primary education.
With the end of the First World War in 1919, the demand 4. Need to encourage single teacher schools.
for freedom dominated the political scene in the country. In
5. Lack of proper inspection, guidance and supervision.
order to assuage Indian feelings, the British government
introduced Diarchy in the British India. Under the diarchy, The committee also stated the position of secondary
some subjects of administration were reserved for the members education and found it better than primary education. It also
of the executive council and some were transferred to the hinted at some of its shortcomings. According to it, the sole
elected members. Reserved subjects were important subjects purpose of secondary school students was to receive university
like home, law and order, justice and finance while under the education. It also found great wastage in secondary education,
transferred subjects, those subjects were classified which were for a large number of students failed in examinations. It also
of public welfare, such as, education, health, local bodies, criticised the secondary school curriculum, which was narrow
etc. The reforms proved to be great illusion as no fruitful work and failed to help students to stand on their legs after its
could be done due to artificial compartmentalization of completion.
administration. The committee had concentrated its attention on primary
Hartog Committee : Simon Commission was appointed and secondary education but it also gave some suggestions for
in 1927 to look into political conditions in the country. This higher education. Though it praised the rise in the number of
Commission was authorised to appoint a committee on students and institutions in this field, it criticised the lowering
education, so a committee was appointed under Sir Philip of Standards and called for its upgradation.
Provincial Autonomy (1935) 6. There should be junior and senior vocational schools.
It has already been pointed out that the diarchy form of Junior vocational schools after VIIIth with 3 year courses
government failed to satisfy the aspirations of the Indian people. and senior schools with 2 year courses after Xth.
Subjugation and repression enthused the people to rise against 7. Vocational schools should be established near vocational
the British Empire. centres.
The Indian National Congress and its several national 8. Certificates should be issued after passing a vocational
leaders under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi spearheaded course.
the revolution for complete independence. This led the
Sergeant Report on Education : As the Second World War
government to come forward with constitutional reforms of
was coming to close and the British became hopeful of their
1935, known as Provincial Autonomy which removed some of
victory, it directed its attention to the reforms in education
the anomalies of diarchy. Representative governments of elected
in India.
members were formed in the provinces but this also coincided
with the outbreak of Second World War which hampered the So it advised Sir John Sergeant, the then educational
cause of education. advisor to the government of India to prepare a scheme of
education for Indians.
The Abbott-Wood Report-1937 : During this period a two-
member team constituted by the then Government of India was He submitted his scheme in 1944. The scheme is known as
invited from Britain to propose a plan for vocational education the Sergeant Report. It had covered all the stages and suggested
in the country. reforms for each of them. Some of the important suggestions
are listed below :
In all the previous government reports it was clearly pointed
out that vocational education in India had not made any 1. Compulsory education should be provided to all boys
headway for want of clear plan and perspective. With this the and girls in the 6-14 age group. This should be divided
public also posed their demand for its formation. The two with juniors 6-11, and seniors 11-14 years of age.
British Experts were A.Abbott and S.H. Wood. Within four 2. Pre-primary education should be given to children in 3-
months of their appointment in 1937, they submitted their 6 years age group.
report to the government. Its main recommendations are given
3. High school education should be divided into two parts.
below:
Literary high school and vocational high school.
1. Vocational education should be organised according to
4. The curriculum for literary high schools should have
the local vocational needs of the areas.
Indian languages, Mother tongue, English, History,
2. Vocational education should be treated at par with Geography, Civics, Mathematics, Science, Economics,
literary and science education. Agriculture and Music, etc. In the other group applied
3. Vocational education should be considered to be sciences should be taught along with wood work, metal
complimentary to other forms of education. work, Engineering subjects, short-hand, typing etc.
4. There should be separate schools for vocational 5. For girls’ students the report recommended for inclusion
education. of Fine arts, Home Science, etc.
5. Vocational education Advisory Board should be 6. The report also suggested for the abolition of
constituted in each province. Intermediate classes.
7. To check overcrowding in the universities, the report of his state, which became an example. Compulsory education
suggested that only 1% high school passing out students was finally accepted by the British Government only during the
should be selected for pre-university education. last years of its rule. The Sergeant Report accepted the concept
8. It also recommended for the setting up of University and recommended for its implementation.
Grant Commission. Basic Education : In the wake of the constitutional reforms
in 1935, the Indian National Congress formed its governments
9. It also suggested for the improvement of teachers’
economic condition. in several provinces. This provided them with the opportunity
to implement some of their own schemes of education. One
10. It also recommended for setting up part-time and full- such scheme was the system of ‘Vidya Mandir Schools’ in old
time schools for teaching technical and professional C.P. and Barer. The father of the scheme was the then Chief
subjects for in-service and other people. Minister Pandit Ravi Shankar Shukla.
The report also made recommendations about improvement The scheme was primarily meant for rural education. The
of health of students.
other scheme of ‘Voluntary Schools’ was introduced in the then
The report is an acknowledgement of British government Bombay Presidency. But the most outstanding was ‘Basic
about its utter failure in education in India. The report was Education’ propounded by Mahatma Gandhi.
short but very comprehensive and broad-based with some good
Basic Education scheme is also known as ‘the Wardha
and worthwhile suggestions.
scheme’. Mahatma Gandhi convened a conference of
The government of India accepted its recommendations in educationists at Wardha on October 22 and 23, 1937 to consider
principle and tried to implement them. For the first time a the scheme of Basic Education.
department of Education was set up at the centre. All India
A committee was formed under Dr. Zakir Hussain to
technical education committee was also established in
formulate the working details of the scheme. Within two months,
Delhi.
the committee submitted its report. The main features of Basic
Development in Education Education are summarised below :
The freedom movement had a great impact in the field of 1. Education to be given through handicraft. The main
education. Many nationalists considered the prevailing system aim of Basic education is to make the child self reliant
completely alien, harmful and indifferent to Indian interests. to enable him to use skills in later life. Through this,
A call of boycott led to the establishment of institutions of a healthy and direct relationship between knowledge
different variety with emphasis on ‘Swadeshi’. During this and life would be established.
period some innovative schemes were also launched.
2. Medium of education under this scheme would be the
Compulsory Education : The concept of compulsory
mother-tongue of the child through which he can express
education had been relatively new in India. Gopal Krishna
himself.
Gokhale was one of the first among such people who fought for
the introduction of compulsory education for the school going 3. The child is the centre of education under this scheme.
children. The main aim of education is to develop the all-round
He also prepared and presented a bill in this regard. But personality of the child and the handicraft is the most
‘Sayaji Rao Gaekwad’, the ruler of Baroda, princely state was suitable medium for this. It would develop his body,
the first pioneer who introduced it in 1897 in Amreli Taluka mind and soil.
4. Provision of systematic and organized knowledge to the Progress of Education in the First Four Decades of the
child is important. The child will gain knowledge of 20 th Century
other subjects, History, Geography, Mathematics, Due to Lord Curzon’s interests in education and his efforts,
Agriculture sciences and trade through the handicraft progress was witnessed in education. He tried for both
that he chooses. quantitative and qualitative development of education. Due to
5. Education to be given in the natural setting. Nothing the persistent demand of people, several provinces enacted
is to be imposed on the child. Flexible curriculum is laws for introduction of compulsory education but the paucity
of finance was themain hurdle in its total implementation.
another feature of Basic education. However the
curriculum would consist of : At the close of 1937, the number of primary schools rose
to 1, 92, 244 with an enrolment of 1, 02, 24, 288 from 1, 84,
(a) Basic craft such as, spinning and weaving, carpentry 829 in 1926 with 1, 30, 27, 313 students in the country. In 1947
pottery, leather work, culturing fish, etc. the number of primary schools was 1, 67, 700.
(b) Mother tongue Secondary education made satisfactory progress. There were
(c) Mathematics and 7530 high schools in India with 11, 06, 803 students whereas
in 1905 they were only 5124 with 5, 90, 129 students. In 1947
(d) Social Studies (History, Civics, Geography to be
(after partition) the number of secondary schools was 11, 907
combined) (including 1733 schools for girls) with 33, 53, 856 boys and 3,
(e) Painting and Music 56, 125 girls.
(f) P.T. drill and sports etc. In the sphere of teachers’ training progress was noticed. In
1912 then were only 15 training schools with 1400 trainees.
(g) General Science.
There was rapid and steady progress in higher education
Training of teachers : The success of the scheme depended
after the arrival of Lord Curzon in India. In 1887, Allahabad
upon teachers who were devoted, dedicated and full of zeal and University was established. For 3 years no new university
who understood and believed in its philosophy. Hence special came into being. But after this gap new universities were
training programmes were organised in Wardha for teachers. established. They were Mysore University (1916), Patna
The training was of two types : University (1917), Banaras Hindu University (1916) Aligarh
1. One year short duration course Muslim University, Lucknow University (1920), Dacca
University (1920) (Now in Bangladesh), Osmania University
2. Two year long term training course.
(1918). The number of colleges also increased during the periods.
Basic education scheme was implemented in all the Some new Universities Delhi (1922), Nagpur (1923), Agra
provinces ruled by the Congress governments. (1927), Andhra (1926), Annamalai (1929), Travancore (1937),
The Central Advisory Board of education had appointed a Utkal (1945), Saugor (1946), Rajasthan (1947) were established
committee under B.G. Kher, the-then Chief Minister of Bombay in the last leg of British rule. Although a number of Universities
to suggest measures for reorganising Basic education. was established, the total number of Universities in India at
that time was merely 18 for a population of 40 crores.
Kher committee’s suggestions were accepted by the CABE.
One of the important changes was the renaming of Basic Progress in other fields like vocational education, Women’s
education as ‘Nai Taleem’. education, education for backward classes, etc. was not very
32 System and Issues in Indian Education Education in Post-independent and Emerging India 33
satisfactory. The ray of hope in educational development was

provided by the Sargeant report, which reflected some of the
aspirations of Indians.
There were definitely certain glaring defects in the British
educational system in India, which the British knew very well,
yet it continued. Despite the defects, the system rendered 2
great service to the Indian people. It was this system that
brought mass awakening to breathe in a free country. The
system did more good than harm.
EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENT AND
It also acquainted Indians with modern knowledge and EMERGING INDIA
sciences. It also helped in awakening and a desire to recapture
the ancient glory. It also instilled a sense of nationalism and
democratic way of life and above all, the system taught people India became free from the foreign yoke on August 15,
the art of governance. 1947 and thus started the crucial journey towards “tryst with
destiny”. A partitioned, badly battered and shattered nation
needed immediate social reconstruction. Education was one of
the means for social upliftment.
The University Education Commission (1947-48)
The Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of
Dr.S. Radha Krishnan, the eminent philospher and later the
President of India. On November 4, 1948 Educational experts
from USA and UK along with Indian educational experts were
invited to serve on the commission. It submitted its report
within a year.
The commission studied the problems of University
education and gave important recommendations with regard
to aims of university education, educational standards, teacher
training, research, women education, religious, vocational,
medical and law education, medium of instruction, curriculum,
examination system, students’ problems, university
administration and finance and rural universities.
Its important recommendations are summarised below :
1. The aims of education : The aims of university education
should be in accordance with the past cultural traditions,
the present conditions and future requirements of the
country.
• The aim should be to produce able citizens who curriculum should be diversified to meet the needs of
would shoulder their responsibilities in different the country. Stress should be given on practical skills
fields in the country. and researches.
• To preserve and develop the culture and civilization 6. Women Education : Education of women should be
of the country. generally similar but special provision should be made
• To generate new ideas and discard those which for subjects of practical domestic life also. More
impede growth. institutions with qualified women teachers should be
established.
• To provide opportunities for the acquisition of
knowledge and skills. 7. Religious Education : The commission has dealt at length
on religious education. According to the commission,
• To educate the mind and the soul. the religious education should be in accordance with the
• To promote innovations and new thinking. constitutional provisions. It should also keep in mind
• To instill moral values and sense of discipline. the secular nature of the country. The State has no role
to play except to protect the interests of all religions.
• To develop the spirit of universal brotherhood.
In view of this the commission has recommended :
2. Teaching Standard : The commission was anxious to
raise the teaching and examination standards at the (a). Instruction in institutions should commence with
university level. It recommended for the highly qualified, self-mediation.
dedicated and good teachers in the universities who (b). Biographies of great religious leaders like
would take up teaching work. It suggested higher scales Shankaracharya, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Prophet
of pay for different grades of teaching staff. For promoting Mohd, Guru Nanak, Mahavir, should be included
research in universities, scholars should be awarded for study in the first year, essentials of all the
stipends and scholarships. religions should be taught in the second year and
3. The curriculum : The curriculum should be re-organised. essentials of philosophers of all religions and their
The courses of studies for universities and intermediate problems in the final year should be taken for critical
colleges should be according to the needs of the new study.
India. The curriculum should not be an end but only the 8. Rural Education : India resides in villages. Therefore,
means. There should be a connecting bond between the rural universities should be established to promote
general, intellectual and vocational education. higher education to rural population with an emphasis
4. Teacher’s Training : More emphasis should be given on on rural subjects.
the practical experiences rather than theoretical studies. i. Administration : The commission deplored the
Teachers in these institutions should have enough defects in university administration. It recommended
experience of teaching in schools. Innovative practices that the universities should be brought under the
and research should be promoted in these institutions. concurrent list under the state control. The central
5. Engineering and Technology Education : These government should have minimum say in the affairs
institutions should be nationalized. It recommended for of the universities. It also suggested norms for the
the establishment of more colleges of engineering. Its appointment of Visitors, Chancellors, Vice
Chancellors, Syndicates, Faculties Councils, etc. 6. Inappropriate ratio between the teacher and number
in the universities. of students in the classes.
ii. Finance : The commission stressed the need to 7. The unsuitable medium of instruction.
improve the financial climate of the university. The II. Aims : Secondary education is the point of education for
state government should shoulder the entire cost of large number of students. It is the most important
university education. Income Tax concessions should
connecting link between primary and university
be given to firms and persons who donate to
education but unfortunately it is the weakest link in the
educational institutions.
chain. Therefore the commission has emphasized the
The commission had a famous statesman, thinker, teacher need to lay down aims of secondary education clearly
as a chairman so it is natural that the commission’s so that it may reformed and strengthened. The following
recommendations bore the imprint of his experiences and are the aims of secondary education :
philosophy. The commission rightly perceived the vainness,
inadequancy of university education and gave valuable 1. To produce ideal citizens for a democracy like India
suggestions to remove them. Some of its recommendations are fully embedded with strong national and social
in line with the constitutional provisions. feelings to enable them to shoulder their civic
responsibilities and duties.
Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
2. To develop productive capacity in the students. So
The field of secondary education had been riddled with after completion of secondary education they may
several problems and many defects had crept in the system for contribute towards the national prosperity.
which it had been criticized earlier also. In view of this, the
government of India appointed the secondary education 3. To develop their physical, mental, social and
commission under the chairmanship of Dr.A.Laxman Swami emotional powers for the total development of their
Mudaliar on September 23, 1952. A.N.Basu was appointed as personality.
the secretary of the commission. After studying various problems 4. To develop a sense of discipline and quality of
of secondary education, the commission submitted its report leadership in them.
on August 29, 1953. III. Duration of Secondary Education : According to the
I. Defects : The Commission has pointed out the following Commission secondary education should be given
defects in Secondary Education : between 11 to 17 years of age which would include three
1. It is not related to life. years of junior high school stage and four years of high
school stage. Intermediate stage should be abolished by
2. It is narrow and one sided, fails to develop student’s
adding one year in secondary education. Thus the degree
total pesonality.
course should be three years duration.
3. It does not develop independent thinking and
IV. Multi Purpose School : One of the important
initiative.
recommendations of the Commission has been to
4. System of examination does not evaluate the abilities establish Multi purpose Higher Secondary
of students completely. Schools for varied and diversified interests of students.
5. Curriculum and teaching methods are pedantic, Preferably each district should have one such school. In
mechanical and do not create interest. rural areas, schools should have agriculture as an
important subject. Home science should be made VIII. Teachers : The commission also emphasized the need
compulsory for girls. to improve the socio-economic status of the teachers by
giving them good pay. Other service benefits should be
V. Curriculum : The Commission recommended for the
given to teachers. The teachers’ retirement age should
reorganisation of the curriculum taking into view the
be 60 years. It also recommended for improvement in
interests of the students, the demands of the times and
their training. The number of teaching days should not
the community.
be less than 200 in a year.
Lower Secondary Stage : The Commission suggested The commission made valuable suggestions to improve
Maths, General science, languages, Social studies, secondary education though the problems in secondary education
Physical education, Crafts, etc. at the lower secondary could not be removed in toto. But this is a good effort in the
level and diversified groups of subjects at the higher direction.
secondary level which would be as following :
National Education Commission (1964-66)
1. Humanities
India ushered in the era of planned development. With this
2. Sciences aim, five-year plans were launched. The execution of plans
3. Industrial subjects brought to our knowledge the inherent weaknesses in education.
4. Commerce The government of India appointed an Education commission
in 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr.D.S.Kothari. The
5. Agriculture commission is also known as “Education Commission”. It was
6. Fine Arts appointed on July 14, 1964. The Commission had eminent
educationists, experts and social activists J.P. Naik was the
7. Home Science
member secretary. The commission undertook a study of several
VI. Text Books : The Commission has recommended for the aspects of education. The report is divided into three parts. The
constitution of a high powered committee for selecting first part has six chapters and deals with reorganisation of
text books for secondary schools which will include-A education and other issues. The second part has eleven chapters
high court judge, A member of the public service and deals with different stages and areas of education. The
commission, a Vice Chancellor, a principal of third part deals with suggestions. From this it is clear that the
government institution, two educationist and Director report is very comprehensive and touches nearly all aspects of
of public Instruction of schools. education.
The commission laid down the basis of selection such 1. Education and National Aims : On education and
as, production, printing, paper used, illustrations and national aims, the commission asserted that education
pictures and above all content. The text books according can help in solving the problems of our country. The
to the commission should not be changed soon. commission recommended the following programmes to
achieve national aims. The national aims are as follows:
VII. Administration and Finance : The commission made
elaborate recommendation on school administration and • Self sufficiency in food products.
finance. It stressed the need for effective and qualitative • Economic development and end of unemployment.
inspection and instead of finding fault it should guide
• Social and Political unity.
the teachers. On finance it suggested that the central
government should give aid to the states. • Political development.
To achieve these national aims a programme of action has The commission also gave suggestions for raising status,
been suggested. The programme of Action : their chances of promotions, retirement benefits and
• Increase in production through education. improvement in the working conditions. The beginning
according to the commission is to be made from primary
• Social and political integration through education. school teachers who are badly affected.
• Strengthening democracy through education. 4. Teacher Education : While stressing the importance of
• Acceleration of the pace of modernization through teacher education the commission has pointed out the
education. defects of vocational education. According to the
commission training institutions are in bad shape, it
• Development of social, moral and spiritual values
lacks able teachers, curriculum is lifeless and
through education.
uninteresting, too much theorization and lack of
2. Educational Structure : On educational structure and practical experiments. The defects can be removed only
raising of standards at different levels the commission through the end of isolation of teacher education,
gave several suggestions but its two suggestions on improvement in training programme. Fixation of
secondary education deserve special attention. duration of training for different category of teachers,
• Provision of national education at the secondary improvement in the conditions of training institutions.
stage. 5. Enrolment and Manpower : According to the commission
• There should be only one public examination. On “One of the important programmes in national
higher education it suggested that it should begin reconstruction is the development of human resources”.
after 12 years i.e. general education for 10 years For this education can not have limits. In India the
and 2 years of higher secondary education. It also commission noted the increase in student population
recommended for the provision of better facilities of which requires a national enrolment policy which should
education to students. ensure seven years free and compulsory education to
every child. The commission also suggested enrolment
3. Teacher Status : The commission regretted the condition
policies at different stages of education.
and the status of teachers in the society and suggested
for their improvement. 6. Equalisation of educational opportunities : In every
democratic and civilized society every individual needs
i) The government should fix minimum pay for a
to be treated equally. The commission has rightly
teacher. recommended that constitutional provision of free and
ii) The centre should help the states financially so that compulsory education to children of the school going age
they are at par with the central government teachers. should be pursued. It recommended for the provision of
iii) There should be principle of equality in pay for the free supply of books to poor children, scholarships and
teachers. stipends to bright students. These steps according to
the commission would help the deprived class to make
iv) To draw good and qualified people to the profession, progress. It also recommended for help to physically
they should be given the same pay which people of handicapped children.
the same qualifications get in other services of the
government. 7. Curriculum : The commission stressed the need for
reorganisation of curriculum at all stages of education.
i) Lower Primary Stage : Language (Mother tongue or improvement. The present system is full of defects. The
regional language or provincial language), simple commission recommended the use of such techniques
mathematics study of environment, creative through which the students performances can be
activities, work experience and health education. evaluated which otherwise can not be evaluated in the
ii) Higher Primary State : Languages (Mother tongue prevailing system. At the higher secondary level verbal
and Hindi or English, Maths, Sciences, Social and diagnostic tests should be held. The commission
Studies, Craft work and social services, physical suggested that record cards should be maintained.
education, Education in moral and spiritual values. 10. School Administration and Supervision : The commission
iii) Lower Secondary Stage : 3 Languages, Maths, has recommended a four point programme for effective
Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Craft work administration and supervision. They are :
experience, Physical education, Moral education. a. Common school system of public education.
iv) Higher Secondary Stage : Languages, any three b. A nation wide programme for school improvement.
subjects from any diversified group, work c. Supervision.
experience, physical education, Craft, moral
education. d. Separation of inspection from administration.
The commission has recommended a three language 11 Higher Education : Objective and Improvement
formula i.e. Mother tongue or regional language, official The commission has recommended on different aspects
language of the union, a modern Indian or European of higher education such as objectives of universities,
language. development of major universities, improvement of
8. Teaching Methods : With regard to improvement in other universities and affiliated colleges, improvement
teaching methods, the commission recommended to of teaching and evaluation, medium of instruction,
make it flexible and dynamic. This is possible only when student services, students’ union, students’ discipline
the teacher comes forward. Innovation and research etc. The commission’s recommendations on the above
should be encouraged. The commission regretted the are valuable.
shortage of good textbooks particularly in sciences. A The commission has also recommended the introduction
normal programme for preparing textbooks should be of part time education through correspondence or
taken up on the lines of N.C.E.R.T. Suitable through evening classes. Post graduate education and
remuneration should be paid for book writing. It also research should be taken up only by such universities,
recommended sale of textbooks through school which can provide it effectively. The commission
cooperatives. Radio broadcasts should be arranged for recommended for rapid expansion of woman education,
teachers and pupils. The Commission accepted guidance they should be given stipend and scholarship also.
and counselling as one of the essential elements of Courses should be of their choice. The commission
education. Its aim should be to help students on different recommended for the establishment of more universities
occasions. Guidance bureau should be set up under the in order to reduce over crowding. It also recommended
competent people. for the provision of educational research. Incentives
9. Evaluation : The commission considered evaluation as should be given for this. The commission was of the
an important aspect of education but it requires view that the universities should enjoy autonomy so
that they may pursue academic activities properly. With Charta” of education for teachers for it made several suggestions
regard to finance, the commission recommended that for improvement in their status. It also laid great stress on the
the state government should provide sufficient in this development of modern sciences, which is the need of the
regard so that it can help the universities. The present times. But it is deplorable that the commission did not
commission also opined about the appointment of vice- accept basic education. Most of the members of the commission
chancellors, functioning of affiliated colleges, different were from foreign countries who didn’t understand the cultural
kinds of colleges, Inter university Board, U.G.C. etc. ethos of the country and that is why some of its recommendations
12 Education for Agriculture : The Commission were found to be very ambitious.
recommended for an action plan for education for National Policy on Education 1986 (1992)
agriculture. It recommended for the establishment of
There was a rapid expansion of education and also the
rural universities, in each state, establishment of
country was rocked by the explosion of population. Rise in
agriculture colleges and agriculture Polytechnics,
educated and uneducated unemployment was shattering the
provision of education of agriculture in primary and
tranquil waters of the country. Education was not helping in
secondary schools. It also recommended to take up
the removal of defects. Besides it was lagging behind in many
extension programmes in order to provide information
aspects from the changes going on in the world educational
on agriculture.
scene.
Other subjects which were also studied by the commission
The world was in the grip of technological scientific and
are technical, Engineering and vocational education, science
computer revolution. At this time the country had a very young,
education and research and adult education. The commission
dynamic, charismatic and forward looking leader Shri Rajiv
made recommendations on educational administration and
Gandhi as the Prime Minister of India. He wanted to take India
finance. The commission emphasised the need of educational
to great heights of scientific and technological progress.
planning in a country like India. A national policy should be
evolved. Role of private enterprise in education should be The Parliament of India during the budget session in 1986
encouraged, as their contribution is immense. The commission discussed and adopted the National Policy on Education, 1986.
also discussed the role of central government in education, as The document consists of 12 parts and deals at length with
education is the state subject. It should work for the growth several aspects of education. In many respects, it is innovative
of scientific, technological and vocational education in the and path breaking. It has recommended some radical changes
country. It should also plan the development of agriculture and in the system. In the beginning the N.P.E lays down the essence
made some recommendations for the effective and coordinated and role of education as following :
working. On finance the commission recommended four and i. “Education for All” is our national perspective. It is
half times increase in educational expenditures to meet the fundamental to material and spiritual development.
growing requirements of education, it also recommended to ii. Education has an acculturating role, refines sensitivities
generate income for education through other sources also. The and perceptions.
commission urged for allocation of funds on certain principles
and misuse and wastage of funds should be checked. iii. Education develops manpower for different levels of the
economy.
The commission’s recommendations as discussed above in
short are very important. Justice M.Chagla, the former minister iv. Education is a unique investment in the present and
of education, Union government described it’s as “The Magna the future which is the key to N.P.E.
1. National System of Education : Under this system all Programme of Early Child Care and Education (ECCE)
students irrespective of caste, creed, sex, location have will be taken up. This will be child oriented, focused
to be ensured education upto a given level. It envisages on maintaining the individuality of the child. Elementary
a common structure of education in the country of 10+2+3 education will get new thrust. It will emphasis two
(Five years elementary education, five years lower aspects :
secondary, two years higher secondary and three years i. Universal enrolment and universal education of
degree course). N S E will be based on a national children up to 14 years of age.
curricular framework with a common core along with
other components. Secular values will be given ii. A substantial improvement in the quality of
weightage. Equality of opportunities will be provided to education. The approach will be child-oriented. In
all without any discrimination. Minimum level of order to strengthen and make elementary education
learning will be laid down for each stage of education. more attractive purposeful and rewarding some
Inter regional mobility will be facilitated in higher essential facilities like two large class rooms, toys,
education in general and technical education in blackboards, maps, charts, learning materials etc.
particular. In the field of research and development and will be provided along with two teachers, one of
education in science and technology special measures them to be woman.
will be taken. Universalization of elementary education, 4. Non formal Education : A large and systematic
adult literacy, education to housewives, agricultural programme of NFE will be launched for school dropouts,
and industrial workers will be taken up. Distance working children and girls. This will be strengthened
education would be encouraged. Key educational through various efforts.
institutions will be strengthened. A better coordination
between states and the centre will be ensured. 5. Secondary Education : Realising the importance of
secondary education the N P E proposes to formulate
The N P E has also made elaborate plans for women’s
curricula to bring about work culture to vocationalise
education by removing disparities, the education of
education, to provide valuable manpower for economic
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, minorities and
growth.
other educationally backward sections and the
handicapped. 6. Vocationalisation : The N P E feels that the introduction
of systematic, well planned and vigorously implemented
2. Adult Education : The N P E has stressed the need and
programme of vocational education is crucial in the
importance of adult education to remove adult illiteracy
proposed educational reorganisation. According to it,
among Indian masses. The N P E proposes to launch
mass literacy campaign with the cooperation and the vocational education will be a distinct stream
involvment of the whole society. A vast programme for intended to prepare for occupations spanning several
the establishment of adult education centres in rural areas of activities. The responsibility will be of the
area will be launched. The use of radio, TV and films, government as well as of employers. Graduates of
creation of learners’ groups, programmes of distance vocational courses will be given opportunities for
learning etc. will be promoted. professional growth and career improvement. It is
proposed that vocational courses should cover 25% of
3. Reorganisation of Child Education and Elementary
higher secondary students by 1995.
Education : N P E gives importance to Early Child Care
7. Higher Education : In the context of the unprecedented 12. Examination Reform : The objective should be to recast
explosion of knowledge, the N P E recommends it to the examination system so as to ensure a method of
become dynamic as never before, constantly entering assessment, a method to eliminate excessive element
uncharted areas. Looking to the vast number of colleges of chance and subjectivity, to deemphasis memorisation.
and universities in India it proposed to expand facilities Continuous and comprehensive evaluation for scholastic
in the existing institutions. Autonomy to be introduced and non-scholastic aspects of education should be
in the departments of the colleges affiliated to the introduced along with semester system.
universities, courses will be redesigned to meet the 13. The Teacher : The N P E proposed to enhance the status
demands of specialisation better. Seats in these of teachers working conditions and training of the
institutions will be filled strictly on the basis of merit. teachers. It recommends a plan of continuous teacher
Research in different fields will be given enhanced education. It also proposes the establishment of District.
support. Institute of education for training of teachers. In the
end the N P E also deals with management of education
8. Open Universities and Distance Learning : Educational
at different levels.
opportunities will be made available to large number of
people through Open University and distance learning Total Impact on Education
will be promoted. Indira Gandhi National Open After the adoption of the national policy on education,
University will be strengthened. 1986, the Ministry of Human resource development came
9. Delinking Degrees from Jobs : This is a landmark forward with a programme of action on the N.P.E. in the
suggestion in the N P E . Delinking will be applied in monsoon session of Parliament. Programme of action document
services in which a university degree need not be a details the resolve for the implementation of the N.P.E. in the
necessary qualification. country. Some of the important developments after the
implementation are detailed below briefly.
10. Reorienting the content and process of education : The
NPE opines that the pre-occupation with modern 1. Primary Education : Under the universalisation of
technologies can not be allowed to serve our new elementary education (UEE), an ambitious programme
generation from the roots in Indian history and culture. “ operation black board” has been launched in the country
Therefore the curriculum and process of education will to strengthen primary education. Basically OBB is a
be enriched by cultural content. Children will be enabled very innovative programme through which essential
facilities are provided at the primary stage. These
to develop sensitivity to beauty harmony and refinement.
included construction, addition, alteration, of the
11. Value Education : Expressing its concern over the erosion school buildings in the rural areas. Provision of two
of essential values and increasing cynicism to society, teachers, one male and the other female to each school
the N P E focuses on the need to readjustment in the has been made. Several teaching, sports, recreational,
curriculum for the cultivation of social and moral values. materials have also been provided.
The N P E has also given due importance to work 2. Secondary Education : (i) Navodaya Vidyalayas have
experience, awareness of environmental problems, been established in rural areas on the pattern of public
mathematics teaching, science and physical education. schools for the better education of rural students (ii)
It has stressed the need to strengthen these. Vocationalisation of secondary education : Vocational
courses have been introduced at + 2 stages in higher Many of the past efforts to iron them out have not been very
secondary schools in the country. These schools have rewarding. What should be education in the new emerging
separate staff. Provisions for workshop for each trade India is undoubtedly very difficult to say. However, some
have been made. Other inputs such as, libraries, picture of a distant future can be easily visualised.
practical experiences, linkages with industries etc. have Population Education : Since the last century, the
been made. population in this sub-continent in general and particularly in
3. Higher Education : Institutions are being strengthened, India had been constantly rising. Before partition the undivided
autonomous colleges have been named, open universities India had a population of 36 crores and the remaining India
are established, facilities for distance education have was nearly 26 crore. It started quantum jumps from 1951 when
been strengthened. Bhoj Open University in Madhya it was 51 crores. After 60 years the population of India is
Pradesh is an example. crossing the figure of one billion. The situation is very much
alarming. Many reasons, such as better health conditions,
4. Training : At the school education level, training colleges
improvement in nutrition, eradication of epidemics, growth
are being strengthened, contents of training are
in life expectancy, etc. may be assigned for the steep rise in
reorganised. The most important changes in training
population, but its explosion is threatening development and
programmes for the lower secondary and primary school
environment which make up an important element in the
teachers is the establishment of DIETS in each district
construction of a new social and economic order today that
which provide continuous training to teachers in training
continues even slowly.
and in-service. Orientation programmes for teachers on
massive scale have been organised. During the past six decades India has tried to checkmate
the growth at times forcibly and also most of the times though
5. Literary Programmes : Eradication of illiteracy has
awareness programmes, results have not been satisfactory.
received priority in the post N.P.E era. Non formal
Education plays an important role in awakening the
education, adult education centres, and other welfare
consciousness in developing the right kind of responses and
programmes aim to literate the masses.
initiatives. So far population education has been including
In short, the N.P.E has been very vigorously implemented understanding of reproduction, child nursing, health problems,
in the country and a great progress has been noticed in areas advantages of small family, awareness of family planning
such as mass literacy, early child care, UEE, NFE awareness programmes, etc. Now it is the time that new thrust is to be
of environment health, women education, technology education, given to population education. Population education should be
vocationalisation etc. extended to every home in the country, every village should
Education in the Emerging India be educated and covered. A massive programme that too a time
bound programme should be undertaken. The present
Today India is emerging as a super power in the field of curriculum, methods of routine and dull reaching should be
information technology. It is also rated as a nuclear giant in reorganised.
the world. It has advanced in the space technology and only
comparable to a few countries, Industrially also the country Environment Education : It is a paradox that a country
has made astonishing progress. Indian students, technicians, like India which was rich in environment, is today facing the
engineers, medicos etc. are very bright and some have proved agony of pollution of environment. The posterity will make
to be geniuses in their fields. Despite all this there are researches to find out the places of mountains, rivers and
contradictions and disparities in several sectors of Indian society. varieties of trees. We have reached this sorry state due to mad
drive of urbanisation and industrialisation. Industries are Modernity can not be grafted on ignorance and illiteracy
necessary to our economy and prosperity but it suffocates human and the promise of building a just and egalitarian society will
beings, the end of human species is clearly in sight. The be meaningless till the basic equality of educational opportunity
emerging picture of India in the coming decades is of multi- is provided to every one irrespective of class, caste, sex and
storied concrete jungles of huge structures and mansions where race. The constitution of India had promised the fulfillment of
air for breathing would be scarce and probably sold. this dream within ten years of its commencement but even
We must understand that environmental problem is not after the end of the last century, we are not even near the 50%
limited to a city or a state or even a country, it is a global of the target. The new century has begun and the goal is still
problem, it is a problem of the entire humanity. Since 1915 not in sight. Though the per capita income has increased and
efforts for formulating human ecology are going on but today the number of people below the poverty line has somewhat
the entire global society is beset with this problem. decreased, a large number of people are still ill-clad, ill-fed
and live a shelterless life, oblivious of the progress in different
Environmental education in India is not a new concept.
fields. In this background, the country’s march towards
Even in the ancient system of education, great emphasis was
modernisation vis-à-vis the role of education has to be
laid on the enrichment and protection of environment. The
understood. People are not unanimous about the concept of
main objective of environmental education today should be to modernisation. Economists view it as man’s application of new
understand the relationship between man and nature. Ex- technologies to acquire dominance over nature and to bring
President of U.S.A.-Nixon once called for the development of about a marked increase in the gross national product per
environmental literacy’ Hom says “environmental education is capita. According to political scientists, the ways used by the
the process of recognising values and clarifying concepts in governments to increase their capacity to innovate and adapt
order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand to change led to modernisation as “the process by which
and appreciate the inter-relations among man, his culture and historically evolved institutions are adapted to the rapidly
his biophysical surroundings”. changing functions tat reflect the unprecedented increase in
Curriculum on environmental education should be man’s knowledge permitting control over his environment that
reorganised to include resource management, ecological and accompanied the scientific revolution”.
environmental problems due to urbanisation, industrialisation, In some, modernisation is a revolutionary process, it is
deforestation and intensive agriculture, and their remedies. essentially a process, a movement from the traditional, quasi-
Also courses in ecology, conservation, soil sciences should be traditional order to certain desired types of technology and
introduced at all levels of education to bring about mass associated forms of social structure, value orientation,
awareness. Methods of teaching cannot be prescribed but it motivations and norms. In India, modernisation has led to the
should stress more on experiences and should be activity based. change of life styles, thinking processes, a break from traditions
Students should learn through experiences of air pollution, and cultural norms.
water pollution, soil pollution, sound pollution, mental pollution Education has a vital role to play. Education must lay
and environmental pollution through industries. emphasis on the compromise between the past and the present
Education and Modernisation : India today is on the and also endeavor to a harmonious future. Kothari Commission
crossroads of modernisation. Our space crafts are revolving said, “Human being is dynamic and progressing, Society is
round the universe, but our masses are illiterate and ignorant also an ever-changing phenomenon. It can not remain static
of these scientific and technological developments. and stereotype. The structure is subject incessant change,
growing delaying, finding renewal, accommodating itself to A new religion propounded, founded and propagated
the … modification in the course of time”. Hence education by Lord Buddha provided panacea for the ills of Vedic
must be reoriented to meet the challenged of social changes and era. The teachings of Lord Buddha gave birth to the
to help in building a social order based on equality, liberty and Buddhistic philosophy of life and education.
justice. 3. Muslims Era : Islam came to India through several
Education has also to take stock of the menace of growing invasions from 11th century and onwards. With Islam
polarisation of the caste system. The political parties are playing came a new religion and a new system of education. The
them up for narrow political ends. Indeed a large section of the invaders were greatly influenced by Indian arts and
people had been neglected and ignored but exploitation is not culture. But its fabulous wealth attracted them more.
the solution. It may lead to social, and communal discord and Many Muslim invaders came and some were successful
disharmony. Education which is an effective tool of in establishing their dynasties of rule. Among the notable
modernisation has to expand and cover every section of the dynasties were the Slave dynasty, the Khilji dynasty,
society. It is only through education that the views and the Tuglaq dynasty, the Sayyad dynasty, the Lodi
behavioural changes of all sections of people can help in building dynasty and the Mughal dynasty which was lucky to
an egalitarian society, free from mutual distrust, hatred and retain power for about 200 years.
animosity. Women neglected and ignored have also to be
Education during this period was religious and based
brought, to the mainstream. The emergence of working women
on Islamic scriptures, religious practices and learning
and their socio-economic role in the family so far did not attract
of Holy Quran. The Muslim rulers were ruthless and
any attention but in the emerging Indian society maintenance
dogmatic. Hence their purpose of education was to
of family ties, harmony in the family and the society will have
convert Indians to embrace Islam and increase their
to form an important agenda of education. The emancipation
numbers. In order to spread Islam they did not hesitate
of women, the demand of women to have greater representation
to destroy and desecrate Gurukulas, Viharas,
in the legislative bodies and governance of India require a fresh
monosteries, temples, etc.
look.
4. Pre-Independent Era : Even though the Muslim rulers
In the end, education must be vibrant, dynamic, flexible
destroyed many centres of learning and established
to meet any challenges of the future.
their own, the old systems of education existed side by
SUMMARY side with the Muslim system when the British came on
the Indian scene. They described the system as
1. Vedic Era : The ancient system of education was based
“indigenous” and therefore decaying. Instead of providing
on the Vedic Philosophy. Vedas’ are regarded as the
helping hand, they did everything possible to decimate
oldest among the literatures of the world. The word
it completely.
‘Veda’ means to know in general terms but it had deeper
meanings. Vedas not only represented “Knowledge” but The charter of 1813 by the East India Company paved the
also ways of life. The different kinds of ‘Vedas’ way for a new system of education. The charter’s placing of
represented various aspects of life. Rs.One lakh for the reconstruction of literature created a bitter
controversy between the protagonists of Indian system and the
2. Budhistic Era : The Vedic system of education developed western system. The controversy was known as “occidental-
signs of decline due to over-emphasis on sacred ritual, oriental controversy” which was resolved by Lord Macaulay.
performance of ‘Yajnas’ and the emerging caste system. Lord Macaulay’s famous minutes criticised Indian literatures,
religious practices, etc. very bitterly and advocated the in India. It laid stress on the teaching work to be undertaken
supremacy of western knowledge, languages, Sciences and by the universities. The role of the senate was also defined.
literatures. The Calcutta University Commission (1917) : Sir N.F. Sadlar
The British gradually took interest in education but was the chairman of the commission. It is also known as the
propagated “Downward filtration theory” which meant provision Sadler commission. Although it was asked to study the problems
of education for the elite only. of Calcutta university, but it studied the conditions of other
Wood’s Despatch (1854) : The Wood’s despatch is regarded universities as well.
as “the Magna Charta” of education. It made several important The commission made recommendations to make the
and sweeping changes in the system of education in India. Its universities autonomous institutions. It also suggested the
recommendations laid a sound base for the structure of education establishment of a Board for curriculum. It suggested the
in India. reorganisation of senate into court. However, it laid stress on
The important recommendations of the Despatch were the the modelling of Indian universities on Cambridge of the U.K.
establishment of Directorate of Public Instructions under a for which it was criticised.
Director in each province, system of grants in aid, establishment Hartog Committee : After the first world war the British
of universities, graded system of education, establishment of Government introduced Diarchy in India to pacify the Indian
training colleges and training schools for teachers. demand for ‘Swaraj’. The constitutional reform introduced
The Indian Education Commission (1882) : The commission through Diarchy proved to be illusion. The Government
is also known as the Hunter commission of education. It is the appointed Simon commission in 1927 to look into the political
first Indian Education commission in pre-Independent India. conditions of the country. It was also asked to appoint a
committee on education.
The main purpose of the commission was to study the
problems of primary education and to suggest remedial measures The commission appointed a committee under Sir Philip
for its reforms. Hartog who submitted report in 1929. The committee made
important observations about the educational scene in India
It stressed on the importance of primary education. It
but the most important was its finding about the state of
recommended to make it practical and useful. It also
primary education. According to him, primary education did
recommended to hand it over to the local bodies.
not make progress because of twin problems of “wastage” and
The commission also studied the conditions of secondary “stagnation”. The committee made observation about other
education and recommended that its curriculum should be aspects also.
reorganised. Its first part should contain subjects of general
The Abbot-Wood Report (1937) : Abbot and S. H. Wood,
education and the second part should have vocational courses.
the two British experts were appointed in 1937 to propose a
It also made recommendations on higher education, women plan for vocational education in India. It made some very
education and other aspects of education. important recommendations such as, vocational education
Lord Curzon came to India in 1899 as the Vice Roy. He took should be organised according to local needs, it should be an
keen interest in education. It was due to his efforts that the independent discipline in education, it should be provided in
first ever Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904. junior and senior stages of secondary education.
Indian Universities Act (1904) : The Act made important Sargant Report : After the end of second world war the
provisions for the organisation and administration of universities Government thought of bringing reforms in education in India.
The Sargant Report is a good document for the reconstruction Education Commission (1964-68) : The government of
of education. Its main recommendations included provision of India appointed an education Commission in 1964 under the
universal compulsory education to all children of 6-14 age chairmanship of Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari. The commission
group, high school education should be both literary and undertook the study of several aspects of education looking to
vocational, curriculum should be reorganised, overcrowding the needs of the country. The report of the commission is very
in universities should be checked effectively, setting up of the comprehensive, contains three parts.
U.G.C. should be taken up, etc. The commission dealt extensively on education and national
The University Education Commission (1947-48) : The aims. It asserted that education must help in solving the
commission was appointed under the chairmanship of eminent problems of our country. It recommended programmes to achieve
philosopher and teacher Dr. S. Radhakrishnan on 4 November national aims viz, increase in production, through education,
1948 to study the problems of university education in India. social and political integration through education. Strengthening
The commission made very important recommendations democracy through education, acceleration of the pace of
with regard to aims of university education, improvement of modernisation through education, development of social, moral
educational standards, teachers training research, women and spiritual values through education.
education, religious, vocational, medical, law education, National Policy on Education (1986) : The Parliament
medium of instruction, curriculum, examination system, of India in its budget session in 1986 discussed and adopted.
students problems, university admission and finance and rural The National Policy on Education 1986. The document consists
education. The commission felt that the aims of university of 12 parts. It suggests many radical changes in the system of
education should be in accordance with the past cultural education. Keeping the national perspective in focus, the NPE
traditions and the future requirements of the country. The recommended a national system of education for the entire
commission stressed the need to improve qualitatively the country which would adopt 10+2+3 (five years of primary
teaching standards. education, five years of lower and secondary and two years of
University education commission was the first commission higher secondary education and three years of degree courses)
of education in the post-Independent India. Its recommendations N.P.E also stressed the need for achieving minimum level of
and observations were helpful in reorganising university learning, universalisation of elementary education, child care
education in India. and nutrition adult literacy and expansion of education through
distance education.
Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : The
secondary education Commission was appointed under the N.P.E stressed the need for reforms in system of evaluation,
chairmanship of Dr. A. Laxman Swami Mudaliar on 23rd introduction of value education and the delinking of degrees
September 1952. The commission was asked to study the from jobs.
problems of secondary education in India and suggest remedial After the adoption of National Policy of education 1986,
measures. vigorous steps have been taken to implement them with
While making recommendation, the commission noted that enthusiasm and sincerity. Operation Black Board, Navodaya
the secondary education in India was the weakest link in the Vidyalaya, vocationalisation of education at +2 stage, open
chain of education. It was riddled with several defects viz, universities. 10+2+3 are some of the schemes launched in the
narrow, unrelated to life, fails to develop student’s personality country.
and independent thinking, fails to assess properly the Education in the Emerging India : Today India is
achievements etc. emerging as a super power in the field of information technology.
60 System and Issues in Indian Education Radhakrishnan Commission on Education 61
It is also a nuclear giant. It has advanced in the space technology.

Industrially also it has made astonishing progress but there
are contradictions and disparities also. But some picture of a
distant future can be visualized.
Population Education : Population in India has been
constantly rising. By the year 2001 it has crossed one billion. 3
This is a cause of great worry from every point of view. Education
will have to play a great role in this sphere.
RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION ON EDUCATION
Environmental Education : It is a paradox that a country
like India which had been rich in environment is today facing
the agony of pollution of environment. Pollution is a multi-
dimensional problem. It has assumed now the problem of entire APPOINTMENT OF THE COMMISSION
humanity. The Secondary Education Commission appointed by the
Education in environment though a new concept in India Government of India in terms of their Resolution No. F. 9-5/
will have to be taken seriously and action plan will have to be 52-B-1, dated 23rd September 1952, having completed its
made to prepare the future citizens. Curriculum, methods of labours, presents the following Report based on its deliberations.
teaching, textbooks etc. will have to redrafted and innovated. The Government of India, their communique quoted above,
Education and Modernisation : India today is on the referred to the recommendation of the Central Advisory Board
crossroads of modernisation. On one side of the spectrum, our of Education made at its 14th meeting held in January 1948,
rockets and satellites are trotting the universe, vast majority that a Commission be appointed to examine the prevailing
of people are living a miserable life-ill-clad, ill-fed, ill-sheltered system of Secondary Education in the country and suggest
on the other side, Modernisation though is a revolutionary measures for its re-organization and improvement. The Board
process cannot sustain for long without equalising and reiterated its recommendation in January 1951. The
harmonising the lives of the people in India. Education has to Government of India had also other considerations in mind
play a role, not only by giving equal opportunities to one and when appointing this Commission, such as the desirability of
all but also in establishing balance between the past and the changing over from the prevailing system of secondary education
present. which is unilateral and predominantly academic in nature to
one which will cater at the secondary stage for different aptitudes
and interests. The Commission appointed by the Government
of India con-sisted of the following :
1. DR. A. LAKSHMANSWAMI MUDALIAR
Vice-Chancellor, Madras University, (Chairman)
2. PRINCIPAL JOHN CHRISTIE
Jesus College, Oxford
3 . DR. KENNETH RAST WILLIAMS
Associate Director, Southern Regional Education Board,
Atlanta (U.S.A.)
4. MRS. HANSA MEHTA INAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSION

Vice-Chancellor, Baroda University The Commission was inaugurated by the Hon’ble Minister
5. SHRI J. A. TARAPOREWALA Director of Technical of Edu-cation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, on the 6th October,
Education Government of Bombay 1952 in New Delhi. It immediately proceeded to consider its
6. DR. K. L. SHRIMALI programme of work. Prior to the first meeting of the Commission,
Principal, Vidya Bhavan Teachers’ Training College, the Chairman and the Member-Secretary discussed the issue
Udaipur of a suitable questionnaire. They had the advice of some
headmasters and others interested in education and, keeping
7. SHRI M. T. Vyas
in view the main functions which the Commission had to
Bombay
discharge. sent out a detailed questionnaire, a copy of which
8. SHRI K. G. SAIYDAIN is given in Appendix II. The questionnaire was sent to a large
Joint Secretary to the Government of India Ministry of number of educationists, administrators and leaders of public
Education (Ex-officio Member) opinion interested in the sphere of education. Replies were
9. PRINCIPAL A. N. BASU received from many of them. The Commission acknowledges its
Central Institute of Education thanks to all those who-have sent their replies to the
Delhi (Member-Secretary) questionnaire.
Dr. S. M. S. Chari, Education Officer, ITINERARY

Ministry of Education acted, as Assistant Secretary to the Soon after its inauguration, the Commission met in New
Commission. Delhi, and considered the scope of its functions with reference
Terms of Reference to the terms under which it was appointed, the manner in
which it was to discharge its responsibilities and the extent to
Under the terms of reference, the Commission was asked which it would be necessary for the Commission to elicit public
(a) to enquire into and report on the present position of opinion from educationists and other citizens all over the
Secondary Education in India in all its aspects ; and country. It drew up a detailed tour programme to enable the
(b) suggest measures for its reorganization and members to visit various States. A copy of the tour programme
improvement with particular reference to- is appended. The Commission regrets that within the limited
time at its disposal it could not accept invitations to visit other
(i) the aims, organization and content of Secondary places but it feels that he ground covered has given it a
Education; reasonable opportunity to understand and appreciate the many
(ii) its relationship to Primary, Basic and Higher problems of Secondary Education in the various States of the
Education; Indian Union.
(iii) the inter-relation of Secondary Schools of different
CO-OPTED MEMBERS
types; and
In most of the States which the Commission visited, the
(iv) other allied problems. so that a sound and reasonably Govern-ment of the State concerned nominated a member of
uniform system of Secondary Education suited to the Education Department or a prominent educationist of the
our needs and resources may be provided for the State as a co-opted member during the Commission’s tour in
whole country.”
the particular State. The following persons were co-opted as The Commission wishes to express its sincere thanks to the
members of the Commission for the States mentioned : co-opted members who gave valuable advice and materially
Shri C. L. Kapoor, Secretary, helped the Commission by arranging for visits to educational
institutions and for interviews.
Education Department, Punjab
Shri A. A. Kazmi, Director of Education, The Commission had largely to leave it to the Directors of
Public Instruction and to the co-opted members in these States
Jammu and Kashmir
to decide on the representatives who were to be interviewed.
Shri S. N. Sahay, Vice-Chancellor, Besides the co-opted members, certain of the State Governments
Bihar University, Patna and appointed also liaison Officers whose duty it was to help in
Shri J. C. Mathur, Secretary, arranging for the meetings of the Commission, for the
Education Department, Bihar interviews, and for visits to educational institutions and
generally to make the work of the Commission profitable and
Shri S. C. Rajkhowa, Inspector of Schools, Assam
pleasant.
Shri A. K. Chanda, Chairman,
The Commission wishes to express its thanks to these
Secondary Education Board, West Bengal officers for the very efficient help that they gave, enabling it
Dr. B. Prasad, Director of Public Instruction, Orissa to discharge its duties satisfactorily. The Commission had the
Shri S. Govindarajulu Naidu, advantage, of interviewing a large number of distinguished
Director of Public Instruction, Madras educationists, members of Universities, representatives of
teachers’ organizations, representatives of managements, high
Shri V. Sundararaja Naidu,
officials of the Departments of Education and associated
Director of Public Instruction, Travancore-Cochin, professions, Ministers of the States and Centre and leading
Shri J. B. Mallaradhya, representatives of the public.
Director of Public Instruction, Mysore A list of such persons is given in Appendix IV. To all these
Dr. D. Shendarkar, persons the Commission is greatly indebted for the opportunity
Deputy Director of Public Instruction, Hyderabad of a free and frank exchange of ideas on all important subjects
Dr. V. S. Jha, Secretary, connected with secondary education.
Education Department, Madhya Pradesh The Commission was gratified to note that in all the States
that were visited, great interest and enthusiasm were evinced
Shri D. C. Pavate,
in problems of secondary education. In several States,
Director of Education, Bombay Committees had already been .appointed to enquire into and
Shri Nanabhai Bhatt, M. P., Gram Dakshina Murti, report on the working of Secondary Education in these States.
Saurashtra The Commission wishes to add that it is particularly grateful
Shri S. N. Chaturvedi, Director of Education, to the State Governments, to the Ministers of Education and
Madhya Bharat other Ministers of the States, to the Directors of Public
Instruction and to the Ministry of Education at the Centre for
Shri R. G. Gupta, Assistant Director of Education,
their ready willingness to assist the Commission, and for the
Rajasthan manner 3in which every possible co-operation was extended in
Dr. A. N. Banerjee, Director of Education, Delhi the work that it had undertaken.
RAISON D’ETRE OF THE COMMISSION of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce of tragedy or perhaps
In the course of our interviews the question arose as to the both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance, and the people
necessity for the Central Government to appoint an All-India who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with
Commission on Secondary Education since, under the the power which knowledge gives.” We should, however like
Constitution, education is a responsibility of the State to add that it is not only knowledge that is required, but also
Governments. This is an important issue and we consider it the right kind of social training and the inculcation of right
necessary to state clearly the raison d’etre of such a Commission. ideals without which knowledge by itself may be sterile or
worse. Training for democracy postulates a balanced education
We recognise that secondary education is mainly the concern
in which social virtues, intellectual development and prac-tical
of the States but, in view of its impact on the life of the country
skill all receive due consideration and the pattern of such an
as a whole, both in the field of culture and technical efficiency,
education must be envisaged on an all-India basis.
the Central Government cannot divest itself of the responsibility
to improve its standards and to relate it intelligently to the Another important question with which we were faced
larger problems of national life. everywhere was the place of the different languages more
particularly of Hindi and English in the scheme of secondary
The aim of secondary education is to train the youth of the
education. There is a great deal of confused thinking as well
country to be good citizens, who will be competent to play their
as wide difference of opinion on this subject. If educational
part effectively in the social reconstruction and economic
progress is to be well planned and confusion is to be avoided,
development of their country. The Central Government is,
the tendency to adopt divergent and even conflicting policies
therefore, naturally concerned about the type of education to
in this matter has to be resisted. And it is not only in the matter
be given to the youth of the country. It must make sure that
of linguistic policy that this tendency to separatism has been
secondary education will prepare young men for the various
in evidence. There has been an accentuation in recent years
vocations that are open to them. Moreover, it is directly charged
of certain undesirable tendencies of provincialism, regionalism,
with the responsibility of maintaining proper standards in
and other sectional differences. This situation is fraught with
higher education. This cannot be done, unless careful
serious consequences and it is as much the duty of statesmen
consideration is given to the level of efficiency attained at the
as of educationalists to take steps to reorient people’s mind in
secondary stage.
the right direction. if education fails to play its part effectively
All-India Problems in checking these tendencies, if it does not strengthen the
There are several other fields in which it is desirable that forces of national cohesion and solidarity, we are afraid that
a clear policy should be laid down on an all-India basis. One our freedom, our national unity as well as our future progress
of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution is will be seriously imperilled.
the right of every citizen of the Union to free and compulsory We feel that in the entire planning of education and to some
education up to the age of 14. For the proper functioning of extent, in the matter of its financial responsibility, there
democracy, the Centre must see that every individual is should be the closest co-operation and co-operation between the
equipped with the necessary knowledge, skill, and aptitudes Centre and the States. In some fields. of secondary education,
to discharge his duties as a responsible and co-operative citizen. the Central Government should assume greater responsibility,
What James Madison said about his country, the United States, e.g., in the training of teachers, the formulation of educational
many years ago, holds good today in our country also. A and vocational tests, the production and selection of better
popular Government without popular information or the means textbooks, and the training of technicians. The Centre has also
a special obligation with regard to the physical welfare of the the country. Not only is this interest apparent amongst
pupils. it has already organized a National Cadet Corps for educational authorities and teachers but State Governments
schools. Consistently, therefore. with the recognition of the have also taken steps to have the whole problem of Secondary
role of the States in formulating educational programmes and Education surveyed and examined by competent committees
implementing them, we have no doubt whatever that, in view appointed for the purpose. In some States their reports have
of the crucial importance of education for the whole future and already been submitted, while in others the matter is under
progress of the country in every sphere-economic, industrial, active consideration. We have studied with interest and profit
social and cultural-the Central Government should view such reports as have been published and we have had the
education from an overall national angle and assume the duties advantage of an exchange of views with some of the members
of educational guidance and leadership. While there is of these committees. Because of this general awakening, there
everything to be said for local and State autonomy in education, is reason to hope that the States and the Centre would take
it should not be interpreted to justify differences in basic active steps to implement as far as possible, the approved
educational policies and objectives. recommendations made by this Commission and the various
State Committees.
PREVIOUS EDUCATION COMMISSIONS
It was also pointed out that this Commission should have
A number of Commissions has been appointed in the past preceded the University Commission established in 1948. This
to survey Indian Education-the Indian Education Commission is obviously not a matter for us to discuss. Actually it has been
of 1882, the Commission of 1902, the Sadler Commission of a great advantage for us to know exactly what the University
1917 and the recent Radhakrishnan Commission, all of which Commission had to say. In fact every Commission on education
dealt incidentally with certain aspects of Secondary Education. has had necessarily to deal with Secondary Education to a very
But no Commission has so far been appointed to survey the large extent. It cannot be otherwise. The Indian Education
problems of secondary education as a whole. We have been Commission of 1882, the Commission of 1902 with its more
entrusted with this responsibility and, in discharging it, we restricted terms of reference, the Commission of 1917, more
found that we had also to give some consideration to primary popularly known as the, Sadler Commission and the latest
as well as higher education. University Education Commission of which Dr. Radhakrishnan
This in fact was enjoined on us by our terms of reference was the Chairman have all dealt with some aspects of secondary
since they are both intimately linked up with Secondary education. Their reports have all been studied by us with
Education and their standards and efficiency depend largely interest and profit.
on the proper organization of secondary education. Reference
has, therefore, been made from time to time to these two IMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONS
stages. In dis-cussing the new pattern of secondary education Many recommendations of previous Commissions have not
organization we have indicated how it is to be linked up at one been implemented. Many responsible people have therefore
end with Primary Education and at the other with University questioned the likelihood of any steps being taken to examine
Education and how the total duration of education in these and implement the recommendations of this Commission. In
three stages will be distributed. reply we would point out that India’s needs today are different
We have the feeling that the appointment of the Commission from what they were in the past. India is now free and
has been made very opportunely because, in our tour, we independent. The educational needs of a free country are
found clear evi-dence of serious interest in this problem all over different and ought to be different from what, they were under
foreign domination. The implementation of a report in the days
of foreign rule was the responsibility of an alien government those temporarily responsible for carrying on the democratic
and if nothing was done that Government was to blame. Today, form of government. While we agree that experiments in
however, in a self-governing democracy, the responsibility for education are to be continuous, we, feel that the general lines
implementing a sound educational policy rests with the people of reform should be such as would be conducive to a steady
themselves and their chosen representatives. If public opinion, growth.
therefore, proclaims clearly that a new educational policy is
needed, the report which we are representing, if approved, APPRAISAL OF THE EXISTING SITUATION
will be preliminary to action, and not, as reports have too often Origin of the Present System
been in the past, an alternative to action. We are not inclined In order to present clearly the background of the present
to take a pessimistic view of the matter and, although we are system of Secondary Education and to show how it has developed
aware of the conditions under which State and Central its various characteristic features, it seems necessary to pass
Governments will have to examine this report, we believe that in quick review the various Government Resolutions as well as
the States and the Centre are most actively interested in the the reports and recommendations of the different Committees
problems of education, more particularly of secondary education. and Commissions which have studied this problem directly or
indirectly. This will also enable us to understand on what lines
BASIS OF RECOMMENDATIOS
the problem of the reorganisation of Secondary Education has
We are anxious to see that our recommendations are of been envisaged by educationists during the last fifty years.
such a nature that they can be implemented. For this reason,
The origin of the system of education which is prevalent
we have divided them into short-term and long-term
today can be traced to the beginning of the nineteenth century
recommendations. It is, however, essential that the general
when the Government of the day had surveys made of the then
orientation of policy should be clear from the outset so that the
prevalent systems of education with a view to reorganising
refashioning of the educational pattern may proceed on right
education to suit the needs of the times.-Consequent on
lines and, even where we are not able to put certain suggestions
Macaulay’s minute regarding the edu-cational policy of the
and recommendations into practice immediately, we should
future, Lord William Bentinck’s Government issued a
know in what direction we are moving. We realize that some
communique wherein it was stated “that the great object of the
of the specific recommendations that we have made may have
British Government ought to be the promotion of European
a comparatively short range applicability, for changed
Lite-rature and Science among the natives of India. and that
conditions, social, political, economic and cultural—always
all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would
postulate new educational objectives and techniques. In a
be best employed on English education alone”. The Resolution
changing world, problems of education are also likely to change.
also stated that provision should be made for the continuance
The emphasis placed on one aspect of it today may not be of schools and colleges where indigenous learning was being
necessary at a future date. It must, therefore, be clearly imparted.
understood that these recommendations are not to be considered
Important changes in the type of education to be imparted
as recommendations for all time but they must necessarily be
to the youth of the country were introduced in the first half
looked upon as recommendations for a fair period. They may
of the 18th century. The minute of Lord Macaulay and
have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of experience.
subsequent resolutions passed by the Government (in 1835) led
In any case, educational reform must be undertaken in such
to the establishment of schools teaching European literature
a way that it remains permanent over a definite period of time.
and science. These schools became imme-diately popular because
Our proposals should not be subject to frequent changes by
of the great interest shown in English education by some of the The establishment of Universities in the year 1857 had far-
educated Indians and more particularly by leaders like Raja reach-ing consequences especially on the content, range and
Ram Mohan Roy and others. scope of Secon-dary Education. The Universities dominated
The education imparted in these schools became a passport secondary schools in every respect. Secondary Education instead
for entrance into Government services. This was mainly due of being a self-sufficient course preparing students to enter life
to the Proc-lamation issued by Lord Hardinge in 1844 that for after completing the course became merely a step towards the
service in public offices preference should be given to those who Universities and University colleges with the result that schools
were educated in English schools. In consequence thereof could not function with an independent programme of their
education was imparted with the limited object of preparing own.
pupils to join the service and not for life. In the new High Certain specific defects grew out of the system of secondary
Schools the standard of achievement in literary subjects was edu-cation in vogue during the years 1854-1882: the mother-
from the very beginning high but little or no progress was made tongue was completely neglected as a medium of instruction;
in training the pupils in the practical side of science. We may, nothing was done to train teachers for the secondary schools;
therefore, conclude that some of the defects persisting today and the course of study became too academic and unrelated to
owe their origin to the policy pursued in the past. life mainly because there was no provision for vocational or
technical courses. One further defect that had now taken
The Despatch of 1854
concrete shape was that the Matriculation Examination began
By 1853 a number of problems had arisen which required to dominate not only secondary education but even the education
immediate solution. As a result of an enquiry made, a. despatch imparted in primary schools.
(known as ‘Wood’s Despatch’) was issued in 1854 reviewing the
development of education to date, and proposing certain new The Hunter Commission of 1882
schemes for adoption. Among these the following may be In 1882 an education commission, known as the Hunter
mentioned : Departments of Public Instruction under an Commission, was appointed by the Government to report on
important officer to be called the Director of Public Instruction the whole question of education in the country. The following
were to be created; a scheme to establish Univer-sities was to instructions regarding Secondary education were given: “The
be formulated, whose functions were to hold examinations and Commission was directed to enquire into the quality and
confer degrees. It is interesting to note that the despatch character of the instructions Imparted in schools of this class.
recommended that a number of high schools should be set up. The great majority of those who prosecute beyond the primary
The despatch observed: “Our attention should now be directed stage will never go beyond the curriculum of the middle, or
to a consideration, if possible still more important and one at farthest of the high schools. It is therefore of the utmost
which has been hitherto, we are bound to admit, too much importance that the education they received should be as
neglected, namely, how useful and practical knowledge suited thorough and sound as possible. There are grounds for doubting
to every station of life, may be best conveyed to the great mass whether there is ‘not, in some provinces at any rate, much
of the people who are utterly incapable of obtaining any room for improvement in this respect.”
education worthy of the name by their unaided efforts; and we Since it was very costly for the Government to maintain
desire to see the active measures of Government more especially secondary schools it was thought that the Government should
directed for the future to this object, for the attainment of take over the entire responsibility of primary education, leaving
which we are ready to sanction a considerable increase of secondary education to private enterprise. The Commission
expenditure”. recommended that “Secondary Education as far as possible, be
provided on the grant-in-aid basis and that the Government of Secondary Education which were responsible for laying down
should withdraw as early as possible from the direct syllabus and for conducting examina-tions at the school final
management of Secondary Schools”. stage.
The report of the Hunter Commission of 1882 is a valuable The Secondary School-Leaving Certi-ficate was expected to
document which not only gave an excellent survey of the position furnish full information as to the progress of the pupil during
of secondary schools at that time, but made certain fundamental the whole period of the school course as well as in the Public
recom-mendations concerning the type of education to be given Examination conducted at the end of that course. On the basis
at this stage. It anticipated what has, come to be recognised of these records it was left to employers and to principals of
later as diversified courses of instruction in the secondary stage University colleges to entertain them in service or to admit
of education. With regard to vocational and technical education, them to college for such courses of study as in the opinion of
the commission recommended that in a particular class of high the Principals concerned the pupils were best fitted.
schools there should be two avenues, one leading to the entrance
The Calcutta University Commission of 1917
examination of the University and the other of a more practical
character intended to fit the youth for commercial, vocational The next important stage was the appointment of the
or non-literary pursuits. In spite of such specific Calcutta University Commission in 1917 under the
recommendations, neither the public nor the Government Chairmanship of the late Sir Michael Sadler. This Commission
seem to have appreciated the value of the suggestions, with went into the question of secondary education and held the
the result that the recommendations were practically ignored. view that the improvement of secondary education was essential
for the improvement of University education. The Commission
During the period 1882-1902 there was a considerable
made certain important recommendations among which were
expansion in the field of secondary education. It was due partly
the following:
to the enthusiasm of private enterprise and partly to the system
of grant-in-aid. This unwieldy expansion without proper 1. The dividing line between the University and Secondary
consolidation led to certain obvious defects. courses is more properly to be drawn at the Intermediate
examination than at the Matriculation.
The University Commission of 1902
2. Government should, therefore, create a new type of
In 1902 a University Commission was appointed, the main
institutions called the intermediate colleges which would
purpose of which however, was to review the position of the
provide for instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine,
Universities regarding the higher grades of examination. As a
Engineering, Teaching etc.; these colleges. might either
result of the re-commendations of this Commission secondary
be run as independent institutions or might be attached
education came to be even more under the domination of the
to selected high schools.
Universities, under the Indian Universities Act of 1904, schools
had to be recognised by the Univer-sities, and rules and 3. The admission test for Universities should be the passing
regulations were framed for this purpose. of the intermediate Examination.
4. A Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education
Boards of Secondary Education
consisting of the representatives of Government,
The feeling that the Universities were dominating secondary University, High Schools and Intermediate colleges to
edu-cation and that an attempt should be made to see that be established and entrusted with the administration
secondary education was conducted independently of the and control of Secondary Education.”
Universities, led to the creation, in certain States, of Boards
Though the Sadler Commission was appointed to enquire were not attracted to the teaching profession, the Committee
into the conditions of the Calcutta University and to make held, because the best type of men cannot be attracted to the
recommendations, the report was so comprehensive. that many profession so long as the general conditions remain
of the Universities in India began to implement the suggestions unsatisfactory and “only too frequently the teachers have no
contained therein. For the first time a Commission had heart in their work”, and “in no province is the pay of the
recommended the attachment of Intermediate classes to the teacher sufficient to give him the status which his work
high schools and the setting up of a Board of Education to demands”.
control High School and Intermediate Education.
The Sapru Committee
During the subsequent period there was a great expansion
The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P.
of secondary education and the number of secondary schools
began to increase both in rural and urban areas largely owing Government which enquired into the causes of unemployment
to the interest evinced by the public and generous donations in Uttar Pradesh (United Provinces) came to the conclusion
of individuals and institutions. that much of the unrest was. primarily due to mass
unemployment and that the system of education commonly
But problems relating to the training of teachers, their
prevalent prepared pupils only for examinations and degrees
salaries, and conditions of service were left unsolved. The
and not for an avocation in life. “In a situation like that”, the
unprecedented expansion of the academic type of secondary
Committee remarked, “the real remedy is to provide diversified
schools resulted in a failure to provide for technical schools or
courses of study at the secondary stage and to make that stage
for bifurcated courses of studies in high schools.
more practical and complete in itself and more closely related
The Hartog Committee to the vocational re-quirements of different types of students.
In 1929, as auxiliary to the Indian Statutory Commission, At the secondary stage, side by side with the general course
a Com-mittee was appointed known as the Hartog Committee, leading to the University, there should be parallel courses
to review the position of education in the country. In the opinion offering instruction in technical, commercial, industrial and
of this Com-mittee, the Matriculation of the University still other vocational subjects”.
dominated the whole of the secondary course. In’ order to The main suggestions made by the Committee were that-
obviate this defect, the Com-mittee recommended that a large (1) Diversified courses at the secondary stage should be
number of pupils intending to follow certain avocations should
introduced, one of these courses leading to the University
stop at the middle school stage. There should be “more diversified
degree
curricula in the schools”.
(2) The Intermediate stage be abolished and the Secondary
The Committee also recommended “diversion of more boys
stage be extended by one year; the secondary stage to
to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle,
consist of six years to be divided into two, the higher
stage, preparatory to special instruction in technical and
and lower, each covering a period of three years, the
industrial schools.” It is interesting to note that the Committee
reviewed the position of the training of tea-chers and the service whole course thus covering 11 years, 5 for the primary
conditions of secondary teachers and remarked “that enough and six for the secondary ; the general course to be of
cannot be done in the short space of nine months which is all 8 years i.e. up to the lower secondary course ;
that is usually available, to uproot the old methods of teaching (3) Vocational training and education should begin after
to which many of the students are accustomed.” The best pupils the lower secondary stage;
(4) The Degree course at the University should extend over Government of India, visualised a system of universal,
a period of three years. compulsory and free education for all boys and girls between
the ages of 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle School
The Abbot-Wood Report
being the final stage in the school career of majority of the
In 1936-37, two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood future citizens. It was also recommended by this Committee
were invited to advise the Government “on certain problems that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made for
of educational reorganization and particularly on problems of a, variety of courses extending over a period of five years after
Vocational education”. One of the basic reasons for instituting the age of 11. These courses while preserving an essentially
this enquiry was “the fact that a large number of University cultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils for
graduates were not securing employment of a kind for which entry into industrial and commercial occupations as well as
their education qualified them”. The terms of reference included- into the Universities. It was recommended that the High School
“(1) Where any vocational or practical training should be course should cover 6 years, the normal age of admission being
imparted in primary, secondary and higher secondary 11 years and that the High Schools should be of two main types
schools, and if so what should be its nature and extent? (a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective of both should
be to provide a good all-round education combined with some
(2) Whether the technical or vocational institutions already
preparation in the latter stages for the careers which pupils
in existence can be improved and whether new
will pursue on leaving schools.
institutions for vocational or technical training would
be required, and if so, to suggest the type of institutions Recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of
required for the purpose; the stage at which divergence Education
from the ordinary secondary schools (lower or higher The Central Advisory Board of Education at their 14th
secondary) to such schools should be effected ; and the meeting held in January, 1948, considered the question of
means to be adopted for effecting such diversion.” secondary education in the country. In view of its importance
The report of Messrs. Abbot and Wood suggested a complete in the educational system in the country the Board resolved
hierarchy of vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchy that a Commission be appointed by the Government of India
of institutions imparting general education. to:
One important result of their recommendations has been (a) Review the present position of Secondary Education in
that “a new type of technical institution called the Polytechnic India, and
has come into existence.” The provinces also started technical,
(b) make recommendations in regard to the various
commercial or agri-cultural high schools conducting non-literary
problems related thereto. This resolution was endorsed
courses.
by the All-India Education Confe-rence convened by the
The Sargent Report Hon’ble Minister for Education in January 1948. In
In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education which pursuance of these recommendations, the Government
is an all-India advisory body set up by the Government of India, of India appointed a Committee under the Chairmanship
submitted a comprehensive Report on Post-War Educational of Dr. Tara Chand, the then Educational Adviser to the
Development containing certain important recommendations. Government of India. This Committee made some
The report, more popularly known as the Sargent Report after important recommendations on different aspects of
Sir John Sargent who was Educational Adviser to the secondary education. The Report of this Committee was
further considered by the Central Advisory Board of time-table, unsuitable textbooks of poor quality and the unduly
Education at its 15th meeting held at Allahabad in 1949 detailed syllabus prescribed did not give the teachers sufficient
when it was resolved that the Government of India be opportunity for self-experience or for developing self-reliance
requested to appoint a Commission for Secondary and did not create the habit of independent thinking in their
Education to which the questions raised by some of the pupils.
conclusions drawn in the Report be referred and that Another great handicap was the large number of pupils in
it should, in addition to these items, go into the wider each class, making it impossible for the-teacher to establish
question of the aim, objective and purpose of secondary close personal contracts with his pupils or to exercise proper
education and the relation of Secondary Education to- educative influence on their minds and character. On account
Basic and University Education. The Board again at its of the education expansion that has taken place during the last
meeting held in January, 1951 reiterated its conviction few decades, many children now seeking-education come from
that the reorganization of secondary education in the homes where there is little of an educational atmosphere and
country was of such vital importance that the Govern- consequently little or no opportunity of supplementing the
ment of India should appoint a Commission at an early education given at the school.
date.
This fact adds considerably to the responsibility of the
REORIENTATION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES school which it is not at present in a position to discharge. Nor
can we overlook the fact that the teaching profession does not
Defects of the Existing System attract a sufficient number of the right type of teachers with
During our tour many witnesses expressed disappointment the requisite personal qualities and aptitudes and a spirit of
with the present set-up of Secondary education and referred devotion to their work. Because of large number of teachers
to various defects which, in their opinion, made it wasteful required, recruitment has been haphazard and a careful
and ineffective and hindered the realisation of its true aims and selection has been the exception rather than the rule. Again
objectives. They pointed out that this education was too bookish there are inadequate facilities for those co-curricular activities
and mechanical, stereotyped and rigidly uniform and did not which provide an excellent medium for training the mind and
cater to the different aptitudes of the pupil or to pupils of emotions as well as the practical aptitudes of students, promote
different aptitudes. Nor did it develop those basic qualities of their physical welfare and inculcate in them social qualities
discipline, cooperation and leadership which were calculated necessary for successful community life. Few schools make
to make them function as useful citizens. The stress on proper provision for playing fields or for group games and other
examinations, the over-crowded syllabus, the methods of recreational activities which give vitality and joyousness to
teaching, and lack of proper material amenities tended to school work and help in the education of the children’s total
make education a burden rather than a joyous experience to personality.
the youthful mind. The unilateral scheme of studies which One could go on adding to this list of defects enumerated
concentrated almost entirely on preparing students for entrance by the witnesses.. But it seems unnecessary since all who have
to the University, was not calculated to bring out the best had any contact with these schools as teachers or parents can
either in the teacher or in the pupils. enumerate many other defects and handicaps of the present
Again the failure to provide diversified courses of study system. It would, however, be useful to view them coherently
make it difficult for many students to secure suitable and spot-light what we consider to be the basic short comings
employment at the end of the course. In most cases, a rigid and defects of the present Secondary school because that would
provide the starting point for a discussion of the methods of considerably reduced personal contact between teachers and
reform and reconstruction. pupils. Thus the training of character and inculcation of proper
Firstly, the education given in our schools is isolated from discipline have been seriously undermined.
life—the curriculum as formulated and as presented through The situation has been further aggravated by the fact that
the traditional methods of teaching does not give the students the average efficiency of the teachers has deteriorated; their
insight into the everyday world in which they are living. When economic difficulties and lack of social prestige have tended to
they pass out of school they feel ill-adjusted and cannot take create in them a sense of frustration. Unless something is done
their place confidently and competently in the community. quickly to increase their efficiency and give them a feeling of
Unless the school is itself organized as a community and is in contentment and a sense of their own worth, they will not be
vital rapport with outside community life, this situation cannot able to pull their full weight.
be remedied. Secondly, it is narrow, and one-sided and fails Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended
to train the whole personality of the student. For many decades, to curb the teachers’ initiative, to stereotype the curriculum,
it has provided only academic instruction which meant teaching to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to
him a certain number of subjects which either gave information discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress
which the adults considered useful or trained him in certain on wrong or unimportant things in education.
skills like reading and writing.
In this section we have naturally focussed our attention
The “non-cognitive” aspects of his personality-his practical only on the defects of the present system, because sound
aptitudes, his emotions, his appreciation, his tests were reconstruction de-pends on their proper diagnosis. It should
largely ignored. Recently, games, crafts and certain types of not, however, be taken to mean that it has no good features
social activities have been given a place in the school programme, or that it has played no useful role at all, in the life of the
but they are still not regarded as an integral part of the nation. Its main handicap has been that it started with a
curriculum. On the whole, it is still true that our education limited and wrong objective.
caters only to a segment of the student’s whole personality.
Naturally, therefore, its later development took place
Thirdly, until comparatively recently, English was bolt the
within the limitations of that objective. Many piecemeal reforms
medium of instruction and a compulsory subject of study.
and improvements have been introduced from time to time as
Students who did not possess special linguistic ability were
we have hinted above but they were not coherently and
therefore greatly handicapped in their studies. If a student did
consciously related to the right aims and objectives and,
not fare well in English he could neither pass the School Final
therefore, their total impact on the system was unimpressive.
Examination nor find any post in government service.
What is necessary now-and this is what we are anxious to
The other subjects, which were psychologically and socially ensure—is to take bold and far-sighted measures to give a new
important or congenial, were not given greater attention. orientation to Secondary education as a whole in which all
Fourthly, the methods of teaching generally practised failed these individual reforms may find their proper and integrated
to develop in the students either independence of thought or place.
initiative in action. They stressed competitive success rather
than the joy of cooperative achievement. It is a matter of AIMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
common complaint that lessons are imparted in a mechanical The aims of education have been formulated in general
way Living information which is relunctantly memorized by terms in numerous books on education and in the reports of
the students. Fifthly, the increase in the size of classes has committees and commissions and, therefore, so far as such
general aims are concerned, it is not possible to add anything need for reorienting the educational system in such a way that
significant to what has been re-peatedly expressed. But there it will stimulate a cultural renaissance.
is undoubtedly room for formulating these aims in more specific From this necessarily sketchy analysis of the dominant
terms and with special reference to the needs and the ideals needs of the present situation, it is clear that we shall have
of our country in its actual situation. to formulate our aims with reference to these broad categories-
As political, social and economic conditions change and the training of charac-ter to fit the students to participate
new problems arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine creatively as citizens in the emerging democratic social order;
carefully and re-state clearly the objectives which education at the improvement of their practical and vocational efficiency so
each definite stage, should keep in view. Moreover, this that they may play their part in building up the economic
statement must take into account not only the facts of the prosperity of their country; and the development of their literary,
existing situation but also the direction of its development and artistic and cultural interests, which are necessary for self-
the nature and type of the social order that we envisage for expression and for the full development of the human
the future to which education has to be geared. personality, without which a, living national culture cannot
come into being. We propose to consider each one of these
Educational Needs of Democratic India briefly in order to indicate their implication in more concrete
The most outstanding and educationally relevant facts that terms.
have to be taken into account may be briefly summed up as
Role of Education in Developing Democratic Citizenship
follows. India has recently achieved its political freedom and
has, after careful consideration, decided to transform itself Citizenship in a democracy is a very exacting and challenging
into a, secular democratic republic. responsibility for which every citizen has to be carefully trained.
It involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities which
This means that the educational system must make its
cannot be expected to grow of their own accord. In any kind
contribution to the development of habits, attitudes and qualities
of regimental social order, the individual does not need to
of character, which will enable its citizens to bear worthily the
indulge in the travail of independent thinking or of chalking
responsibilities of democratic citizenship and to counteract all
out his own lines of action.
those fissiparous tendencies which hinder the emergence of a
broad, national and secular outlook. Secondly, though rich in The authorities relieve him of that onerous responsibilities
potential resources, India is actually a poor country at present; ! But in a democracy-if it is anything more than the thoughtless
a large majority of its people have to live at an economically exercise of the vote-an individual must form his own independent
judgment on all kinds of complicated social, economic and
subhuman level.
political issues and, to a large extent, decide his own course
One of its most urgent problems-if not the most urgent of action.
problem-is to improve productive efficiency to increase the
The Secondary education, which would be the end of all
national wealth and thereby to raise appreciably the standard
formal education for the majority of the citizens, must assume
of living of the people.
the responsibility of providing the necessary training for this
Thirdly, partly as a result of this oppressive and widespread purpose. The first requisite in this connection is to develop the
poverty there is a serious lack of educational facilities and the capacity for clear thinking and a receptivity to new ideas. On
bulk-of the people are so obsessed with the problem of making the intellectual side the school should perhaps accord the highest
some sort of a living that have not been able to give sufficient priority to the cultivation of this quality, which is the
attention to cultural pursuits and activities. Hence there is distinguishing mark of an educated mind.
A democracy of people who can think only confusedly can or social consideration. The object of a democratic education is,
neither make progress, nor even maintain itself, be-cause it therefore, the full, all-round development of every individual’s
will always be open to the risk of being misled and exploited personality. This requires that education should take into
by demagogues who have within their reach today account all his needs-psychological, social, emotional and
unprecedentedly powerful media of mass communication and practical-and cater to all of them.
propaganda. The view of education that emerges from this basic concept
To be effective, a democratic citizen should have the transcends the narrow academic approach and broadens out
understanding and the intel-lectual integrity to sift truth from into an education for living i.e. an education to initiate the
falsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the dangerous students into the many-sided art of living in a community. It
appeal of fanaticism and prejudice. He must develop a scientific is obvious, however, that an individual cannot live and develop’
attitude of mind to think objectively and base his conclusions alone.
on tested data. Both for his own wholesome development and the good of
He should also have an open mind receptive to new ideas society, it is essential that he should learn to live with others
and not confined within the prison walls of outmoded customs, and to appreciate the value of cooperation through practical
traditions and beliefs. It should neither reject the old because experience and free interplay with other personalities. No
it is old nor accept the new because it is new, but dispassionately education is worth the name which does not inculcate the
examine both and courageously reject whatever arrest the forces qualities necessary for living graciously, harmoniously and
of justice and progress. efficiently with one’s fellow men.
We shall discuss later in dealing with educational methods, Amongst the qualities which should be cultivated for this
how such a mind is to be developed through education. What purpose are discipline, cooperation, social sensitiveness and
we wish to stress here is the need for teachers to appreciate tolerance. Each one of them has its own special part to play
that this is one of the most important aims that should in the human-ising and socialising of the personality. Discipline
consciously inspire their educational ideas and technique. They is an essential condition for successful group work. An
should realize that the type of lessons usually given in our indisciplined person can neither make any effective contribution
classrooms, which only call for passive assimilation, can make to the completion of any corporate project, nor develop qualities
no contribution to the development of this type of mind. of leadership.
Closely allied to clarity of thought is clearness in speech For various reasons, which we have discussed elsewhere,
and in writing. This is not only an important social asset, it standards of discipline have become deplorable lax in recent
is also an essential prerequisite for successful living in a decades and a special effort needs to be made to improve them.
democracy which is based not on force but on free discussion, If this is done through the adoption of intelligent and
persuation, and peaceful exchange of ideas. To be able to make psychologically sound methods, to which we have referred in
one’s influence felt and to assist in the formation of healthy another chapter it would be a most valuable contribution to the
public opinion, an educated person should be able to express development of national character and would provide an
himself clearly both in speech and writing. important guarantee of the success of our democratic
A democracy is based on faith in the dignity and worth of experiment.
every single individual as a human being. This innate This discipline cannot, however, be developed in a vaccum;
“worthfulness” cannot be eclipsed either by economic or racial it is the fruit, the valuable by-product, of cooperative work,
willingly undertaken and efficiently completed. The school must utilising the resources and opportunities provided by the fact
aim at strengthening the desire for cooperation and afford that its students are drawn from different castes, creeds and
students opportunities to translate it into practice. This classes.
cooperation must, however, be inspired by the faith that social If they ;can first learn to live pleasantly and peacefully in
purposes are worth striving for that life in a democratic set up the small community of the school this training will enable
is not playing for one’s own hand but calls for a strenous them to do so later in the larger community outside. Another
endeavour to equalize opportunities for all and an unremitting important aim which the Secondary school must foster is the
fight for justice for the under-privileged. development of a sense of true patriotism. In the proper inter-
A passion for social justice, based on a sensitiveness to the pretation of this aim, the adjective ‘true’ is as important as
social evils and the exploitation which corrupts the grace of life, the noun.
must be kindled in the heart and mind of our people and the The propriety of inculcating, through education, a deep
foundations for it should be laid in the school. Through it the love of one’s own country, is too obvious to require any
child and adolescent should not only get a coherent picture of justification, but in doing so it is necessary to take care that
the world in which they are living but also be introduced to the this love does not degenerate into nationalistic jingoism. True
standards by which its customs, practices and institutions are
patriotism involves three things—a sincere appreciation of the
to be judged.
social and cultural achievements of one’s country, a readiness
This social sensitiveness is the ethical basis of good character to recognize its weaknesses frankly and to work for their
without it efficiency, discipline, cooperation and many other eradication and an earnest resolve to serve it to the best of one’s
fine qualities may either remain unfructuous or may be ability, harmonizing and subordinating individual interests to
corrupted for baser purposes. And finally, we must stress the broader national interests.
importance of tolerance, without which it is impossible to
The school must address itself to building up this rich,
preserve the health and even the existence of a democracy.
threefold concept of patriotism. Through a proper orientation
The essence of all democratic society is not only the tolerating and presentation of the curriculum it can make the students
but the welcoming of differences which make for the enrich- appreciative and proud of what their country has achieved in
ment of life. Dragooning different beliefs, ideas, opinions, literature and science, art and architecture, religion, and
tastes and interests into uniformity may possibly make for philosophy, crafts and industries and other fields of human
efficiency in a narrow and inferior sense but it inevitably endeavour.
impoverishes life and curbs the free expression of the human
spirit. This. feeling can be quickened and made more vital through
the organization and celebration of suitable functions and extra-
If a democracy like ours is to survive-a democracy which
curricular activities. It has to be linked up, however, with a
harbours so many faiths, races and communities-education
critical appraisal of the total picture of national life and-to the
must cultivate in our youth an openness of mind and largeness
extent that such appraisal is within the mental capacity of
of heart which would make them capable of entertaining and
students at this stage-it should be inculcated and encouraged
of blending into a harmonious pattern differences in ideas and
by the school.
behaviour.
The capacity for clear and objective thinking that we have
It is possible for every school to do so, not only through
commended as a significant educational aim, should be brought
the proper presentation of the various schools subjects-
more play in this connection-particularly in connection with
particularly the humanities and social studies-but also by
90 System and Issues in Indian Education New Organisational Pattern of Secondary Education 91
the teaching of social studies-and the students should learn the

great truth that an appreciation of what is good in one’s heritage
is one aspect of patriotism, but equally so is the rejection of
what is unworthy and the desire to improve it.
There is no more dangerous maxim in the world of today
than “My country right, or wrong”. The whole world is now 4
so intimately interconnected that no nation can or dare live
alone and the development of a sense of world citizenship has
become just as important as that of national citizenship. In a
NEW ORGANISATIONAL PATTERN OF
very real sense, therefore, “Patriotism is not enough” and it SECONDARY EDUCATION
must be supplemented by a lively realization of the fact that
we are all members of One-World, and must be prepared,
mentally and emotionally, to discharge the responsibilities SECONDARY EDUCATION
which such membership implies. We need not discuss here the
In the description that we have given of the existing pattern
various methods that can be employed to achieve this object.
of institution catering for the different age periods, it will be
A number of very interesting and significant experiments have
seen that there is considerable diversity in the different States.
been, and are being, tried in many schools throughout the
This is to be taken into consideration in planning the new
world to develop international understanding and these can be
organisational pattern of Secondary education. It is obvious
studied with profit.
that for an interim period, some provisional adjustments will
have to be made so that the change-over from the existing to
the new pattern may take place without serious dislocation.
Duration of Secondary Education
We have to bear in mind the principle already noted that
Secon-dary education is complete unit by itself and not merely
a preparatory stage; that at the end of this period, the student
should be in a position, if he wishes, to enter on the
responsibilities of life and take up some useful vocation. The
age at which the child is to begin his Secondary education and
the age up to which it should be continued is, therefore, a
matter of considerable importance. It is now generally recognised
that the period of Secondary education covers the age group
of about 11 to 17 years. Properly planned education, covering
about 7 years, should enable the school to give a thorough
training in the courses of study taken up by the student and
also help him to attain a reasonable degree of maturity in
knowledge, understanding and judgment which would stand
him in good stead in later life. It has been repeatedly pointed
out by all concerned with education that at present the standard accordingly. In order to obviate any clash with the Basic school,
attained by students who seek admission to the University and we have recommended that the general lay-out and standard
to other higher courses is low and that the average age of of syllabus in the Senior Basic, Middle and Lower Secondary
entrance is also low. A somewhat longer period of training, schools should be largely similar. Secondly, in formulating-our
before entrance to the University, is likely to be useful both recommendations in this behalf, we have had to take into
for those who want to pursue Higher education and for those consideration the fact that the number of full Basic schools in
who finish their education at this stage. Judging by the the country is still comparatively small and the very large
requirements of several of the diversified courses that we have majority of schools which cater for the age-group of 11 to 14
in view, we feel that a somewhat longer period of training will are ordinary Middle or Lower Secondary schools, which will
be necessary if they have to be taught with thoroughness and take a long time to be converted into Senior Basic Schools. We
efficiency. The various arguments that have been adduced in have, therefore, to provide in our proposals for the improvement
favour of this view have led us to the conclusion that it would and reconstruction of these schools and classes also. Our
be best to increase the Secondary stage of education by one year proposals aim at bringing some of the important principles of
and to plan the courses for a period of four years, after the Basic education into the educational life of all children of this
Middle or Senior Basic stage. At the same time, we realize that age-group while the fully converted Basic schools will be free
the total period of training required at present for Higher to follow their own lines of natural development.
education cannot and should not be increased, because of the Keeping this broad outline in view, we recommend the
large financial implications for educational authorities as well following new organisational structure for Secondary education
as for the students. We have, therefore, come to the conclusion- after the 4 or 5 years of Primary or Junior Basic education :
which also tallies with the view of the University Education
(i) A Middle or Junior Secondary or Senior Basic stage
Commission in this connection—that it is desirable to abolish
which should cover a period of 3 years;
the present Intermediate stage, to increase the period of
Secondary education by one year and to plan a three-year (ii) A Higher Secondary stage which should cover a period
degree course at the University stage. of four years.
There is one important point which needs to be clarified It must, however, be clearly understood that, in the
with reference to our recommendation that the period of planning of the curricula at these three successive stages
Secondary education should cover the age-group of 11 to 17 We (including the Primary) there must be an organic continuity so
are fully aware that the scheme of Basic education which has that each stage will lead on to the next and there will be no
been accepted by Government as the approved pattern at the abrupt break. Particular care will have to be taken to ensure
stage of mass education, covers the age-group of 6-14. It may that the education imparted during the first 8 years in the
seem therefore that our scheme partly overlaps, or even Primary (or Junior Basic) and the Middle (or Senior Basic)
interferes, with, the pattern of Basic education. It is, however, stage forms an integrated and complete whole, so that when
not really so. In the first place, the scope of Basic edu-cation free and compulsory education is extended up to the age of 14,
as defined in the Report of the Zakir Husain Committee and as envisaged in the Constitution, it will constitute a uniform
subsequent Reports of the Central Advisory Board of Education, pattern of education.
covers not only the stage of Primary education, as generally
Transitional Stage of Development
understood in India, but also a part of Secondary education.
Thus the Senior Basic stage really falls within the age-group The practical problem that we have to face in this connection
of Secondary education and we have included it there is how these suggestions can best be implemented, with due
regard to the existing structure of education in the country. We with a pre-University course of one year for students who pass
have already referred to the different types and grades of out of the High schools so that they may have a year’s special
schools and colleges that are at present functioning in different training before they join the University.
States. While we expect that ultimately the duration of Thus it is obvious that, for several years to come. there
Secondary education will be uniform in all States, we realise will be simultaneously High schools from which students will
that it is not possible to achieve this objective in the immediate take the Secondary School-Leaving Certificate and the Higher
future. Secondary schools where they will take the Higher Secondary
The large majority of the existing High schools are unable School-Leaving Certificate. Should any of the students who
at present to undertake the responsibility of offering an passes with the S.S.L.C. wish to follow the University course,
additional year’s education to their pupils. In fact, in view of he will have to spend one year in the pre-University course of
the overcrowding of the classes, the large number of sections study and thus qualify himself for entrance to the University.
allowed in each form and the lack of trained teachers, we The object of this pre-University year is to prepare the student
realise that it would be unsound to expect many High schools for the three-year degree course or for a professional course.
to take on the additional year and convert themselves into the The scheme of studies to be covered in this year will have to
contemplated Higher Secondary schools. For some time, be planned, with due regard to the needs of the degree (or the
therefore, we have necessarily to envisage the likelihood of two professional) courses to be taken up by the students.
types of schools-the existing High schools of the present kind Special emphasis will have to be laid during this year on
and the Higher Secondary schools, which will provide an three things-the study of English so long as it is the medium
additional year’s training and prepare the students for the of instruction at the University training in the technique of
Higher Secondary stage. independent study required at the University and giving
Future of Intermediate Colleges students a broad general knowledge and understanding of
contemporary social and political situation as well as the part
Turning to the Intermediate colleges, we feel that there
played by modern science in it.
should be a gradual change in their structure to fit in with the
proposed scheme of Higher Secondary education of four years, In any case, we recommend that the scheme of studies for
followed by the degree course of three years. Some Intermediate this year should be carefully formulated because we are
colleges, which have also a High school under the same. convinced that if it is properly done, it can provide a use, ful
management, may be in a position to convert themselves to and attractive preparatory training for Higher education and
Higher Secondary schools, eliminating the senior intermediate bridge the abrupt gulf which exists at present between the
class. The conditions under which such a reorganization should Secondary school and University.
be allowed will be dealt with later. We were told that, in some States where the Secondary
Such of the Intermediate colleges, as have proper course has been extended from 3 to 4 years and the Higher
accommodation and equipment, can provide staff of the required Secondary School Leaving Certificate examination has been
qualifications and can command the necessary finances, may instituted, students who have gone to the University have
convert themselves into degree colleges of three years’ duration, proved themselves distinctly superior to those who come from
admitting students who have completed the Higher Secondary the high schools. It is not merely the additional year’s training
stage. In the case of colleges which provide a four-year course, that is in their favour but the greater degree of intellectual
two for the intermediate and two for the degree, we would maturity that they acquire during these four years compact
recommend the organisation of a three-year degree course, Secondary education.
A Three-Year Degree Course recommendations that we have made elsewhere to reconstruct

The recommendation that the degree course should consist the curriculum and methods of education will apply to them
of three years has been reiterated by successive Commissions also. In other ways too, considerable improvements will be
but it has not been implemented yet to any great extent. There needed to make them more efficient and to enable them to be
are, however cogent reasons for this proposal. At present, both converted ultimately into Higher Secondary schools. These
in the Junior In-termediate class and in the Junior B.A. class, improvements should include the provisions of better qualified
much time, is lost in trying to adjust and re-orient the students and more carefully selected personnel, better equipment, better
to the new institution and the new courses taken up by them laboratory and library facilities and better organization of co-
as well as to change in the methods of study. The abolition of curricular activities. In addition, the scheme of diversified
a separate Intermediate stage and of the Intermediate courses of study, recommended by us elsewhere, should. also
examination and the institution of a three-year degree course be introduced as far as possible.
would undoubtedly lead to a considerable saving of time and A number of schools will, however, be in a position to add
a better planning of educational programmes and activities the additional year to their Course and convert themselves into
during the three-year degree period. The intermediate Higher Secondary schools. If these schools are to develop into
examination is also a handicap because it breaks up the efficient institutions capable of achieving the objectives in view,
continuity of the college course and makes a proper planning it is necessary that their recognition should be governed by
for the degree course difficult. Thus the addition of one year carefully defined and strict conditions, which must be fulfilled
to the Secondary school stage will add to efficiency of the scrupulously before such recognition is given.
training given there, and also improve educational efficiency These conditions should prescribe special criteria for-
at the University stage by providing a continuous and compact
(1) Accommodation,
period of three year’s education. We are strengthened in this
recommendation by the bulk of evidence given by the University (2) Equipment,
representatives. (3) Qualifications of the staff,
We shall now deal with some of the steps that may have (4) Salaries, grades, and
to be taken to establish the proposed pattern of Secondary
education and also indicate how the various types of colleges (5) Adequate finances to ensure that the institution will
will fit into it. it is by no means our intention to encroach on continue to function efficiently. Such assurance must be
the University’s purview but it is necessary to give our views offered either by the management itself or be provided
about the follow-up stage of education in the hope that the on the basis of help guaranteed by the State and Central
Universities which are the competent authorities in the matter, Governments. Suggestions regarding the nature of these
will give their consideration to our tentative proposals which, conditions have been given elsewhere.
as we have already pointed out, are generally in consonance Degree Colleges
with the views of the University Commission.
There are two varieties of such colleges. In some States
High Schools and Higher Secondary Schools these colleges offer a two-year degree course, in others a four-
As already pointed out it will not be possible to convert all year course-two for the intermediate and two for the degree
existing High schools into Higher Secondary schools in the near stage. In the case of two-year degree colleges, we recommend
future. In the case of such schools, the problem would be to that they should add one year to the degree course and convert
improve their efficiency within their present structure and the themselves into full three-year degree colleges, with necessary
additions, by way-of staff and accom-modation. In the case of vocational persuit and in due course achieve a reasonable degree
four-year degree colleges, we recommend that they should of competence in it either through practice and experience or
retain the first year as a pre-University year for those who have through apprenticeship training. But there would be many who
completed the High school stage and want to take up the degree would like, and would be in a position, to pursue higher
course. The other three years will form the degree course studies. For such students, Polytechnics or Technological
proper. Thus the college will be able to cater for both types of institutions should be available where technical courses covering
students those who have passed from the High Schools and two or more years would be provided. They should be eligible
those who have passed from the Higher Secondary schools. to take the Certificates or Diplomas awarded by the State or
by the All India Council for Technical Education. Those who
Professional Colleges
take the Higher Secondary Certificate with vocational subjects
At present the minimum qualification required for admission may be exempted from the first year of the course, while those
to the colleges of Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, who obtain the High Schools Certificate should be required to
Veterinary Sciences, etc. is the Intermediate. There have been put in the full period of training. These courses of studies will
criticisms that students who passed the intermediate did not have to be planned by the expert Boards of Studies set up by
possess adequate knowledge of, and training in, the subjects the States or by the All India Council for Technical Education.
needed for the various professional courses. To meet this
criticism, it seems desirable that before taking up these courses Need for Diversification of Courses
one year of intensive study should be undertaken by all students In view of the fact that education up to the age of 14 has
in the pre-professional subjects concerned. The admission to been made free and compulsory under the Constitution,
these pre-professional courses should be open- students with a very wide variety of talents will be seeking
(a) to those who have completed their Higher Secondary education in future. This postulates that our Secondary schools
course, and should no longer be “single-track” institutions but should offer
(b) to those who have successfully completed their High a diversity of educational programmes calculated to meet
school course and have, in addition, put in a year’s varying aptitudes, interests and talents which come into
course at the pre-University class. prominence towards the end of the period of compulsory
education. They should provide more comprehensive courses
In the case of those candidates who have taken diversified
which will include both general and vocational subjects and
courses in the Higher Secondary schools, the question of the
pupils should have an opportunity to choose from them according
possibility of exempting them from some portion of their studies
to their needs. It is necessary to point out clearly that this
in the respective professional colleges in the light of their
diversification of courses and the introduction of many practical
achievements in the schools may be considered by the authorities
concerned. We would prefer that the pre-professional courses subjects at the Secondary stage does not mean that something
should be offe-red in the professional colleges concerned, but called “general” or “cultural” education is to be provided for one
if they are not in a position to start these courses, they may, group of students, while others are to be given a narrow
during the transitional stage, be given in some of the degree “practical” or “vocational” or “technical” education.
colleges where necessary facilities are available. The whole modern approach to this question is based on
the insight that the intellectual and cultural development of
Technical and Vocational Education different individuals takes place best through a variety of media,
We expect that at the successful conclusion of the Secondary that the book or the study of traditional academic subjects is
course, a majority of students will take up some suitable not the only door to the education of the personality and that,
in the case of many-perhaps a majority of the children, practical Groups of Languages

work intelligently organized can unlock their latent energies We realise that there are five distinct groups, of languages
much more successfully than the traditional subjects which which have to be taken into consideration:-(1) the mother-
address themselves only to the mind or, worse still, the tongue; (2) the regional language when it is not the mother-
memory. If this principle is clearly understood by educationists, tongue; (3) the official language of the Centre, more commonly
they will see to it that these various courses are-accorded called the Federal Language; (4) the classical languages-
priority of esteem and students are helped to select them with Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Latin, etc.; and (5) English which
due regard to their natural interests and talents. In view of the has come to be recognised as an international language. In
fact that they have all to be trained in certain basic ideas, those areas where the mother-tongue and the regional language
attitudes and appreciations, which are essential for playing are the same, the number of languages to be taken into
the role of intelligent citizens in a democracy, there should be consideration will be limited to four and in those areas where
a certain common core of subjects of general value and utility the regional language, the mother-tongue and the language
which all students may study.. But the wise teacher should of the Union are the same, the number of languages to be taken
realize that the other special practical subjects can also into consideration will be limited to three. So far as the Federal
contribute, provided they are rightly taught, to the all-round language or the official language of the Centre is concerned we
education of the students, making them productive, cooperative, feel that the areas in the different parts of the country may
well-balanced and useful members of society. be divided into three regional groups: (1) regions where Hindi
is the mother-tongue, and therefore, is the regional language
STUDY OF LANGUAGES
as well as the language of the Centre; (2) regions where although
The Secondary Education Commission was greatly it is not the mother-tongue, Hindi is spoken by a large number
impressed with the amount of interest evinced in all States in of people of the region; (3) regions where Hindi is neither the
the study of language at the school stage. No subjects attracted mothertongue nor the regional language nor spoken or
greater attention and we found not infrequently that strong understood by the vast majority of the people. These are
opinions were expressed on the so-called language controversy. generally spoken of as non Hindi speaking areas.
In the memoranda that were presented to us and in the
discussion that we had with witnesses in different parts of the Languages and the Constitution
States, certain fundamental considerations were urged upon In the course of our discussion more than one witness
us. In view of the development of regional languages in the referred to the provisions in the Constitution with regard to
different parts of the country and the languages spoken in such the languages. Some held the view that the Constitution has
areas, it may not be practicable or desirable to attempt to lay laid down that a particular language should be taught
down a uniform. policy for the whole country. On the contrary throughout India or that another language should be discarded
some witnesses were strongly of the opinion that there should from our schools in the course of 15 years. In view of such
be some uniformity in regard to the study of the languages and diverse opinions we have felt it desirable to state exactly what
that there was need for a definite policy to be laid down on an is provided in the Constitution about languages. The
all-India basis. It was claimed by some that there should be Constitution lays down “that the official language of the Union
one language which will be known throughout the length and shall be Hindi and that for a period of 15 years from the
breadth of the country and that Hindi which is prescribed as commencement of the Constitution, English language shall
the official language at the Centre should be studied continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union
compulsorily. for which it was being used immediately before Web
commencement” It also lays down that Parliament may by inferred that two objectives were kept in view. Firstly, that
majority vote provide for the use, after the said period of 15 Hindi will eventually be used by the Union Government in all
years, of the English language. Under Article 345 of the official correspondence with the States, and for communication
Constitution it is stated that “the Legislature of a State may between one State and another, or between a State and the
by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the Union. Secondly, Hindi should be developed so that it may
State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the
or any of the official purposes of the State; provided that until composite culture of India.
the legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the
Study of Hindi in the States
English language shall continue to be used for those official
purposes within the State for which it was being used During the course of our investigation, we found that the
immediately before the commencement of this Constitution”. States had taken different steps to make Hindi a subject of
study at the school stage. Broadly speaking, steps taken are:
It also lays down that “the language for the time being
(1) in some States Hindi is not merely a compulsory subject of
authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be
study but it is also made the medium of instruction and
the official language for communication between one State and
examination throughout the school stage; (2) Hindi is a
another State and between a State and the Union; provided
compulsory subject of study at the school stage and it is a
that if two or more States agree that the Hindi language should
subject of examination but the medium of instruction is the
be the official language for communication between such States,
regional language; (3) in others Hindi is a compulsory subject
that language may be used for such communication. The
as one of the languages to be studied, but although a test is
President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportion
provided, the result of the test is not taken into consideration
of the population of a State desire for use of any language
for promotion; and (4) in a few States the provisions for the
spoken by them to be recognised by that State, direct that such
teaching of Hindi is compulsory in all schools but Hindi as a
language shall also be officially recognised throughout that
subject of study is optional so far as the pupils, are concerned,
State or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify”.
and it is not regarded as a subject for examination. With regard
Under the special directives, it is stated that “it shall be the
to the last category, we were given to understand that although
duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language
it was an optional subject 80 to 85 per cent of the pupils had
to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression
voluntarily taken to the study of Hindi in these areas. It was
for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to
also brought to our notice that in certain areas, the introduction
secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with
of the study of Hindi as a compulsory subject had provoked
its genius the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani
opposition, and steps had to be taken to modify the rules
and in the other languages of India specified in the eighth
framed thereunder. When, however, it was made optional,
schedule, and by drawing whenever necessary or desirable, for
study of Hindi was taken by a large number of students.
its vocabulary primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other
languages.” Position of English in the Schools
We have quoted somewhat in extenso the provisions of the A review of the present position of the study of English at
Con-stitution, as time and again we found that witnesses had the Secondary school stage in the different States may be of
diverse views on what was envisaged in the Constitution and interest. In most States prior to 1937, English was not only
the manner in which education should be developed. From a a compulsory subject of study but also the medium of instruction
careful study of the provisions in the Constitution it may be in the secondary schools; the languages to be studied by the
pupil were two, English and the mother-tongue or regional “If, however, the number of pupils speaking a lan-
language or a classical language. Subsequently the medium of guage other than the Regional or State languages is
instruction was changed and at present in practically all States sufficient to justify a separate school in any area, the
the medium of instruction is either the mother-tongue or the medium of instruction in such a school may be the
regional language. language of the pupils. Such arrangements would,
English is, however, a compulsory subject of study at the in particular, be necessary in metropolitan cities or
Secondary stage in practically all the States. In this connection places were large population speaking different lan-
it may be pointed out (i) that English is allowed to be the guages live or areas with a floating population of’
medium of instruction in schools where the students admitted different languages. Suitable provision should be
are largely those whose mother-tongue is English, (ii) in view made by the provincial authorities for the recogni-
of the difficulties experienced by a certain number of pupils tion of such schools. imparting education through a
who had to migrate from one part of the country to the other medium other than the Regional or State language.”
and who could not easily take to a new regional language,
We have received a communication from the Chairman of
English was allowed to be continued in some schools as the
the Inter-State Board for Anglo-Indian Education, inviting the
medium of instruction and as a language of study.
attention of the Commission to certain special guarantees that
The Position of Linguistic Minorities have been given in Article 337 of the Constitution and also to
The Central Advisory Board of Education considered in the Fundamental Rights, guaranteed under Article 30 of the
1949 the case of pupils belonging to certain minority groups, Constitution.
whose mother-tongue was different from the regional language, Article 30 states: “(1) All minorities whether based on
and passed the fol-lowing resolution : religion or language, shall have: the right to establish and
“That the medium of instruction in the Junior Basic administer educational institutions of their choice. (2) The State
shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
stage must be the mother-tongue of the child and that
discriminate against any educational institution on the ground
where the mother-tongue was different from the
that it is under the management of a minority, whether based
Regional or State language, arrangements must be on religion or language.”
made for instruction in the mothertongue by appoint-
These provisions being obligatory, we have no doubt that
ing at least one teacher to teach all the classes,
the governments at the Centre and the States will adopt
provided there are at least 40 such pupils in a school.
necessary steps to see to the fulfilment of such obligations as
This Regional or State language where it is different are laid upon them by the Constitution.
from the mother-tongue should be introduced not
We have given in brief the present position in regard to
earlier than Class 111, not later than the end of the
study of languages in the different States. So far as the medium
Junior Basic stage. In order to facilitate the switch- of instruction is concerned in most of the schools in the States,
over to the Regional language as medium of instruc- the present position is that either the mother-tongue or the
tion in the Secondary stage children should be given regional language has been adopted as the medium of
the option of answering questions in their mother- instruction. Where minorities exist provision is made to give
tongue for the first two years after the Junior Basic instruction in the mother-tongue, if the minimum number of
stage.” pupils is available.
The Purpose of Language Study to become the lingua franca of the country. It is therefore
The question has often been raised in the course of our stressed that Hindi should be made a compulsory subject of
discussions as to the number of languages that can be learnt study in the school course as otherwise those who do not study
by pupils in the Secondary schools and at what stages the study Hindi may be handicapped at a later stage if they wish either
of these languages should be commenced. Some maintain that to enter service or to communicate more freely with those parts
we should, while considering this problem, take into account of India where the language is commonly used. It is also stated
the purpose which is to be served by the study of each of these that a common language like Hindi if known all over the
languages. We do not wish to dogmatise on such very important country, would promote national unity and solidarity. Some
issues which should be treated on the academic plane and on of our witnesses have not seen eye to eye with the statement
the principles of pedagogy. But we agree that there should be that language necessarily promotes unity.
a clear’ perspective of the purpose of study of each of these They have referred to many other countries where different
languages. It is ordinarily accepted that the mother-tongue is languages have been recognised as State languages. Thus in
the most suitable language as a medium of instruction for the Switzerland four languages, German, French, Italian besides
child beginning its study. If the same advance had taken place a modified form of Latin are recognised as official languages
in regional languages as has taken place in many foreign of the State and all correspondence is sent in the four languages;
languages, mother-tongue or regional languange would have Likewise in Canada, English and French are recognised as
been the medium of instruction at all stages of the educational official languages; while in South Africa, Afrikans, Dutch and
ladder. As the regional language is likely to be the language English are the three languages accepted.
used by the majority in the region it is desirable to acquire
Place of English
knowledge of this language. In view of the difficulties in
particular regions to cater to the needs of very small groups A great deal of controversy also exists about the place of
and the paucity of teachers of the particular language, linguistic English in the scheme of studies. As a result of historical
minorities isolated in different regions who would not come causes, English has come to be the one language that is widely
under the provisions of the Resolution passed by the Central known among the educated classes of the country. It was stressed
Advisory Board of Education in this behalf may have to adopt by some of our witnesses that much of the national unity in
the regional language as the medium of instruction. However, political and other spheres of activity has been brought about
we have already referred to the provision in some States for through the study of English language and literature and
linguistic minorities to be given the option of having their modern Western thought by all educated Indians. They also
children taught through the mother-tongue, and we believe stated that the present position of India in the international
this is a wise policy in the general interests of all concerned. sphere is partly due to the command that educated Indians
have acquired over’ English. Many eminent educationists and
Place of Hindi scientists have, therefore, expressed the opinion that under
The importance of learning Hindi has been stressed, since no circumstances should we sacrifice the many advantages that
it has been adopted in the Constitution as the official language we have gained by the study of English. They hold that in
of the Centre. Hindi will be eventually the language used for matters pertaining to education, sentiment should not be the
purposes of all official correspondence between the Centre and ruling factor and that what was most urgently needed was that
most of the States, and as a large number of people speak this our youth acquire knowledge from all sources and contribute
language, it may also become the language of communication their share to its expansion and development. In the attainment
for other than official purposes. In other words, it is expected of this objective, study of English was bound to play an important
part. On the other hand, some of our witnesses have pressed consideration of the place of languages in Secondary schools
the view that it is unnatural and inconsistent with the present has by no means been easy. We have therefore sought light on
position of the country to prescribe a foreign language as a this subject from other countries; and we give below the
compulsory subject of study. They have also drawn our attention information kindly furnished by some of the foreign embassies
to the greater importance given to English in the past and the in India on the position of the study of languages at the
consequent neglect of other languages and other subjects of the Secondary school.
curriculum. They feel that the whole position of English in the In France, English is taught in all Secondary schools from
educational system needs to be re-examined in the new set-up begin-ning, (i.e., from the age of 11 as an average), but it
particularly at the Middle and High school level. They are is not compulsory; a pupil may prefer to take German, Italian,
definitely opposed to the introduction of English at the basic Spanish, or any other language taught in that institution. in
stage, i.e., the first 7 or 8 years of a child’s education. fact, English and German are the only two languages which
Place of Classical Languages are taught everywhere, the choice of the student being divided
more or less equally. The teaching of a foreign language (or of
The classical languages have always exercised great
two, if one does not study Latin) goes on until the end of the
attraction though for a relatively small proportion of the
school course, which always includes a test in foreign language.
educated people of any-country. To the bulk of Indians, Sanskrit
which is mother of most Indian languages has always appealed In Japan, English is taught in the schools. it is compulsory
both from the cultural and religious point of view. In the in the Secondary school course, and optional in High schools
present state of affairs and in the light of the controversies that or universities.
have been raging round the languages to be, studied, many In the Federal Republic of Germany, the problem of foreign
have deplored the fact that the classical language is being languages has a different aspect in Southern and Western
completely ignored. The number of persons that take to classical Germany to that in Northern Germany. The following principles,
studies is diminishing rapidly and if this continues it is felt that however, seem to be prevalent where one language is taught
the, study of the classics which is of such immense value may besides German, it is English in general. In the Basic schools
eventually be completely neglected. There is a great deal to be (Grundashulen) English is voluntary. Berlin and Hamburg
said in favour of the view that the study of this language should make English obligatory for all pupils from their tenth year of
be promoted and that those who wish to take to it should be life. Wurtemberg and Baden have French instead of English.
given every encouragement possible. What has been stated The Middle schools, the Lower Secondary schools, and the
about Sanskrit may also be said about the other classical Higher Secondary schools teach several languages. English is
languages. Those who have delved deep in the classical always obligatory; the classical languages, Latin and Ancient
languages of Arabic and Persian or the few who have taken to Greek, are obligatory in the Humanistiche Gymnasium, while
Latin or Greek have likewise a feeling that these studies may French is voluntary. The real Gymnasium makes Latin and
not find a place in the future unless due provision is made for French obligatory while Greek remains voluntary. There are.
their study at the school stage. divergencies, of course e.g. Russian can be learnt in the Berlin
schools. Spanish in Hamburg, both are optional.
Study of the Languages in Foreign Counties
In Egypt, both French and English languages are
In the light of all these observations and with the conflicting compulsorily taught in schools, French being studied more
opinions that have been expressed on occasions with so much extensively than English. Both languages used to be introduced
of vehem-ence, our task in approaching dispassionately a after five years of schooling (including Kindergarten) the third
year of Primary schooling, but lately it was decided to delay of Hindi and a Conference of Professors of English at New
their introduction until the completion of the four years of Delhi, and we have since been favoured with a copy of the
primary education and to start them in the first year of proceedings of each of these Confe-rences and the resolutions
Secondary education and continued there throughout its five that were passed. At the Conference of Professors of Hindi,
years’ course. held at New Delhi on the 20th and 21st January 1953, when
In the U.S.S.R., a. foreign language is a compulsory subject representatives from 25 universities with Departments of Hindi
in the Soviet Middle and secondary schools. The main foreign were present besides the officers of the Ministry of Education,
languages taught in schools are English, German, French, the following resolutions were passed :
Italian or Spanish. Other languages are also introduced in “(a) The Conference was of the opinion, that no boy or girl
some schools. Parents have the right to send their children to of the Indian Republic should be deprived of an
any school they like with any language they choose. It is usual opportunity to learn Hindi, the official language of the
for Russian children to begin to study languages in the third Union, as a part of the school curriculum. The
or fifth year of their studies. They continue to study it till the Conference therefore resolved that, since the objective
end of the whole of school course; some schools introduce a to be aimed at in both Hindi and non-Hindi areas is to
foreign language at the very beginning schools, i.e., in the first introduce the study of Hindi in the Secondary schools
grade. In Iran English is taught in the Secondary schools, and as a compulsory subject
is optional. It is introduced as an optional subject along with
(i) All institutions in the country should be required to
Russian, French and Arabic after 6 years of elementary
make compulsory provisions for instruction in the
schooling.
language;
In Sweden, the first foreign language in the Secondary
(ii) Steps should be taken to make Hindi a compulsory
schools is English, this being taught from the first form (i.e.,
subject forthwith in all Hindi areas and such non-
the 5th school year, age 11 years) onwards. German is taught
Hindi areas as are ready to take this step; and
from the 3rd form; French is obligatory in the two upper grades
only for those who intend to continue their studies in the (iii) When regional public opinion is not yet prepared for
Gymnasium. Language studies in Swe-dish Secondary schools compulsion, Hindi should be made an elective
extend over a long period, the English course Usually lasting subject, in which a pass will be essential to qualify
8 years, the German 6, and the French 5 years. It constitutes, for promotion to a higher class.
in point of fact, a special educational problem in this country. The Conference further resolved that the standards of
All studies at schools of university standard are to a large attainment in Hindi in Secondary education for the
extent, based on textbooks in English, German or French. Hindi areas would be progressively raised and must in
Consequently no student can matriculate without having studied no case fall below the standards now obtaining in such
these three languages for some time. It will be noted from what areas, while in the non-Hindi areas the standard would
has been stated above that one or more foreign languages are be based mainly on the students’ capacity to comprehend
included in the curriculum of Secondary schools in many the language and use it in simple everyday situations.
countries.
(b) The Conference was of the opinion that the objective to
Conference of Professors of Hindi be aimed at in teaching Hindi in the schools for the
During the course of the enquiry, we learnt that the training of administrators and Diplomats is to enable
Central Government had called for a Conference of Professors them to use it effectively as an official language of the
Union, as the language of inter-State intercourse of all The Conference recommended:

societies and institutions of an all-India character and (i) that English should continue to occupy an important
also for diplomatic purposes. The standard should place in the curriculum of Secondary schools;
therefore, be at least that of the Intermediate
examination in Hindi as an elective subject of any Indian (ii) that the aim should be the attainment by pupils of
university. Those who were already so qualified might a good working knowledge of English at the end of
be exempted from the examination. the Secondary stage;
(c) The Conference recommended that in vocational and (iii) that the course in English should consist of detailed
technical schools and colleges in the Indian Union, the study of texts of simple modem English prose written
objective to be aimed at is to familiarise, the trainees within a vocational of about 2, 500 “essential” word,
with the Hindi language to an extent where they are non-detailed study of books in prose and verse with
able to comprehend it in simple everyday situations.” a large vocabularly for “rapid reading” and simple
composition;
Qualifications of Teachers of Hindi
(iv) that keeping in view the objective laid down in (ii)
Regarding the qualifications of teachers of Hindi, the above and, the present low standards of teaching,
Conference was of the opinion that the following minimum English should be taught as a compulsory subject
qualifications and experience should be laid down for teachers for a period of six years at the Secondary stage, but
of Hindi in various stages for the next five years: with improvements in the training of teachers of
(a) School Stage-Hindi speaking areas: English it should be possible to curtail the duration
School: Primary and Junior Secondary stage:-At least of the course by one year, provided, however, that.
Matriculation with Hindi as one of the subjects. English is taught for six periods of fifty minutes
each per week;
Higher Secondary:-
Secondary:-A graduate with Hindi as an elective
subject. (v) that pupils may, at their option, offer an additional
(b) Non-Hindi speaking areas courser in English; and
School: Primary and Junior Secondary stage:-Matriculation (vi) that facilities should be given for the training of
with Hindi as one of the subjects, or equivalent qualification administrators and Diplomats in the use of English.
in Hindi. both spoken and written.
Higher Secondary:-
Secondary:-B. A. with Hindi as a subject or a Qualifications of Teachers of English
qualification considered as equivalent. Regarding the qualifications of teachers of English the
Conference of Professors of English Conference made the following recommendations:
A similar Conference of Professors of English of Indian The minimum qualifications for the teaching of English in
univer-sities was convened by the Government in New Delhi High schools shall be Bachelor of Arts Degree followed by a
on the 23rd and 24th January, 1953, when 28 representatives teachers’ training Diploma in English. For teacher of English
of universities were present besides representatives of the in Universities, the minimum qualifications shall be M. A.
Ministry of Education and a Member of the Union Public Service Degree in English, or its equivalent preferably with First or
Commission. Second class. The courses for the training of teachers in English
at the school stage shall include an examination in spoken
English. An elementary study of Phonetics and English life and teaching of the subject by persons with meagre knowledge. of
institutions shall therefore form an integral part of the the language and ill-equipped to arouse interest or enthusiasm
curriculum. Full use should be made of audiovisual and other in the student.
modern aids to teaching. Short-term courses in methods of We recommend that in regard to other languages also,
teaching should be organised for the benefit of teachers of whether the mother-tongue or regional language, there is need
English in the universities. for a reorientation of the methods adopted in teaching the
Need for Qualified Teachers and Improved Methods language. To try to cram into the young pupil a number of
abstract terms and definitions of grammar and syntax, long
The teaching of a language and the ease with which a pupil
before the student has learnt to read fluently simple prose, is
can learn such language depends to a very large extent on the
to create in the young mind an aversion for language classes.
teacher and on the type of literature that is placed at the
A contributory factor is the dearth of simple and enter-taining
disposal of the pupil at different stages of his study. We are
reading matters in the language capable of creating in the pupil
generally in agreement with the recommendations regarding
a desire and eagerness to persue such books. With the emphasis
the qualifications of the teachers made by the representatives
now placed rightly on the mother-tongue or regional language
at the two Conferences convened by the Govern-ment of India
we hope that (a) teachers of languages will be given training
on the study of English and Hindi. There is a serious dearth,
in the methods to be adopted in such teaching, and (b) that
at present, of well-qualified and experienced teachers who can
every encouragement will be given to well-qualified persons to
handle English classes in schools and colleges. We believe this
produce books in prose and poetry suited to the different stages
is one of the important reasons for deterioration in the standard
of education of school children.
of English at the University stage. We are also of opinion that
the general tendency in educational circles and among the We have referred to the need to encourage the study of the
public to con-done such deficiency in standards is also responsible classics at the High school stage. We believe that if the classics
for the rapid deterioration in the knowledge of English. We are are to be studied by an increasing number of students and if
convinced that if a language is to be learnt, it should be studied they are to become popular, there is even greater need for a
so as to use it effec-tively and with correctness in written or revision of the methods of teaching them. In the modern set-
spoken form. up of education, there is urgent need to revise old methods
and employ modern techniques in the study of languages, so
Likewise we feel that, at present, there is need for well-
as to interest the student and to create in him a love for the
qualified and experienced teachers, if the official language,
study of classics.
Hindi, is to be properly learnt and used. We have noted with
regret the lack of properly qualified teachers particularly in We have not referred to the need for the study of other
non-Hindi areas. The anxiety to spread the teaching of Hindi foreign languages at this stage. We believe that the need for
in schools in these areas had led to a recognition of qualifications such study by a few of the students will increase with the role
of various bodies by the authorities concerned, much to the that India is bound to play in international affairs. It is in the
detriment of the proper maintenance of standards in the interest of the country-that there should be people who are
language. This serious defect is to be noted at the University conversant with one or other of the many foreign languages,
level also. While standards expected of students may vary European and Asiatic, because of their use in trade commerce.
slightly in Hindi speaking and non-Hindi speaking areas, for politics and public affairs. We realise that in most cases the
the reason that Hindi is not the mother-tongue or the spoken study of such languages may be usefully taken up at Higher
language of the region, there can be no justification for the education levels, through the University or other institutions
of higher training. We would, however, recommend that and those who cannot. Nor can it be suggested that a particular
opportunities should be available in a few of the Higher group will not be in a position to take to Higher education at
Secondary schools at least for some pupils to take up one or a particular stage of study. In view of these difficulties it is
other of these languages, should they, so desire. suggested that no student should be handicapped by ignorance
We may state that to the large majority, the study of of a language which will ultimately determine the career that
languages would be a means to an end and not. an end in itself; he should choose. It should also be recognised that even in
to the few with a flair for languages the study of such language regard to many of the diversified courses of instruction as
Will be a life’s mission and such scholars should be given every matters stand at present, a knowledge of English will be
encouragement to contribute to the wealth of the language extremely useful for understanding the subject better and for
undismayed by utilitarian considerations. Whatever be the further study of the same subject. All these considerations lead
objective, the maintenance of proper standards in the teachers to the conclusion that a study of English should be given due
and the taught should always receive due consideration. posit-ion in Secondary schools and facilities should be made
available at the Middle school stage for its study on optional
CONCLUSION basis.
From what has been stated, it would be apparent that In the case of those students passing out of the Senior Basic
unanimity of opinion is hardly possible in the consideration of schools or from Middle schools who have not taken English as
such an important subject. The differences reflected in the a subject of study provision has been made in the curriculum
opinions expressed by our witnesses have also been reflected for an elementary course in English. In the case of those who
in the deliberations of ‘the Commission. Some felt that English wish to go to Higher education, special arrangements should
should no longer occupy its present position, that the scope be made in the Secondary schools to enable them to take the
and methods of teaching English should be changed and that advanced course in English.
during the transitional period the study of the subject may be As regards the study of Hindi, it is felt that in view of its
made optional at the Lower Secondary stage. On this basis they becoming the official language of the Centre and of some States,
have recommended that English should be an optional subject every pupil at the Secondary stage should be given an
of study at the Middle school stage. Others, however, feel that opportunity of acquiring a basic knowledge of the language and
under present conditions and taking due note of the development it be left to him to develop it according to his needs. From this
of the regional languages and the official language of the Centre, point of view it is stressed that Hindi should be taught during
it is necessary that a sound knowledge of English should be the Middle school or the Senior Basic stage.
considered a pre-requisite to studies at the higher levels of
We have already referred to the fact that in regard to the
learning whether in the University or other institutions. For
posi-tion of Hindi as spoken language the country may be
this reason, it is stated that English should be a compulsory
divided into three regional groups. Consequently the standard
subject of study in the Secondary school beginning from the
of achievement in these three areas way be different; in this
Middle school stage.
connection we endorse the recomemndations made by the
The question has been raised whether in view of the Conference of Professors of Hindi, that the standard in Hindi
possibility of a large number not pursuing higher courses of areas should be progressively raised, while in the non-Hindi
study, a foreign language should be made compulsory for such areas the standard should be based mainly on the student’s
persons. It is difficult at any stage to determine with any capacity to comprehend the language and use it in everyday
degree of certainty those who can proceed to Higher education situations.
As regards the classical language, it is felt that provision reasons stated were: the great paucity of standard books in the
should be made for students desiring to take to these studies languages concerned; at present several of the languages are
to have the necessary opportunity to do so either at the High still in the process of developing a literature suited to the
school or Higher Secondary school stage. exposition of modem scientific thought. It is important to realise
It was felt by some that in view of the difficulties already that if books are to be, produced, they must be produced not
pointed out in the regions, it should be left to the regions as translations but as original works by authors competent to
themselves to plan out how best these languages could be write such books and in the language. concerned. The paucity
studied at the different stages of the Secondary school. We, of authors who have contributed to the litera-ture in scientific
however, feel that under present circurnstances it should be and technical subjects in India is well known. The necessity,
possible for a child to learn languages. It is no doubt true the therefore, of reading in English or in some foreign language
scripts being different the strain will be a llttle heavy, but we many of the books now produced in higher ranges of learning
believe that it is easier for the child to learn these languages cannot be disputed; moreover English is at present the medium
at an early stage, than at a later stage. At the Senior Basic of instruction in many universities and will be the language
or the Middle school stage, therefore, when the child has used by the Centre and certain States for some years to come.
already learnt the mother-tongue and it will continue to pursue It is felt that until books written in the regional languages
its study, Hindi and English may be introduced. A principle, replace books now available in a foreign language, it is inevitable
which we feel, is necessary to observe is that two different that students will need to have a good knowledge of English
languages should not be introduced at the same time and to study the subjects in the books available in that language.
therefore one of them should be introduced at the initial stage
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
and the other a year later.
At the end of the Lower Secondary or Senior Basic stage 1. Mother-tongue or the regional language should generally
it should be left to the pupil concerned to continue the study be the medium of instruction throughout the Secondary
of one or the other of two languages, viz. Hindi and English school stage, sub-ject to the provision that for linguistic
and to take to a classical language at the High school or Higher minorities special facilities should be made available on
Secondary school stage should he so desire.. The selection of the lines suggested by the Central Advisory Board of
language can therefore be left to the pupil at High school or Education.
Higher Secondary stage depending on the nature of the course 2. During the Middle school stage, every child should be
he proposes to pursue. taught at least two Languages. English and Hindi should
In regard to some of the vocational courses taken in the be introduced at the end of the Junior Basic stage,
diversi-fied scheme of studies at High school or Higher Secondary subject to the principle that no two languages should
stage, it may be necessary that English should be continued. be introduced in the same year.
The question whether English should continue to be used for 3. At the High and Higher Secondary stage, at least two
certain technical or technological subjects at the Higher langu-ages should be studied, one of which being the
Secondary stage and at the uni-versity has been widely mother-tongue or the regional language.
canvassed. It has been represented that at present neither the
regional language nor the federal language can step into the
breach and supply the necessary literature in the particular
subject of study for the higher stages of learning. Among the
120 System and Issues in Indian Education Curriculum in Secondary Schools 121
is that it Is narrowly conceived, mainly in terms of the admission

requirements of the colleges. This continues to be the case even
today in, spite of the many attempts made from time to time
to remedy the defect. At one, time, the examination at the
end of the High school was known as the “Entrance Examination,
5 ” thereby clearly indicating Its scope and purpose. At a later
stage it came to be known as the Matriculation Examination
denoting very much the same thing though in a different
CURRICULUM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS manner. The word ‘matriculation’ implied that its purpose was
the registration of students for entrance to the University.
The present practice is to call it the School-Leaving
IMPROVEMENT IN CURRICULUM Certificate or Secondary School Examination implying thereby
For many decades there has been a strong and persistent a certain shift of emphasis In the purpose of the examination.
criticism of the existing Secondary school curriculum. During But. unfortunately, this is more nominal than real. Even now
the course of our investigations we heard these criticisms most of the pupils who, sit for this examination aspire to join
repeated over and over again. college. If they do not, or cannot do so, it is, generally due
to financial reasons. The demands of collegiate education still
The main points of these criticisms are that
hold sway over the entire field of school education in India. We
(i) the present curriculum is narrowly. conceived; were informed that certain High school courses are unpopular.
(ii) it is bookish and theoretical; because there is no provision for pursuing them at college. This
has tended to bring the high school course into closer conformity
(iii) it is overcrowded, without providing rich and significant
with the pattern of University courses. Another factor which
contents;
has had the same effect is the close dependence of public
(iv) it makes inadequate provision for practical and other services on University degrees. Most of the higher posts in the
kinds of activities which should reasonably find room public services are not open to any one who has not passed a
in it, if it is to educate the whole of the personality; University examination. Elsewhere in this report we have
(v) it does not cater to the various needs and capacities of discussed at some length the adverse effects of the present
the adolescents; method of recruitment to the public services on Secondary
education and have suggested certain measures for improving
(vi) it is dominated too much by examinations ; and
the position.
(vii) it does not include technical and vocational subjects
which are so necessary for training the students to take EMPHASIS ON BOOKISH KNOWLEDGE
part in the industrial and economic development of the Owing to the great influence that the college curriculum
country. exercises over the Secondary school curriculum the latter has
become unduly bookish and theoretical. University courses are
A NARROW CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUM by their nature, academic and theoretical and deal largely with
In our opinion, there is room for some of these criticisms. abstractions and generalisations. It is only in the last fifty
It would, not be correct to state, as some maintain, that the years that practical and applied aspects of different branches
present curriculum has no goal in view. What is true, however, of knowledge chiefly the sciences, have found a place in the
University courses but even now the emphasis is more on the the multiplicity of subjects, presented as separate entities,
academic than on the practical aspect. At the high school stage without bringing out their organic inter-relationship. So in
we definitely need a different approach. The High school pupils forming the curriculum an attempt should be made to see
do not yet possess the intellectual maturity to deal competently whether certain subjects can be grouped in large, organically
with abstract theories and generalisations. Moreover, these related units dealing with certain broad areas of human
schools have to cater for pupils, many of whom are not knowledge and interest. Thus it is psychologically preferable
academically minded and all of whom will certainly not go to to present subjects centering round the study of the social
the university. In fact, under normal circumstances the majority environment and human relations under the comprehensive
of the High school-leavers do, and should enter into practical heading of “Social Studies” than to teach a number of separate
life. For such students a narrowly conceived bookish curriculum subjects like History, Geography, Civics and Economics in
does not obviously provide the right kind of preparation. water-tight compartments.
They need to participate in various kinds of intellectual Similarly, the study of the physical environments and
and physical activities, practical occupations and social man’s relation to Nature can be presented fruitfully through
experiences which is not possible through the mere study of a coherent and organically related syllabus in “General Science”.
books. In the course of the last half century, a realisation of Teaching of separate subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Botany,
this fact has brought about almost a revolution in the conception Zoology, Hygiene, etc., may have certain advantages from
of the High school curriculum. In many educationally progressive a narrow instructional point of view but, apart from the fact
countries, its scope has been very much widened and its that this involves over-crowding of the syllabus, that approach
purpose is to cater for the entire range of the pupil’s interests does not give the students a realistic and organic understanding
and capacities-intellectual, physical, emotional, aesthetic and of the world in which they are living. Each particular subject
social. For his all-round development, we must provide a wide becomes a group of facts, principles and formulae to be learnt
and varied range of occupations, activities and experiences. We rather than a window opening out on a certain significant
must give him practical training in the art of living and show aspect of life. A clear reali-zation of the difference between
him through actual experience how community life is organized these two approaches will provide a valuable principle of
and sustained. We have to do all this, not because we necessarily guidance both in organization of the curriculum and the choice
want out pupils to start earning their living immediately, but of right methods. Moreover, if children are given an opportunity
because such knowledge and experience contribute to the all- to carry on practical activities in connection with the various
round growth of their personality. This advocacy of a broad- subjects that they are learning-for instance, laboratory work
based curriculum catering for an all-round development of the in the teaching of science it tends to reduce the feeling of
pupil should not, however, be confused with another .issue boredom.
which many of the witnesses raised regarding the content of There is also an undoubted tendency to crowd the syllabus
the various subjects of the curriculum. of each subject with too many facts and details, often of little
They complained of the overcrowding of the present syllabus, significance and an unwelcome burden on the memory. Our
of the multiplicity of subjects and the heavy content-load in the curriculum makers have usually suffered from the besetting
different subjects. There is a great deal of justification for this sin of the “specialist” who tries to put as much of his favourite
criticism. It is desirable, in the first instance, to reduce the subject-matter as possible into the curriculum and the textbooks
multiplicity of subjects as much as possible. It is not often and is more concerned with the logical and scientific demands
realised that the complaint of over-crowding is largely due to of the subject than the needs, the psychology and the interests
of the learners. Often Committees of Courses which meet for changing and developing sociological needs. The details of the
the reorganisation of the syllabus end up by introducing curricula in each subject should be settled on the basis of this
additional subject matter, unrelated to the students’ life and continuous research.
interest, instead of carefully sifting the contents from the point In this connection it is important to bear in mind that it
of view of their significance and relevance’ The syllabus of is neither possible nor desirable to teach children all the facts,
History is good instance of this ten dency where, even at the even the most important of them, that they are likely to need
Upper Primary or Lower Secondary or Senior Basic stage long- in later life. It is often this ill-conceived desire that is responsible
forgotten incidents and persons of ancient history have ‘been for the present over-crowded and unsuitable syllabus; if it is
resuscitated under the fond delusion that learning certain dull resisted, they could be considerably lightened. It is more
facts about them will enrich the students’ mind and deepen important to awaken interest and curiosity in the child’s mind
their appreciation of national culture. This wrong approach is to teach him the methods and technique of acquiring knowledge
due to the failure to realize the difference between rich subject- than to burden his memory with miscellaneous information
matter and a large heap, of miscellaneous items of information. “against the rainy day”. If he has acquired this mastery over
Only that curriculum content is justifiable, in schools the tools of learning, he will be able to add to his knowledge
which adds to the understanding or the appreciation or the under the spur of felt need. Our teachers should remember that
efficiency of students and can be grasped by them intelligently, completion of the school course or of the college course is not
pleasantly, and with a clear realization that, in some ‘way, the end of education which is, in reality, a continuous life-
it is contributing to the enrichment of their life and activities. long process. Even a little knowledge, acquired pleasantly and
We have stressed this fact at some length because we are thoroughly and with the feeling that it has real significance for
convinced that unless the syllabus of every school subject is, us, is better than a great deal of miscellaneous, ill-digested
on the one hand, lightened by dropping overboard the cargo knowledge unrelated to life. The former will quicken interest
of inert, uninteresting and useless subjectmatter and, on the and open the gateway to continuous learning; the latter may
other hand, enriched by the inclusion of interesting, and kill curiosity and create distaste for further learning. In
significant material that will give ‘joy and insight to students, organizing our curricula and selecting methods of teaching, we
it cannot become a truly educative medium. must not lose sight of this crucial principle.
And the criterion for deciding what is interesting or Lack of Adaptation to Individual Differences
uninteresting, significant or otherwise, must not be the
During the period of adolescence, pupils develop individual
recommendation of the scientist or the historian or geographer
tastes, interests and special aptitudes, but the present
or the literatuer but the attitude of the students and intelligent,
curriculum hardly takes note of these individual differences.
understanding teachers. In view of the importance of this matter
At one time it was generally held that these differences begin
we would recommend as a proposal of high priority, the
to manifest themselves at about the age of 11 and this provided
establishment in such States and at the Centre-preferably in
the basis for a break at that age in the educational pattern.
association with Teachers’ Training institutions-of Bureaus or
But later researches tend to the conclusion that this development
Boards charged with the duty of curricular research on lines
takes place nearer 13. Whatever be the precise age when these
which have been successfully tried in some Western countries,
differences appear, they have an important educational
notably the United States. It should be the function of such
significance which educationists must reckon. There have been
Boards constantly to evaluate and sift the existing curricula in
many attempts to. classify these varied abilities under certain
the light of students’ psychological interests as well as the
broad categories for purpose of education and educational
Organisation. In England three broad categories are recognised were introduced. Absence of well-trained teachers and proper
academic, technical and practical corresponding to which there material facilities was another contributory factor.
are three different types of Secondary schools Grammar, Moreover, the immense prestige of the universities and the
Technical and Modem. In India also a few States have made lure of their “academic” courses also stood in the way of those
an attempt to introduce different types of Secondary courses new courses meeting with proper response. The situation has,
for pupils of different abilities. however, radically changed now. Our industrial revolution has
But, on the whole, the present curriculum does not make started and, under its impact, the character of Indian economy
adequate provision for this diversity of tastes and talents. has begun to change slowly but inevitably. The Second World
High school courses do provide for certain ‘option’; but War has greatly hastened the process and accelerated the pace
very often the scope and range of such options is narrow and of industrialisation. With the attainment of political freedom
limited. What is needed is a broadly conceived curriculum recently, the expansion of industries has become an integral
which will give free room for the, development of different part of national policy.
types of abilities through studies and activities, congenial to The Planning Commission has drawn up an elaborate plan
such development. for the rapid industrialization of the country and the first Five-
Domination by Examinations Year Plan has been launched already. All this underlines the
importance of TechnicaI education and holds out the hopes that
There can be little doubt that the present Secondary
new avenues of employment will open out of persons possessing
curriculum is dominated by examinations. It is a matter of
technical training and competence. In the field of Secondary
everyday experience to which teachers, parents and children
education this calls for the introduction of diversified types of
can all bear testimony because. all suffer under its strain. We
courses to meet the needs of an expanding indus-trial economy.
have discussed the influence of examinations on education in
If Secondary education remains exclusively academic and does
a separate chapter and it is not, therefore, necessary to dilate
not develop practical skills and aptitudes, suitable candidates
on this problem here.
will not be forthcoming for admission to Technical institutions
Lack of Provision for Technical and Vocational Studies which will not, therefore, be able to pull their full weight in
There is a long standing complaint that secondary schools our national life. On the other hand, a suitable reorientation
have made no provision for technical and vocational subjects. of Secondary education will help to produce skilled workers and
To meet this criticism attempts have been made from time to technicians who will provide efficient personnel for industry
time-for example, in 1882 by the Indian Education Commission and make our various national projects successful. In fact it is
which recommended the introduction of practical and pre- the special function of Secondary education to provide the
technical and pre-vocational subjects to set right this deficiency. country with the second line of its leaders in all walks of
These and some recent attempts made by universities and national life-art, science, industry and commerce. The present
other bodies which control Secondary education, have not unilateral system is not planned to provide such leadership
proved very successful. which is yet another argument for its diversification.
One main reason for this failure is that provision for We might perhaps sum up all these criticisms by saying
Technical education must go along with the development of that, like Secondary education, the Secondary curriculum is
industries; it cannot precede or bring about such progress. Lack out of tune with life and fails to prepare students for life. It
of industrial and commercial development in the country was does not give them a real understanding of, or insight into,
responsible for the unpopularity of such courses wherever they the world outside the school, into Which they will have to enter
presently. The starting point for curricular reconstruction must, imply giving an important place to productive work which is
therefore, be the desire to bridge the gulf between the school the backbone of organized human life. It would also postulate
subjects and the rich and varied activities that Make up the that a general curriculum, which may be prescribed by the
warp and woof of life. Education Department for a whole school system, must be
capable of adaptation to local needs and situations. The teacher
The Basic Principle of Curriculum Construction
should build up in the minds of students a lively sense of being
We are now in a position to enumerate briefly the principles an integral part of the local community and the local community
on which the curriculum should be based. These have been should be enabled to realize that the school is a vital and
brought out by implication already in the preceding discussion Invaluable part of its life.
but it will be helpful to restate them clearly and coherently.
Fourthly, the curriculum should be designed to train the
In the first place, it must be clearly understood that, according
students not only for work but also for leisure. We have already
to the best modern educational thought, curriculum in this
argued the case for the introduction of a variety of activities-
context does not mean only the academic subjects traditionally
social, aesthetic, sport, etc, in the school. This is recommended
taught in the school but it includes the totality of experiences
not only to make a school life pleasant and meaningful for the
that pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on
student here and now, but also because the cultivation of
in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop,
varied interests and different hobbies provide excellent training
playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between
for leisure which, after all, forms an important and
teachers and pupils.
quantitatively quite large area of every individual’s life.
In this sense, the whole life of the school becomes the
Fifthly, it should not stultify its educational value by being
curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all points
split up into a number of isolated, uncoordinated water-tight
and help in the evolution of balanced personality.
subjects. Subjects should be inter-related and, within each
Secondly, there should be enough variety and elasticity in subject the contents should so far as possible be envisaged as
the curriculum to allow for individual differences and adaptation “broad fields” units which can be correlated better with life
to individual needs and interests. Any attempt to force rather than narrow items of information.
uncongenial subjects and studies on children, unfit to take
them up, is bound to lead to a sense, of frustration and to The Curriculum at the Middle School Stage
hinder their normal development. There are, of, course, certain We are now in a position to indicate in broad outline the
broad areas. of knowledge, skill and appreciation with Which curri-culum for our future Secondary schools. These schools
all children must come into contact and these must find place falls into two-main categories. The first category includes Middle
‘in the curriculum. We shall discuss presently what these subject- schools and Senior Basic schools, schools which cater generally
areas are, but it is necessary that they should be kept to the for the pupils of the age group 11 to 13. The second category
minimum and should not be beyond the students’ powers and includes High schools and Higher Secondary Schools, the High
capacities. In other words, the same standard of achievement schools providing a three-year course and the Higher Secondary
should not be expected’ of all. a four-year course. The age-range of pupils in High schools will
Thirdly, the curriculum must be vitally and organically approximately be 14 to 16 and in Higher Secondary schools 14
related to community life, interpreting for the child its salient to 17 The necessity for maintaining, for the present, two
and significant features and allowing him to come into contact different types of Secondary schools, High schools, and Higher
with some of its important activities. Obviously, this would Secondary schools-has already been explained in Chapter IV
of our report.
The Middle or Senior Basic stage is a continuation of the effectively as the so-called intellectual subjects. Historically
Primary (Junior Basic) stage. As long, therefore, as Middle speaking, these came much earlier in the field of human
schools exist, their course must not differ materially from the activity long before subjects like mathematics, science and
Senior Basic course. Eventually those schools can easily be others came to be formalised and regarded as worthy of human
transformed into Senior Basic schools. It is not really desirable pursuit. As valuable media for the development of the emotional
to have the distinct and separate types of, courses at this stage, side of the mind their place is certainly higher than that of the
as the existence of Basic and non-Basic schools side by side ordinary subjects. Their inclusion in the school curriculum is
tends to create a kind of unhealthy caste distinction in education. valuable for the proper development of the emotions and helpful
The main difference between the Middle school and Senior to the growth of other aspects of the personality-intellectual,
Basic school courses will be in the method of approach and of aesthetic and spiritual. Who could deny the intellectual and
teaching; but the educational programme, i.e. the subjects and aesthetical value to a student in the creation, undertaking and
courses to, be covered and the activities undertaken, will as completing of a piece of art or music or handiwork ? No apology
far as possible be similar. is needed today for including art, music and craft as essential
Again, as the Middle or Senior Basic stage is a continuation elements in the school curriculum.
of the Primary stage, it is necessary to observe in framing the It will be noticed that we have not included physical
curriculum and planning the work for it that there is not a education in the above list of subjects. This is not due to any
violent departure from the previous stage either in the contents lack of appreciation of its place and importance In the
of the curriculum or of the methods. We have kept this principle educational programme. We consider it much more than a
in view in recommending the curriculum for the Middle stage. ‘subject’ in a curriculum. One of the main aims of education
Regarding methods, it is now an accepted principle that the is the proper physical development of every pupil, so essential
Primary curriculum, whether the Basic or non-Basic, should for building up a healthy and balanced personality. As
be based ore activities. Therefore, in the Middle school intellectual development comes through the study of various
curriculum, the emphasis should be on activities so that there subjects, so physical development comes through various forms
may be no departure from the principles underlying the pupils’ of activities. It is much wider than what is usually denoted
education at the Primary stage. briefly by the term ‘P.T.’. So physical education as series of
The special function of the curriculum at the Middle stage activities will form a part of the curriculum but the approach
is to introduce the pupil in a general way to the significant to it will be somewhat different from the approach to other
departments of human knowledge and activity. These will subjects.
naturally and obviously include language and literature, social We have stated that the function of the Middle school
studies, natural sciences and mathematics which have always curriculum is to introduce the pupil in a general way to certain
formed part of every Secondary school curriculum. But there broad fields of human knowledge and interest. We would like
are a few other subjects whose claims are not so freely admitted, to underline the phrase ‘in a general way’. The Middle school
or admitted in a grudging manner so that their position in the is not the place for specialisa-tion but the stage when a general
curriculum is regarded as ornamental or at best secon-dary. In introduction to all the broad and Significant fields of knowledge
this group we include art, music and craft. These subjects can and should be given. The phrase ‘in a general way’ indicates
demand expression and achievement, with as much importance the scope of the course; it is not the depth of knowledge in any
in their own way as the purely intellectual subjects; and they particular field but familiarity with the different important
can be used for the education of the human mind as easily and fields in which human mind has been active throughout the
ages and out of which the pattern of human culture has been The place of the different languages in our educational
evolved. The purpose therefore is two-fold ; the child as the programme at different stages has been fully discussed in the
inheritor of the treasures of human civilisation has the right, earlier chapter. In view of the arguments stated there, it is
firstly, to know what its main components are, and secondly, necessary for the present to find a place for English in the
as a result of acquiring that knowledge to choose at a later Middle school curriculum. Every school should make provision
stage, the particular field in which he can in his own way for the teaching of the official language, Hindi and the
contribute his share to this fund of human culture. Therefore, international language, English. It may, however, be provided
strictly speaking, nothing which has abiding and significant that English is not to be treated as a compulsory subject of
value for humanity can be omitted from the child’s curriculum. study if the pupil or guardian does not wish it to be studied.
Great discrimination will be required in selecting from this In the case of those pupils who do not desire to study English,
vast treasure such elements as the child can understand and an alternative arrangement should be made for the study of
appreciate at this stage. Again, it is in this Middle stage that another language. In schools which provide for the study of
the special abilities and interests of the individual child tend English on an optional basis there should also be alternative
to crystallise and take shape. In view of this, the Middle school arrangements for an advanced course in the mother-tongue for
curriculum has to be of an exploratory character. By providing those who do not take optional course in English.
a broad-based and general curriculum and an appropriate With two other languages besides the mother-tongue, the
environment in the school, we can help the child to discover course in languages will be rather heavy. It is unavoidable in
his own tastes and talents. a country like ours which has a multiplicity of languages and
It may be argued that such an approach is likely to make we should be prepared to pay this price for the wealth of our
the curriculum heavy. It need not be so, since what we are linguistic heritage. One miti-gating fact, however, is that
aiming at this stage is not depth of knowledge in any particular these languages will be introduced when the child will have
field but a general understanding and appreciation of the acquired a certain amount of mastery over his mother-tongue.
significant elements of human culture. The curriculum must Also in order to lessen the burden we have already suggested
not be overloaded with too many facts and items of information that only one new language should be begun in any one year.
with what Whitehead has called “dead bits of knowledge”. The Moreover, with regard to the second and third languages the
aim should be to give the child an appreciation of human emphasis will be on the language aspect only. The aim will be
achievement in different fields, to widen his outlook and broaden to introduce the child to the practical use of the two languages
his sympathies. while the literary aspects will be kept definitely in the
Keeping in view the above considerations we suggest the background.
following broad outline of the Middle school curriculum : 1. We have already explained at some length why it is
Languages 2. Social Studies 3. General Science 4. Mathematics important to include art, music and craft in the Middle school
5. Art and Music 6. Craft 7. Physical Education curriculum. With regard to art and music, a certain amount
Under languages will come the mother-tongue, the natural of natural ability is needed .for efficiency and every child will
medium of self-expression or the regional language. Next would not be able to attain the same standard ; but there is no reason
come the official language of the Republic, i.e., Hindi, a why every child should not be given a chance to benefit by the
knowledge of which is necessary in the wider interests of national cultural values implicit in the study of art and music.
life and’ national unity. Where Hindi is the mother-tongue, the With regard to crafts we would like to emphasise the
pupil may study another language. importance of the local crafts and the use of local materials.
They have a tradition behind them which will be familiar to in training their practical aptitudes in the preparation for
every child in the locality. They also possess a certain amount definite vocational work later. The educational programme will
of emotional significance which has considerable educational not be narrowly vocational, but will have a definite vocational
value. basis.
The Curriculum at the High and the Higher Secondary For example, a young student who shows signs of
School Stage mechanical aptitude and is interested in things mechanical,
may take a course with a technical bias-not to become, an
By the end of the Middle school the special abilities and
engineer but to get a general introduction to that field of
interests of the pupils would generally be taking definite form
engineering which he may like to choose, as his vocation after
; at least it will be so with most of the pupils. So the curriculum
further training. Besides, giving him some training of a technical
at the High school stage (both for High schools and Higher
kind, the course should also give him a reasonable amount of
Secondary schools) should be, . as far as possible, framed on
general education so that he may be fit to discharge his duties
the-basis of these abilities and interests. We have no scientific
as a human-being and citizen trained in the greatest of all arts-
data available to help us to arrange in categories-if that were
the art of living. Similarly, another student may take a course
possible-these special abilities and interests in terms of well-
in agriculture not necessarily to become a farmer, but because
defined and compact educational programmes. But if a number
he is interested in agriculture as a most valuable human
of well-thought out programmes are offered, the young people
occupation and an essential part of the human economy. His
will be in a position to choose from among them in accordance
understanding of the various aspects of agriculture would
with their own abilities and inclinations. So we have to provide
certainly make him a better member of society, even though
varied course in, High schools and Higher Secondary schools
he may not actually become a farmer. A good teacher should
with a fairly wide latitude for choice. This, however, is not
always be able to exploit the educational possibilities implicit
to be treated as specialisation in the narrow sense of the word.
in these subjects. There is no doubt that the so-called technical
Its primary object is to provide suitable. scope for the
subjects have considerable cultural value., which should be
development of the special interests of the pupils. Specialisation,
fully explored. In fact, with the great advances during the last
on the other hand, implies exclusiveness of interest which is
hundred years in science and technology, the concept of culture
rightly condemned at too early an age. A reference to the
itself has become wider and more comprehensive; science and
curriculum suggested by us would indicate how we have tried
technique, are as much a part of it as the older disciplines of
to avoid that kind, of narrow specialisation.
liberal studies. It is this approach. which will have to be adopted
In the High school stage there is yet another criterion in our Secondary institutions distinguishing them from the
which will help us in deciding what would be the appropriate purely vocational schools.
curriculum for any particular pupil. For the large majority of
There is yet another consideration which will determine,
these adolescents this will be all the education that they will
the organization of the curriculum in these High schools and
receive. In a normally functioning educational system not more
the Higher Secondary schools. Pupils will come to them from
than twenty-five to thirty per cent of the pupils in High schools
Middle schools as well as Senior Basic schools. As long as some
are likely to, go to the universities and other institutions of
differences exist in the courses and methods of teaching in
the higher learning such as technological and similar
these two types of schools it would be advisable to provide an
institutions. So most of them have to think of earning a living
initial period of transition in the high school stage which will
and the educational programme should give them some training
enable students drawn from, different schools to pass through
in this, direction-not so much in terms of specific vocations as
certain common educational experiences and programmes and The curriculum, as we envisage it, will consist of the
develop a common outlook and approach to their work. Therefore following:
we suggest that in the first High school. year the. courses A. (i) Mother-tongue or Regional language or a composite
should follow, to some extent. the general pattern of courses course of the mother-tongue and a Classical language
in the preceding stage and that differentiation should come in (ii) One other language to be chosen from among the
the second year. following:
The courses in the High schools and the Higher’ Secondary
(a) Hindi (for those whose mother-tongue is not Hindi)
schools will follow the same pattern. They will consist of certain
core-subjects common to all and certain optional subjects. The (b) Elementary English (for those who have not studied
difference in the period of education (three years in the one in the Middle stage)
case and four years in the other) makes it necessary to have (c) Advanced English (for those who had studied English
two levels of integration of the subject-matter with the core in the earlier stage)
subjects as well as the optional subjects, The High schools, will
(d) A modem Indian language (other than Hindi)
obviously offer a lighter course as far as the contents are
concerned but within the limits of each particular course, here (e) A modern foreign language (other than English)
should be as much integration of subject-matter as is possible. (f) A Classical language
It is lack of such integration which makes the curriculum open
B. (i) Social Studies-general course (for the first two years
to the criticism of being disjoined and overloaded.
only) (ii) General Science including Mathematics-general
The need for developing an integrated course is so great, course (for the first two years only)
that. instead of allowing pupils to choose from a very wide
range of options according to their individual inclination-as is C. One Craft to be chosen from the following list (which
done in certain countries and even in some States in India-we may be added to, according to needs) :
have preferred to group subjects under certain broad headings (a) Spinning and Weaving
in order to allow for some amount of integration and correlation. (b) Wood-work
Complete freedom of choice without any guidance either from
parents or from teachers Is not educationally desirable and in (c) Metal work
the choice of subjects within a group, the pupils should get the (d) Gardening
benefit of expert educational guidance. Such guidance is (e) Tailoring
essential for the success of any educational programme and we
hope that before long it will be available to all our educational (f) Typography
systems. (g) Workshop Practice
We are now in a position to give the broad outline of the (h) Sewing Needlework and Embroidery
curri-culum at the High school and the Higher Secondary stage.
(i) Modelling
This curriculum is intended to be only suggestive and no attempt
his been made to work out the details under each subject. The D. Three subjects from one of the following groups
State Depart-ments of Education will have to work out the Group 1-Humanities
details and fill the outline after making a careful study and
(a) A classical language or a third language from A (ii) not
investigation of the problem as we have elsewhere suggested.
already taken (b) History (c) Geography (d) Elements of
Economics and Civics (e) Elements of Psychology and Logic languages which are absolutely essential, those who possess
(f) Mathematics (g) Music (h) Domestic Science linguistic ability should be able to take an additional third
Group 2-Sciences language, and in special cases under the note at E, he can
choose yet another language if he cares to do so.
(a) Physics (b) Chemistry (c) Biology (d) Geography
We have recommended that a general course in social studies
(e) Mathematics (f) Elements of Physiology and Hygiene (not
and general science should be provided at the High school stage
to be taken with Biology)
for those who do not take up these (or allied subjects) among
Group 3-Technical their optionals. These two subjects together with the languages
(a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Drawing and a craft will really form the common core of the High school
(b) Applied Science (c) Elements of Mechnical, Engineering course. To this will be added the group of special subjects
(d) Elements of Electrical Engineering chosen by the pupil in accordance with his abilities and interests.
Group 4-Commercial The courses in social studies and general science will be of
a general nature and they will be taught in the first two High
(a) Commercial Practice (b) Book-keeping (c) Commercial
school years only, but they will not be examination subjects.
Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics (d) Shorthand
Their main purpose will be to explain more fully than was
and Typewriting
possible in the Middle stage—in intelligent manner and without
Group 5-Agriculture going into details-the social movements and forces which are
(a) General Agriculture (b) Animal Husbandry shaping their lives and the contribu-tions that science is making
(c) Horticulture and Gardening (d) Agricultural Chemistry and in changing and regulating the social pattern. All should know
Botany something about them in order to live in-telligently in the fast
changing world of today. We shall discuss the purposes of
Group 6-Fine Arts
teaching these two subjects a little more fully later.
(a) History of Art (b) Drawing and Designing (c) Painting
A word of explanation is necessary to indicate the
(d) Modelling (e) Music (f) Dancing
significance of the phrase “those who do not take up these (or
Group 7-Home Science allied subjects) among their optionals” occurring in the last but
(a) Home Economics (b) Nutrition and Cookery (c) Mother one paragraph. A pupil taking up either History or Geography
Craft and Child care (d) Household Management and Home or elements of Economics and Civics, in the “humanities”
Nursing (e) Besides the above a student may take at his option group will be required in the second year when differentiated
one additional subject from any of the above groups irrespective courses begin, to take up the course in gene-ral science and
of whether or not he has chosen his other options from that not in social studies. Similarly, a pupil taking the sciences,
particular group. under the ‘science’ or ‘technical’ or ‘agricultural’ group should
It will be noticed that in this curriculum a pupil will take the course in social studies, but not in general science.
ordinarily be required to take one other language besides his Students who take the commercial group will be studying some
mother tongue. It may be Hindi or English or any other language phases of social studies as a part of their course in Commercial
according to his needs and choice. This arrangement will meet Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics. In that case
with the ordinary requirements of most pupils. We are definitely they will be exempted from taking the social studies course but
of the opinion that the curriculum should not be loaded with they will take the course in general science. For students taking
too many languages and while a majority should only study the ‘fine arts’ group some know-ledge related to social studies
may be covered in the course on the history of art. So they take teachers who are well-versed both in the craft and in the
the course in general science but not, ordinarily, in social scientific aspects of teaching of the craft. Craft teaching in
studies. The home science group should, we feel, take both Training colleges for a limited period of nine months or a year
social studies and general science for the first two years. cannot possibly produce this type of teachers; and if craft
We have recommended that every High school should take education is not to suffer once again and be neglected in schools
one craft. We consider it necessary that at this stage, every by being entrusted to such partially trained teachers who have
student should devote some time to work with the hands and not yet developed that skill in the craft sufficient to exemplify
attain a reasonably high standard of proficiency in one particular to the students, it will be necessary in the interim period for
craft, so that if necessary, he may support himself by pursuing some years that a trained craftsman ‘though not fully educated
it. But it is not on economic grounds only that we make this in the formal way should be associated with the trained teacher
recommendation. By working with the hands the adolescent in the teaching of the crafts to the pupils. The expert in craft
learns the dignity of labour and experiences the joy of doing may be engaged on a part-time basis and may be able to help
constructive work. There is no greater educative medium than in training the boys in more than one type of craft. Another
making, with efficiency and integrity, things of utility and alternative is that such a trained dexterous craftsman may be
beauty. It trains practical aptitudes, facilitates clarity of utilised by several schools on a pre-planned basis of organized
thinking, gives chances for co-operative work and thus enriches time-table of instruction.
the entire personality. It will be seen that we have recommended seven groups of
The craft chosen at the High school stage may or may not optional courses. Other groups may, of course, be added to
be the craft taken in the Middle school stage by the pupil. the list. Ordinarily, however, these seven groups would provide
While, no doubt, a certain amount of mechanical Skill will enough scope for full freedom of choice to pupils with different
be attained at the end of the Middle school stage, there will interests and aptitudes. The State Departments of Education
be ample room for him to attain higher standard of efficiency should examine the position in the light of their experiences
in the High school. For example, the aesthetic aspect will come and modify or add to these groups.
into fuller play at this stage. An intellectual study of the The other point regarding the curriculum recommended by
economics of the craft and of the science involved in the craft us has to be noted. The differentiated curriculum will really
processes will also be duly stressed. But the pupil should have begin in the second year though the selected craft will be taken
the freedom to choose a new craft, if he so likes, when he comes up from the first year. One other subject may also be taken up
to the High school. The period of time he can devote there, is in the first year for the sake of convenience. But we wish to
long enough for him to achieve a fairly high standard of efficiency emphasise the point that except in the case of languages, the
in the new craft. optional subjects need not all be studied throughout the course.
The training in crafts requires two fundamental principles A particular subject may be covered in two years or in three
to be observed. So far as the craft itself is concerned, proper years depending on the nature of the subject. For example, the
training can only be given by one who is an expert in that course in shorthand and typewriting need not extend throughout
particular craft. The second principle is that in giving this the four school years. It may even be split up, typewriting
education in craft, the utilisation of the craft for craft-centred being taught in the first year and shorthand in the last two
education will be possible only if a trained teacher fully qualified years.
in the craft and in the scientific aspects thereof is available. We are aware that a new curriculum by itself, however
For a transitional period, it will not be possible to get the good and carefully planned, cannot transform the educational
system. Much will depend on the details of the curriculum and subject-matter than to study a heavy syllabus in a mechanical
on the methods of handling it. What is really needed, is a new or superficial manner. In connection with the curricular research
orientation and a new approach. Again, a curriculum cannot that we have re-commended, we would like specially to stress
be regarded as fixed for all times-it should be a matter of the importance of scrutinising the detailed syllabus in each
constant experimentation with a view to revising it from time subject to eliminate unnecessary and irrelevant items of
to time according to changing needs. The bounds of human information. We can only elucidate the principle here and not
knowledge are constantly expanding and, therefore, it is work out detailed syllabuses. Our educational authorities, who
essential to go on examining and evaluating the contents of the prescribe the courses, and our teachers who teach them need
curriculum, adding to it significant new items and weeding out to understand clearly the aims and objects they should keep
from it whatever has ceased to have direct significance for the in view in the various subjects. We shall state them here very
pupil and his immediate and future life. Therefore. as we have briefly and suggestively with reference to Languages, Social
suggested elsewhere, there is an urgent need for curricular Studies and General Science.
research in our country. We hope that its importance will be
Languages
clearly realised and arrangements made for it in the Training
colleges. Amongst languages, the highest importance is to be given
to the mother-tongue. This sounds like a platitude but is
While discussing the basic principles of curriculum
unfortunately not so; for in the past, for more importance and
construction, we have already indicated the nature of this new
time have been given to other languages. Any teacher however
approach in the earlier part of this chapter. We have also
poorly qualified, has been con-sidered good enough to teach
touched briefly on physical education, and art and craft teaching.
the mother-tongue and, for long, even the grades and salaries
It is really necessary to define this new approach with reference
of language teachers have been lower than those of other
to every subject in the curriculum. It would, however, suffice
teachers. Learning the mother-tongue does not imply merely
for our purpose if we do so with reference to three of the most
the capacity to read and write it anyhow and a continuous
important core subjects-languages, social studies and general
addition to the student’s vocabulary. It is a most potent and
science and briefly indicate what we expect from the teaching
comprehensive medium for the education of the students’ entire
of these subjects at this stage.
personality. Through it a good teacher can train his pupils in
We would like to make it clear that it is not the nomenclature clear thinking, which is one of the most important objectives
or the combination of subjects that matters in the curriculum of education, and in lucid, felicitous self-expression, which
but their actual contents. Otherwise, the subjects that we have besides being a great social gift is an essential quality for
suggested do not differ markedly from those that are being successful democratic citizenship; he can also build up literary
taught in many Secondary schools at present. We have to be appreciation and good taste and educate the emotions. Literature
clear about the objectives that are aimed at, the values that is a vehicle for training the character and inculcating the right
are expected to be derived by the pupil and the scope to be sense of values through the study of literary masterpieces and
covered. So far as the scope is concerned, all that we need say communion with the spirit of great writers. It also provides a
is that the attempt should not be to crowd as much matter as useful insight into the mind and the culture of the past. But
possible into each subject but to pick out the most significant all these objectives can only be attained if the emphasis is
elements, which are relevant to the age and the needs of the placed on the right things—self-expression in reading, writing
students. It is far more useful from the educational point of and speech; study and appreciation of literature as a mirror to
view to understand and grasp thoroughly, comparatively light- life; reading of suitable general books of high quality with
interest rather than concentration on textbooks; approach to They help the student to discover and explain how this
literature as a source of joy and inspiration rather than a kill- adjustment has taken place in the past and how it is taking
joy drill in grammer and vocabulary. If well-qualified and well- place today. Through them, the students should be able to
trained teachers can take up the teaching of the mother-tongue acquire not only the knowledge but attitudes and values which
in this spirit, it may well raise the whole level and quality of are essential for successful group living and civic efficiency.
education. They should endeavour to give the students not only a sense
In the case of the other languages-whether English or of national patriotism and an appreciation of national heritage,
classical or modem Indian languages-the approach must be but also a keen and lively sense of world unity and world
definitely practical. The students should be able to read them citizenship. We need hardly state the obvious fact that these
with comprehension and ease, speak them correctly so as to are but the formulation of the aims which have to be achieved;
make themselves understood and express simple ideas and their translation into curricular terms will require careful
give easy descriptions in writing. The emphasis must, therefore, thought and patient research. In the chapter on ‘Methods’, we
be on reading and speech through out and the students should have said something about how the various topics should be
not be tied down to prescribed textbooks. The preparation of presented in the form of units and projects etc.
easy books for general reading, whose vocabulary range is General Science
approximately the same as that of the textbooks, is an important
An understanding and appreciation of the fundamental
matter requiring the attention of all educational authorities.
principles of the natural and physical sciences is essential to
If, at this stage, foundations are laid for reading with
effective living in the world of today. The common need of
comprehension, interest will carry the student, in later life,
Middle school students in this field can be met best by
as far as he cares to go. But the adoption of very ambitious aims
formulating “general courses”, with em-phasis on practical
at this stage, e.g., literary appreciation, study of difficult
applications and observations. At the High school stage, there
poems, writing on abstract themes will defeat the very purpose
will be a specialised reorientation of the science courses and
in view.
Physics, Chemistry and Biology will be taught as independent
Social Studies subjects. But, both from the point of view of students adjustment
“Social Studies” as a term is comparatively new in Indian to their natural environment and of providing the proper
education; it is meant to cover the ground traditionally associated background for the more specialized studies later, it is desirable
with History, Geography, Economics, Civics, etc. If the to formulate “general science” courses for the Middle stage. It
teaching of these separate subjects only imparts miscellaneous is to be noted that the science syllabus in the Secondary school
and unrelated information and does not throw any light on, or is not directed to the “production of scientists”. Its aim is to give
provide insight into social conditions and problems or create basic understanding and appreciation of scientific phenomena-
the desire to improve the existing state of things, their educative biological and physical—which may prepare the “non-scientists”
significance will be negligible. This whole group of studies has, for a fuller and more complete life. At the same time, the
therefore, to be viewed as a compact whole, whose object is courses should give fundamental principles to those relatively
to adjust the students to their social environment which includes few who will later specialize in science. Special emphasis must
the family, community, State and nation-so that they may be be placed on demonstrations, field trips, and practical projects
able to understand how society has come to its present form which may link up school science with actual life problems and
and interpret intelligently the matrix of social forces and situations—concrete problems like local sanitation, water
movements in the midst of which they are living. supply, ‘elimination of pests, etc. Science teaching at this
stage, should initiate the student into the use and appreciation adopted as suitable. Considerable care was, therefore, taken
of the scientific method by which facts are discovered, in their preparation, and the authors themselves were generally
relationships established, and sound conclusions reached. Pupils persons of standing. With the change-over to ‘the regional
should be encouraged to explore every opportunity to develop language as the medium of instruction, there was no longer
the attitude of critical inquiry. The classroom, the home, the a possibility of books being published on an all-India basis and
city and the village, the fields and woods and streams, all offer authors were limited to the regions concerned. The restrictive
rich resources and opportunities for science teaching resources nature of the open competition and the need for immediate
that must be fully utilized by every teacher of science. provision of some kind of textbook or other led to a haphazard
The teacher should aim at awakening in the pupils a lively selection of books and to a considerable deterioration in the
curiosity about the natural phenomena around them at standard of the textbooks that were prescribed or recommended.
developing their capacity for the practical application of their Not every teacher in a region was competent to write textbooks
knowledge, at appreciating the tremendous impact of modern in that particular regional language. Textbooks could seldom
science on all aspects of our life and at interesting them in the be written by the best qualified and most competent teachers
human Side of scientific progress by introducing them to the because of their ignorance or insufficient knowledge of the
lives of the great scientists. Such an approach will ensure that regional language.
science becomes a part of “liberal” education and an instrument Apart from these difficulties, inevitable in the transitional
for the appreciation of the special characteristics of modern period, we have reason to criticise the selection even of those
culture. books that are available in the market. Some complaints we
We cherish the hope that, if the curriculum is reorganized have received may not be altogether justified, and we realise
on the lines suggested and if the new dynamic approach is that opinions may vary widely as to the suitability of books.
adopted. the Secondary school may become a centre of joyous The impression left on us after carefully sifting the evidence
education related to life, instead of being merely a centre of tendered was that, in prescribing textbooks considerations
dull and stereotyped instruction. other than academic were not infrequently brought to bear; nor
could it be asserted that the Textbook Committees had been
TEXTBOOKS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS functioning efficiently. Instances were brought to our notice
Some Defects in the Existing System where textbooks prescribed for a particular grade were either
too difficult or too easy or they were very defective in the
The bulk of the evidence that was tendered, particularly
language in which they were written and in the manner in
by teachers in schools and colleges, indicated that there was
which the subject was presented.
a great deterioration in the standard of textbooks at present
prescribed to the students. It was pointed out by some that the The question therefore of producing proper textbooks for
change-over to the regional language as the medium of schools is one which should receive the earnest attention of
instruction in the different States had led to an aggravation both the State and Central Governments. It is interesting to
of the problem. Grave though the defects were in the use of note that as far back as 1873, a Resolution was passed by the
a foreign language as the medium of instruction at the school Government of India requesting local governments to appoint
stage, there was one relieving feature in regard to the selection committees for the examination of existing School books in
of textbooks. These textbooks were prepared by authors in order to discover defects of either form or substance and to
different parts of India. They had to complete with similar bring them into harmony with the principles enunciated in the
publications from other parts of the world if they were to be Resolution.
Among the principles laid down were— printed in very large numbers, it should be possible to obtain
(i) that a Standing Committee of Reference should be the services of competent person to ensure good layout and
appointed in each province to choose or, if necessary, design.
to prepare appropriate textbooks in the Indian languages So far as illustrations are concerned, their present standard
and that the Committee so constituted should draw up and quality are almost a scandal and it is necessary that both
a list of suitable books that could be adopted by the the Central and State Governments should take a direct interest
different schools concerned; in their improvement. We would like to make two definite
recommendations in this behalf. The Central Government should
(ii) that where no suitable textbooks existed in any particular
either set up a new institution or help an existing Art school
subject the Standing Committee should take steps to
to develop a special course-to train promising artists in the
have such a work prepared.
techniques of book-illustrations. There is no justification for
At present there are Textbook Committees in different the complacent belief that any drawing master or artist can
States and these Committees are expected to review the books prepare suitable illustrations for books. It requires a special
submitted to them by publishers and recommend textbooks in flair and technique for which special training is necessary.
the various subjects that might be studied by pupils in different Secondly, we recommend that the Central Government and,
standards. if possible, the State Governments also should built up and
Standards in Production of Textbooks maintain a library of books of good illustrations which could
be sent out not only to Textbook Committees but also to
We are greatly dissatisfied with the present standard of
publishers. This would reduce considerably the cost of production
proudction of school books and consider it essential that this
and consequently the price of the books also. We recommend
should be radically improved. Most of the books submitted and
that the Textbook Committees should lay down definite and
prescribed are poor specimens in every way-the paper is usually
clear criteria for the paper, type, illustrations and the format
bad, the printing is unsatisfactory, the illustrations are poor
of the books for various classes and they should unhesitatingly
and there are numerous printing mistakes. If such books are
reject those which do not conform to the specified criteria.
placed in the hands of students, it is idle to expect that they
would acquire any love for books or feel interest in them or Role of Publishers in the Publication of Textbooks
experience the joy that comes from handling an attractively It was brought to our notice in this connection that the
produced publication. So far, this matter has been left entirely commercial side of the production of textbooks has also adversely
to Commercial publishers who have failed to bring about any affected their proper selection. The practice in some States is
appreciable improvement. We are convinced that this state of to prescribe only one textbook in each subject for each class.
things will continue unless the Education Departments take a In view of the very large number of pupils studying in these
direct interest in it. In our opinion, some of the textbooks forms, the approval of a book by the committee meant large
should be published directly under the auspices of the Textbooks profits to the publishers and financial stakes involved sometimes
Committees. We would like these books to set up for the resulted in undue influences being brought to bear on the
emulation of the publishers, a higher standard of production members of the committees. Evidence tendered left no doubt
in every respect. In many ways, the difference between a well- that such influences did interfere with proper selection of
produced and a badly produced book is a matter of good taste textbooks. As a result of this, textbooks were often prescribed
and careful designing and it does not always involve an which were too difficult or too easy for the class concerned or
appreciable increase of expenditure. When books are to be were defective in language and in the manner of presentation
and sometimes abounded in factual mistakes. The evil has they should make a positive attempt to promote social,
become so widespread that it is necessary, in our opinion, to communal and international harmony so that the youths may
take effective steps to check this state of affairs and to exercise be trained to become good citizens of their country as well as
strict control to ensure the production and selection of better good citizens of the world.
books. If proper books are to be produced and authors of repute
Constitution of a High-Power Committee
are to write them, a different approach to the whole problem
is urgently needed. Having stated the general principales, we may now pass
on to the machinery that should be entrusted with this task.
We are of the opinion that it is desirable to modify the rigid
We are of opinion that all political and other extraneous
dependence of education on certain prescribed textbooks, and
influences must be eschewed in the selection of textbooks. This
therefore, we recommend that textbooks should not be
is possible only if a high-power committee is entrusted with
prescribed for every subject. In the case of languages, it seems
this task. Such a committee should function as an independent
desirable to prescribe definite textbooks for each class in order
body. It should be composed of 7 members who will be chosen
to ensure proper gradation. So far as the other subjects are
with particular reference to their high status, knowledge and
concerned the Textbook Committee should approve a number
experience. The Committee we envisage will consist of (1) a
of suitable books in each subject and leave the choice to the
high dignitary of the judiciary of the State, preferably a judge
institutions concerned. It has also been brought to our notice
of the High Court, (2) a member of the Public Service
that some of the books prescribed have offended the religious
Commission of the region concerned; (3) a Vice-Chancellor of
or social susceptibilities of sections of the community or have
the region concerned: (4) a headmaster or headmistress in the
tried to indoctrinate the minds of the young students with
State; (5) two distinguished educationists to be coopted by the
particular political or religious ideologies. Fortunately this
members; and (6) the Director of Education.
tendency is not very marked at present but, in view of our
democratic, secular constitution, it is necessary to curb it The Director of Education should be the Secretary of the
wherever it is in evidence. Committee and the Committee may elect its own Chairman.
The membership of the Committee should be for a period of
Textbook Committees should, therefore, examine the books
five years. The Government of the State concerned may
not only from the academic point of view but also with reference
nominate those members were necessary.
to certain important general principles which have a far-reaching
bearing on their usefulness and suitability. No book should be Function of the Committee
approved which offends the religious sentiments of any section The Committee should have the following functions:
of the community or brings into contempt any reasonable social
practice and custom. They should not create any feeling of (1) To prepare a panel of expert reviewers for each of the
bitterness or discord among the different sections of the people. subjects included in the Secondary school education
Nor should they be utilised for propaganda of any particular curriculum.
political ideology or attempt to indoctrinate the young minds (2) To appoint Expert Committees from time to time
with particular political theories, except in so far as sound consisting of two or three members to give, detailed
principles of the democratic way of living and the democratic reports on the suitability of the books referred to them.
form of government, which the country has accepted, are They should be paid a suitable hono-rarium.
brought home to the pupils. Not only should textbooks exclude
(3) To invite experts to write textbooks and other books for
any matter which may have these undesirable reactions, but
study, if necessary.
(4) To cooperate with similar committees in other States feel that unless active attempts are made to bring out a number
wherever possible, so as to select suitable books in the of such publications as well as books in the regional languages
language concerned on a regional basis. and in the official language of the Union, the all-round
(5) To arrange for the publication of textbooks and other development of the pupil will be seriously handicapped. Teachers
books needed for the schools. also should have more books available to them in the languages
so that they may with profit refer to them and keep their
(6) To maintain a fund from the amount realised from the knowledge up-to-date.
sale of publications.
Reference may, in this connection, be made to the frequent
(7) To grant suitable honoraria to authors or royalties to change of textbooks in the schools. We find no justification for
publishers whose books are approved as books of study such quick changes. Besides imposing an unnecessary financial
for the schools. burden, which is becoming unbearable even for middle class
(8) To utilise the balance of the fund for purposes, such parents, such frequent changes are not in the best interest of
as, education.
(a) awarding of scholarships to poor and deserving If a book has been carefully chosen, there is no reason why
candidates, it should not be used for a reasonable length of time. Moreover,
the possibility of such changes leads to unfair competition
(b) providing necessary books for such pupils. amongst publishers who seek by all means, to get their books
(c) contributing towards the cost of supply of milk, approved irrespective of quality. Similarly, it is necessary to
midday meals and evening refreshments to school take care that too many books are not placed on the approved
children, and list-as is the practice in some States-because that tends
(d) generally for such other purposes as are conducive unconsciously to lower their quality. If the list of approved
to the improvement of Secondary education. books in a particular subject is limited, there will be an incentive
on the part of authors and publishers to produce better books.
The Committee should submit a report at the end of every
Otherwise, if there are as many as twenty or thirty books on
year to the government on its working. The Committee will
the approved list, it is impossible to maintain a high standard.
have its own office, the expenditure of the office being born
We depreciate also the growing practice in many schools,
out of the funds referred to above.
particularly in the richer schools, of making the student spend
In suggesting that this Committee should undertake the extravagantly on exercise books and stationery. Apart from the
publication of certain books, we shall not be restricting the heavy burden on their parents, it gives them a wrong kind of
choice of books nor limiting the scope of free enterprise in the social and economic training which is objectionable from many
publication of books. Even now many universities publish points of view.
textbooks in languages after paying honoraria to the authors
and royalties where necessary. The funds accruing therefrom SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
have afforded substantial help to universities to develop some Curriculum
of their activities in the research departments.
1. At the Middle school stage, the curriculum should
Books of Reference in Regional Languages include (i) Languages; (ii) Social Studies; (iii) General
We have referred elsewhere to the great paucity of books Science; (iv) Mathematics; (v) Art and Music; (vi) Craft;
of reference in the regional languages for school libraries. We and (vii) Physical Education.
2. At the High school or Higher Secondary stage, diversified 10. The Central and State Governments should maintain
courses of instruction should be provided for the pupils. libraries of blocks of good illustrations which could be
3. A certain number of core subjects should be common to loaned to Textbook Committees and publishers in order
all students whatever the diversified courses of study to improve the standard of book illustration.
that they may take; these should consist of (i) Languages, 11. Single textbooks should not be prescribed for every
(ii) General Science, (iii) Social Studies, and (v) a Craft. subject of study, but a reasonable number of books
4. Diversified courses of study should include the following which satisfy the standards laid down should be
seven groups: (i) Humanities, (ii) Sciences, (iii) Technical recommended leaving the choice to the schools
subjects, (iv) Commercial subjects, (v) Agricultural concerned.
subjects, (vi) Fine Arts, and (vii) Home Science; as and 12. In the case of languages, however, definite textbooks
when necessary additional diversified courses may be should be prescribed for each class to ensure proper
added. gradation.
5. The diversified curriculum should begin in the second 13. No book prescribed as a textbook or as a book for general
year of the High school or Higher Secondary school study should contain any passage or statement which
stage. might offend the religious or social susceptibilities of
any section of the community or might indoctrinate the
Textbooks
‘minds of the young students with particular political
6. With a view to improving the quality of textbooks or religious ideologies.
prescribed a high-power Textbook Committee should be
14. Frequent changes in textbooks and books prescribed for
constituted which should consist of a high dignitary of
study should be discouraged.
the judiciary of the State, preferably a Judge of the
High Court, a Member of the Public Service Commission
of the region concerned, a Vice-Chancellor of the region,
a headmaster or headmistress in the State, two
distinguished educationists and the Director of
Education; this Committee should function as an
independent body.
7. A fund should be maintained from the amount realised
from the sale of publications which may be utilised for
awarding scholarships, and providing books and certain
other amenities for school children.
8. The Textbook Committee should lay down clear criteria
for the type of paper, illustration, printing and format
of the book.
9. The Central Government should set up a new institution,
or help some existing Art schools to develop training in
the technique of book illustration.
156 System and Issues in Indian Education Dynamic Methods of Teaching 157
OBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODS

In discussing the problem of right methods, it is necessary
to take a broad and comprehensive view of their objectives
which are really closely related to the objectives of education
that we have already discussed and which we must to some
6 extent recapitulate from the point of view of methodology. A
method is not merely a device adopted for communicating
certain items of information to students and exclusively the
DYNAMIC METHODS OF TEACHING concern of the teacher who is supposed to be at the “giving end.”
Any method, good or bad, links up the teacher and his pupils
into an organic relationship with constant mutual interaction
NEED OF RIGHT METHODS : it reacts not only on the mind of the students but on their
We have discussed the question of the reconstruction of the entire personality, their standards of work and judgment,
curriculum in the preceding chapter. But every teacher and their intellectual and emotional equipment, their attitudes
educationist of experience knows that even the best curriculum and values. Good methods which are psychologically and socially
and the most perfect syllabus remain dead unless quickened sound may raise the whole quality of their life ; bad methods
into life by the right methods of teaching and the right kind may debase it. So, in the choice and assessment of methods,
teachers must always take into consideration their end-
of teacher.
products—namely, the attitudes and values inculcated in them
Sometimes even an unsatisfactory and unimaginative consciously or unconsciously. Good methods of teaching should
syllabus can be made interesting and significant by the gifted aim at the following objectives, which have not only intellectual
teacher who does not focus his mind on the subject matter to but also social and moral implications, for in the domain of
be taught or the information to be imparted but on his students- education, it is impossible to draw rigid lines of demarcation.
their interests and aptitudes, their reactions and response. lie Whatever impact education has on one aspect of the personality
judges the success of his lesson not by the amount of matter tends to react on other aspects.
covered but by the understanding the appreciation and the
The highest value that all methods should try to inculcate
efficiency achieved by the students.
is love of work and the desire to do it with the highest measure
In building Up, therefore, a picture of the reorganized of efficiency of which one is capable. There are only two real
Secondary school, it is necessary to indicate the kind of methods educative media, contact with a rich and well-integrated human
to be adopted and popularized if the curriculum that we have personality (whether of the teacher or the parents or personal
recommended is to develop into the kind of educational medium friends) and sincere, wholehearted pre-occupation with
that we envisage. It is really the function of Training colleges worthwhile work, intellectual as well as practical. If education
to introduce these methods in our schools through their trained fails to develop in the students a real attachment of the work
teachers and we do not propose to cover here the ground that that they are doing in school and the will to put the best of
training courses are expected to do. We shall confine our themselves into it, it can neither educate the mind nor train
attention to the most outstanding defects in this field and to the character. For various reasons, which we, need not analyse
indicate the general principles and approach to be adopted to here, this attitude to work is not common amongst our students-
eradicate these defects. either in schools or in colleges. According to our evidence they
are content with the minimum of effort, Slipshod in their work, situation. The strangle-hold of verbalism is still confused with
and tend to confine themselves to the study of “Notes” and the grasp of knowledge-knowledge, which is the fruit of personal
“Summaries” rather than textbooks, and to textbooks rather effort and purposeful intellectual and practical activity.
than significant books of wider interest. Consequently many students leave school with a certain amount
The Secondary school can render no greater service to the of information as their equipment but neither well-assimilated
students (and ultimately to the nation) than by raising their knowledge nor wisdom, which is the grace of knowledge. We
standards of efficiency in every thing and creating the necessary felt strongly, therefore that only such methods should be
attitude for the purpose. The motto of every school and its adopted as will give concreteness and reality to learning and
pupils should be “Every thing that is worth doing at all is worth help to break down the barriers between life and learning and
doing well”-whether it be making a speech, writing a between the school and the community. We shall have something
composition, drawing a map, cleaning the classroom, making to say later about the nature of such methods.
a book rack or forming a queue. From this point of view, it On the intellectual side the most important objective of
is more valueable to take up fewer projects and to complete teaching methods should be to develop the capacity for clear
them with thoroughness and efficiency than to attempt a larger thinking which distinguishes every truly educated person and
number haphazardly and superficially. In this connection, it has become increasingly important in the modern world of
is well to remember that good work, habits, and skills are not “plural possibilities”, where every one must learn to make up
acquired theoretically or in a vacuum; it is proper habits of his mind and judge issues and problems without prejudice or
work and insistance on them in every detail and over a long passion. A majority of our citizens will not receive any education
period of time that create the requisite attitudes and values. beyond the Secondary stage and if they cannot learn to think
Discipline or cooperation. for instance, cannot be instilled into straight and dispassionately at this stage, they will never be
students through lectures or exhortations; they can become a able to play their part as responsible citizens of a democracy.
part of an individual’s normal technique of life only when he Some of the objectives to which we have referred above will,
has been given numerous opportunities of participating in freely if achieved, assist in training students in this valuable capacity.
accepted projects and activities in which discipline and co- But that is not enough. It must also form the conscious objective
operation are constantly in demand for achieving the ends in of every single teacher, no matter what subject he is entrusted
view. with.
Another serious defect which vitiates present day teaching Whether a student is asked to make a speech in a debating
is its excessive domination by verbalism i.e., the tendency to society or to write an essay or to answer a question in history,
identify knowledge, with words the delusion that if a student geography, or science or to perform an experiment, the accent
is able to memorize or repeat certain words or phrases he has should always be on clear thinking and on lucid expression
grasped the facts or the ideas that they are meant to convey. which is a mirror of clear thought. All students cannot become
The use of an imperfectly understood foreign language as eloquent speakers or good stylists but there is no reason why-
medium of instruction has greatly accentuated this evil and if proper methods are adopted-every normal student should not
students have usually been content, or compelled, to memorize be able to learn to speak and write in such a way as to convey
whole paragraphs or pages from their text-books in History, his ideas lucidly and intelligibly. In this connection we would
Geography and even in Science and Mathematics. In spite of like to discourage the present practice of giving excessive home
the change in the medium of instruction in recent years, we work. It is not only a, great burden on the children but is likely
are afraid there has not been much improvement in this to be a threat to their health and a hindrance to the development
of proper habits of work. Whatever home work is given-and we the success of this proposal would largely depend on the requisite
are of the opinion that this should be confined to the higher accommodation and equipment being available for the purpose.
classes should be carefully and scrupulously corrected and the
mistakes discussed with the students so that their confusions VALUE OF ACTIVITY METHODS
of thought and expression may be gradually eliminated. Our own observation of many schools-at-work as well as
When a great deal of home work is given and it is not the evidence given by experienced educationists lead us
properly scrutinized by the teacher, the mistakes of spelling, irresistibly to the conclusion that the methods of teaching in
of grammar, of expression of involved presentation and, above use are still dominated by routine. There is still too much of
all, of confused thinking remain undetected and are likely to cramming and the teaching in the school is not related to life,
become ingrained. That is why a little home work, well and nor is there any determined attempt to check deterioration of
willingly done and carefully corrected, is far better than great standards of expression in speech and writing. The point of
deal of slipshod work reluctantly accomplished. Here as departure for all reforms in method must be the realization
elsewhere, quality is more important than quantity. This does that knowledge has to be actively acquired by every individual
not of course, mean that children will do no study at home. student through independent effort. The basis of teaching must
If interest has been aroused and reading habits have been therefore, be the organization of the subject matter into units
cultivated they will read many books of general interest, they or projects which would create opportunities for self-activity on
will pursue their various hobbies, they may prepare charts, the part of the students. These should largely replace the
models diagrams or perform simple experiments and study formal lessons which often lack proper motivation and,
their textbooks in various subjects. But the difference is that therefore, fail to arouse real interest. Students can put in their
all this will be work, spontaneously undertaken and stemming best effort only when the relationship between their life and
from the students’ natural interest not imposed on them from their lessons is made manifest, for this win create the necessary
outside. feeling of interest and provide the requisite motivation.
Finally, it is desirable that the methods of teaching should So the business of the teacher should be to re-establish the
expand the range of students’ interest. A cultured man is a link between life and knowledge, to share the aims and objects
person of varied interests and, if healthy interests are fostered of teaching with his, pupils and to plan the programme of work
they will enrich the personality. The normal adolescent is in such a way that pupils will have varied and ample
naturally interested in many things and in the class-room, on opportunities for self-expression in speech, writing, collective
the playground during excursions and in their social and extra- reading, independent research, constructive activities and
curricular activities. The intelligent and wide awake teacher other projects that bring the hand and the mind into fruitful
has numerous opportunities to kindle new interest, to expand cooperation. Such a conception of the school day programme
and strengthen existing ones and to satisfy their innate desire is far removed from the stereo-typed routine of the present day
to touch life at many points. It is by exploring different avenues in which verbalism predominates-the teacher talking and
of interests and activities that he can truly discover himself and dictating notes and the children listening passively in the
begin to specialize in due course. We would urge all schools to classroom and memorizing things at home for the sake of
provide in the time-table at least one free period every day in passing tests and examinations.
which students may pursue their favourite hobbies and creative There is no opportunity or desire to acquire knowledge
activities individually or in groups, preferably under the either for the sake of life or for its own sake-the dominant
guidance of some interested teacher. We need hardly add that motive is to scrap through the examination. If the self-activity
approach is adopted, if there is imagination in planning work the group of students concerned-provided, of course, it is not
and freedom in its execution, the present bookish schools can organised as a compulsory task imposed on the students from
be transformed into “work schools” or “activity schools” and above but is envisaged as a creative activity initiated and
they can become genuine centres of education for the whole directed by them spontaneously and with zest.
personality of the child. This approach also postulates that There is another important principle which may be borne
practical and productive work should find a prominent and in mind by the teacher in planning his methods of teaching.
honoured place in the school programme. We have already It is not the amount of knowledge imparted or learnt in class
provided for it in the curriculum but what we are concerned that matters but the efficiency and thoroughness with which
with here is the principle that the teaching methods in all. it is acquired by the students. With the great increase in
subjects should be inspired, as far as possible, with the spirit knowledge that has taken place in every single field, it is quite
underlying good craft work. impossible for a student-not only in the Secondary school but
This implies that, in the teaching of every subject even in the university-to acquire even one hundredth of the
opportunities should be afforded for pupils to apply practically most essential knowledge in any particular field of studies. Any
the Knowledge that has been acquired by them. In Geography attempt, therefore, at an encyclopaedic approach, however
it may take the form of drawing maps, making models, watered down, is foredoomed to failure. The teacher must
illustrations, organising excursions, keeping weather records, concentrate on two things-quickening of interest and training
constructing in appropriate materials scenes from the life of in efficient techniques of learning and study. If, through proper
different regions of the world etc. In History, in addition to presentation and the realisation of the relationship between
the preparation of suitable illustrations of the type mentioned the student’s life and what he is learning at school, his curiosity
above, they may prepare and stage historical plays-making the and interest have been aroused, he will always be able to
costumes, the stage effects, fixing the lights etc., themselves, acquire necessary knowledge, on the spur of felt need. in his
or cooperatively study local history, or set up a small history later life. On the other hand, the static, ready-made knowledge,
museum and, in fact take up any projects that will bring which is forced on him, not only fails to irradiate his mind but
history to life. In connection with the study of languages— is also quickly forgotten-as soon as it has been unburdened in
particularly the mother-tongue-they may undertake to write the Examination Hall !
small booklets on subjects of special interest to them. The emphasis therefore shifts from the quantum of
The collection of material from relevant sources, its editing, knowledge to the right methods of acquiring it. For this purpose,
its actual writing, the binding of the booklets attractively-will it is essential that every student should be trained in the art
all from part of a joyous project. Illustrated charts about great of study. We consider this absolutely essential and wish to
writers may be prepared-containing their pictures short notes stress it in particular because, in a large majority of schools,
on their life and works and brief appropriate quotations in no attempt is made to train students in this basic skill. It seems
prose or poetry from their writings-or they may possibly attempt to be presumed that any one who can read a book, in the sense
translations of some easy books and articles in English with of passing his eyes over words or pronouncing them with his
the object of providing rich reading material for their fellow lips, has studied it. This is an untenable presumption. Study
students in the Library. The school magazine is another project implies several mental processes-interpretation of words into
which can become the nucleus not only of creative writing but their appropriate meanings, the art of building up ideas and
of a number of academic and practical Activities which may sifting the significant from unimportant details of illustration
widen the interests and quicken the whole intellectual pace of or from incompetent “padding”.
These study skills cannot be acquired automatically but of different types of children, he can neither win their interest
have to be consciously practised. It is not necessary for us to nor their active co-operation. The present practice of
discuss the methods that should be adopted for this purpose mechanically applying the same methods to dull average, as
and for assessing whether the students have acquired the well as bright children is responsible for much of the
habits and capacities needed for intelligent study. But we do ineffectiveness of the instruction given in schools. If these
feel that, with reference to every subject of curriculum, the various groups of children are allowed to proceed at their own
teaching of appropriate methods of study must form an appropriate pace and the method approach as well as the
important part of the school programme. One approach which curricular load are properly adjusted, it will be good for all of
has been successfully tried in some schools, is to organize, at them-it will save the dull children from discouragement and
the beginning of the session, a “How to study week” in which the bright children from a sense of frustration. We commend
all the pupils concentrate on this problem are made conscious for consideration in this connection a scheme that has been
of it and are initiated into proper methods of study. But obviously tried in schools in the United Kingdom. The curriculum is
this can only be useful if care is taken to see that the habits, arranged in “three streams”, A, B and C.
skills and attitudes acquired during this intensive training are For the dull children, the curriculum as well as the syllabus
used throughout the year and if every teacher cooperates in in each subject are simpler and lighter-that is the C stream-
this project. One essential part of this programme must be a and include only the minimum essential subject-matter. If they
training in the use of reference materials such as the list of can complete that with thoroughness and efficiency they will
contents and index in books, the dictionary, the atlas and gain more intellectually than if they were dragged behind the
reference books like the Encyclopaedia or the Book of Knowledge. chariot wheels of their brighter colleagues. For the bright
students the curriculum has richer content and, after they
ADAPTATION OF METHODS TO SUIT DIFFERENT
have completed the common basic contents, they can go on to
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE
study the additional subject-matter. We have not considered it
Having stressed the value of activity methods, we should necessary to work out the curriculum or the syllabuses on these
like also to put in Pi plea for individualized work and instruction, lines because it will have to be done by State Departments of
in order to train the students in the habit of working Education and, to some extent, by each individual school
independently. If students are trained to do so, it will discourage according to circumstances. But we recommend that this idea
cramming and make it necessary for the teacher to cover the of adjusting the curriculum to students of varying ability should
entire course or teach the whole book through formal oral be explored and, what is equally important, methods of teaching
lessons. He could then concentrate on the essentials show the should also be similarly adjusted. The brighter children will,
inter-connections of topics and arouse intelligent interest leaving for example, be able to respond better to methods involving
some parts of the course to be studied by the students greater freedom, initiative and individual responsibility than
independently. There will always be certain types of assignment the dull or the average children who may require, at least in
in the school programme which can be best carried out on the the early stages, a greater measure of planning and guidance
basis of individual activity. Such training is necessary not only by the teachers.
to develop their capacity for independent work but also to adopt
instruction to individual differences, these differences are a BALANCING INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP WORK
most significant part of the psychological data with which the A wise teacher must however, balance the claims of
teacher has to deal and, if he fails to adopt his methods of work individual work with co-operative or group work. In actual life
and presentation to the psychological needs and mental range it is just as important to possess qualities of good tempered co-
operation, discipline and leadership as to have the capacity for reducing the stress placed on textbooks and making increasing
personal initiative and independent work. The former qualities use of the Library as repository of reference books, standard
develop best in the context of well organised group work which books and books of general interest. A textbook usually adopts
is not at present given its due place in our schools. The normal a specific approach conveying information and knowledge as
basis of work in a large majority of schools is competition- systematically and briefly as possible. Such an approach has
competition for marks and grades and prizes. This has its uses its own advantages but it cannot provide adequate training for
within limits but does not by any means provide the proper the growing mind of the adolescent which often craves for a
training for the art of living in the community. wider and more challenging presentation and appreciates
The genuine training of emotions, attitudes, and social contact with more creative minds that textbook writers are
capacities take place best in the context of projects and units generally gifted with.
of work undertaken co-operatively. It is the give-and-take of Moreover, the standard of interest and general knowledge
shared experiences that brings out the quality of leadership, is so deplorably poor in Secondary schools-the examination
inculcates habits of disciplined work and takes the individual “howlers” and the reports of Public Service Commissions are
out of his potentially dangerous mental and emotional isolation. ‘an irrefutable proof of the latter-that it has become a matter
We recommend, therefore, that teachers should be so trained of the highest priority to promote the desire and the habit of
that they are able to visualise and organize at least a part of general reading amongst our students. This means, in effect,
the curriculum in the form of projects and activity-units which the establishment of realy good libraries in schools and the
groups of students may take up and carry to completion. Another provision of an intelligent and effective Library Service. In fact,
advantage of such projects would be that they will break through without it, many of the recommendations and proposals made
the academic isolation of the school and bring it into vital in this chapter and elsewhere cannot possibly be implemented.
rapport with the life and the activities of the surrounding Individual work, the pursuit of group projects, many academic
community. The chemistry of purification of water may blossom hobbies and co-curricular activities postulate the existence of
into the study of the municipal water system; the lesson in a good, efficiently functioning library. The library may well be
Civics may lead to a study of the working of the Local Board regarded as an essential instrument for putting progressive
or a campaign for the improvement of local sanitary conditions. methods into practice. In view of its crucial importance, we
In fact there are numerous resources in the life of every consider it necessary to devote some space to discussing how
community which can and should, be utilised for educational the school library must be organized if it is to play its part
purposes. Such an approach will vitalise the school and also effectively in the improvement of Secondary education.
help to improve the conditions obtaining in the community. We We should like to state at the out set that, in a large
would like to refer in this connection to a significant educational majority of schools there are at present no libraries worth the
movement that under way in the United States under the name name. The books are usually old, outdated, unsuitable, usually
of learning by living the object of which is to link the school selected without reference to the students’ tastes and interests.
and the community into a mutually enriching unity. They are stocked in a few book-shelves, which are housed in
an inadequate and unattractive room. The person in charge is
THE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN SCHOOLS
often a clerk or an indifferent teacher who does this on a part-
Need for a Proper Library Service time basis and has neither a love for books nor knowledge of
We have referred in an earlier part of the chapter to the library technique. Naturally, therefore, there is nothing like
importance of cultivating the habits of general reading, of an imaginative and well-planned library service which could
inspire students to read and cultivate in them a sincere love now towards what they should be reading in due course. Library
of books. What makes this situation particularly difficult is the education postulates the gradual elevation of taste and refining
fact that most teachers and headmasters and even the of appreciation but the teachers’ tact will lie in not forcing them
educational administrators and authorities do not realize how but in unobtrusively guiding them on the way. In this endeavour,
unsatisfactory this position is and, therefore, they have no his own example and contagious enthusiasm can prove very
sense of urgently in matter. It is, necessary, therefore, to give potent allies.
some idea of the Library as we conceive it. The library being attractively arranged and adequately
In the first place, the library must be made the most supplied with suitable books, the next important thing is an
attractive place in the school so that students will be naturally efficient service. In most schools, as we have pointed out, there
drawn to it. It should be housed in a spacious, well-lit hall (or is no conception of such service. It would require the services
room), with the walls suitably coloured and the rooms decorated of a highly qualified and trained librarian who would be on a
with flowers and artistically framed pictures and prints of par with other senior teachers in pay and status and we definitely
famous paintings. The furniture-bookshelves, tables, chairs, recommend that there should be, in every Secondary school,
reading desks-should be carefully designed with an eye to a full-time librarian of this type. If his function is merely to
artistic effect as well as functional efficiency. As far as possible, maintain a register of books, keep the library open at odd
the open shelf system should be introduced so that students hours and occasionally issue books to a few students, there
may have free access to books, may learn to handle them and would obviously be no need for a full-time and highly qualified
browse on them at their leisure. In decorating the library, the librarian. But if the library is to be the hub of the academic
full co-operation of the students should be obtained in order to and intellectual life of the school, if it is not only to meet but
give them the feeling that it is their own library. guide the reading interests of students, if it is to work as a
Secondly, the success of the library depends largely on the centre of free and supervised study as well as group. work on
proper selection of books, journals and periodicals. This should projects undertaken by them-if it is to do all these things, the
be the function of a small committee of teachers who have a librarian will surely have all his work cut out.
genuine love for books, can study book reviews, consult He will also be responsible for giving due publicity to good
catalogues and visit book shops, if possible. It would be useful books old and new, available in the library-preparing and
if the same committee could be entrusted with the work of circulating book lists suitable for different grades, displaying
studying children’s reading interests. Both in this work as well blurbs and cuttings of book reviews on the notice board,
as in the choosing of books, some senior students who are arranging book exhibitions, perhaps conducting a group reading
interested in reading should be associated. They are, after all, project when a few students of similar interests may come
the consumers and their co-operation is likely to be very together to read aloud poems, or stories or dramas. Above all
enlightening. The guiding principle in selection should be not he will be available for consultation in the selection of suitable
the teachers own idea of what books the students must read books for general reading or references needed for individual
but their natural and psychological interests. If they feel more or group projects, that they have to work out as part of their
attracted, at a particular age, to stories of adventure or travel curricular or co-curricular work. It will, of course, be necessary
or biographies or even detection and crime, there is no for him to have the assistance of all his colleagues in this work-
justification for forcing them to read poetry or classics or belle- and if in the Training colleges some of them can be given a brief
letters. Of course, the teacher’s skill and teaching efficiency orientation and training in library work, it will be a great
will consist in his being able to direct what they are reading advantage-but he will have to act as the pivot and the inspiration
of this intellectual and literary ferment. In this connection, it in all its bearings. Nothing can be more inspiring than contact
is recommended that such of those teachers as have not had with a teacher who loves his own subject and who can present
any training in library work during the period of study in it in its proper prospective.
Training colleges should be given opportunities for attending It is necessary for the headmasters and the teachers to
summer courses in librarianship for periods ranging from 4 to keep their fingers, as it were, on the pulse of their students’
8 weeks. general reading. At present, this is far from being the case and
We have recommended that every Secondary school should therefore-with the exception of the brightest students who may
have a central library under a trained librarian. School buildings assume the initiative in consulting teachers about their reading-
being what they are, it will be sometime before provision could they do not receive any individual guidance in this behalf. Most
be made in every school for a big reading room and its adjuncts. teachers, in fact, have no idea of what a majority of students
Similarly it will take time to provide each school with a qualified are reading or whether they are reading at all ! This points to
and trained librarian. Hence our recommendation for training the need of maintaining proper records that can be easily and
some teachers in the management of school libraries as a part quickly scrutinized. We should like to make two
of their training course. These partially trained teacher- recommendations in this connection. Where ordinary issue
librarians will, working in cooperation gradually build up the registers-rather than issue cards-are maintained, each student
central library and organise the library service, while in the must be allotted a few pages of the register in which all books
meantime, working the class libraries. The class library is an studied by him are entered date-wise so that the class teachers
important and essential adjunct to the central school library. and the headmaster may see at a glance what each individual
It is easily organised and in the hands of a teacher of imagination has been reading and give him necessary advice and
it can do within its own limitations as much good work as the encouragement. Secondly, each student should be required to
central library. The important point about the class library is maintain a diary in which he may enter-date-wise, the names
to change and replenish its stocks at frequent intervals so that of all the books (with the names of the authors) which he has
even within the four walls of a classroom the children have a read, together with brief quotations or extracts that may
wide variety of intellectual fare spread before them. A wise appeal to him. Perhaps at a later stage, he may write short
class teacher can use the class library effectively to develop reviews or appreciations of those books. Such a diary,
correct reading habits and for various other educative purposes. maintained throughout the school years, will provide a
In a way he is in a position of advantage as compared with fascinating map of his intellectual development and literary
other teachers and if he himself loves books he is sure to infect growth which will not only be of value to him here and now
his children with his own love and enthusiasm. but may be of interest even in later life.
Subject Libraries Vacation Library and the School and the Community
Besides the class library in every High school there should We would like to make certain general suggestions in order
be subject libraries in charge of subject teachers. Competent to strengthen library facilities and to secure the maximum use
subject teachers can enrich their teaching greatly with the help of those that exist. In all public libraries there should be a
of small collection of books on their own subjects. These should section specially meant for children and adolescents which may
not be confined to textbooks only. Advanced works, reference supplement the resources of the local school libraries. Secondly,
books, books on related subjects and allied fields, all these steps should be taken to keep the school library open during
will find a place in that collection, so that handling them and the vacation and long holidays for the benefit of the students
browsing over them students get a wide view of the subjects as well as the local community, if possible. In places where
there is no public library, the school should also consider the We have advocated in the preceding paragraphs several
possibility of throwing the school library open to the public new approaches to methods of teaching and described the part
outside school hours. This may involve some extra expenditure a well-organized library can play in facilitating their
but it would be eminently worthwhile because it will draw the implementation. But in the evidence and the memoranda that
school and the community into the kind of partnership that we were tendered to us, it was repeatedly affirmed that it is very
have advocated in this Report. We are also of the view that, difficult to apply such progressive methods in schools. Obviously,
in States where a library cess is levied, the proceeds should if these ideas and suggestions are not translated into terms of
also be utilised to strengthen and improve school libraries. In curriculum and methods and the difficulties that stand in the
smaller places it may be more economical to build up the school way are not removed, Secondary education will make no
library in such a way that it may also serve the function of a headway. Some of ‘these difficulties have to do with the general
Public Library for the locality, thus avoiding the duplication sense of frustration that unfortunately prevails amongst
of buildings and furniture, and to some extent, of staff. teachers. There is no enthusiasm, no creative urge to initiate
In some cities we understand that during the vacation and educational renaissance. We hope, however, that soon
books of interest to suit different grades of students are collected after the publication of this Report the Central and the State
from various school libraries and are placed in a central locality, Governments will undertake to organize-for the discussion of
the students being encouraged to visit such improvised libraries all these problems-country-wide seminars, discussion groups
and to study whatever books they may be interested in. This and refresher courses for headmasters and teachers, conducted
is an interesting experiment that may be tried in large cities. by educationists with vision. This will help to reorient the
teachers’ minds and their way of thinking and create a new and
NEED FOR SUITABLE LITERATURE bracing climate of opinion. If the improvement in the terms and
We may, in passing, make a reference here to the associated conditions of service and the general social status of teachers
problem of the production of suitable books for children and that we have recommended elsewhere is brought about and a
adolescents. At present there is a great paucity of such books sense of contentment is created, we have no doubt that, as
in practically all Indian languages and unless the Centre and a result of these conferences, etc., the present feeling of
the State Governments take well thought-out measures-to frustration will disappear and the biggest hurdle in the way
encourage the production of suitable books for general reading, of educational reconstruction will be removed.
the objective in view cannot be realized-books suitable not only Role of the State in Preparing Literature
from the point of view of contents but also of printing, binding
Another measure which will be very helpful in this
and illustrations. This may be done by giving financial assistance
connection is a systematic attempt on the part of all Education
to qualified and well-established organizations engaged in the
Departments, to prepare suitable literature, suggestive
production of such books, by offering prizes to the best books
programmes, teaching aids, etc., for the guidance of teachers.
published and by arranging translations of good children’s
At present they lack definite guidance. It is not provided by
books available in English or published in various regional
the stereotyped notes of Inspecting Officers, which can neither
languages. We believe that, if school libraries are better financed
inspire creative thinking, nor stimulate new methods of work.
and are able to buy a larger number of books and if a love of
The production of such material requires that there should be
reading is created in the students and eventually in adults with
a small “educational wing” attached either to the office of the
the. increased purchase of books, the law of demand and
Director of Education or to one of the Post-Graduate Training
supply will come into play and more and better books will be
colleges, which will devote itself exclusively to the study of
published.
educational issues and problems, with special reference to the an improved syllabus and methods of teaching and discipline,
teachers’ practical difficulties, and produce pamphlets, they might, in due course, help to leave the whole educational
brochures, accounts of new educational experiments and system.
movements for their use. The Education Departments may also perhaps explore the
These should be so written that they will keep their possibility of short-term exchange of really gifted teachers from
knowledge up-to-date, introduce them to good books, inspire one school to another-particularly of teachers drawn from such
them to try new and better methods of teaching and give them progressive schools who may be sent to other institutions. So
detailed and practical suggestions for the purpose. The far as the system of examination is concerned, we have made
department should also see to it that every Secondary school recommendations elsewhere which are calculated to minimize
has a small but select library of educational books and periodicals its dead-weight and to secure greater freedom for teachers.
for the teachers’ use. We recommend that such experimental schools as are in
existence or which may be established in future should receive
EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLS
due encouragement at the hands of the State and Central
Sometimes even good teachers, with ideas and a: sense of Governments.
duty, are unable to put progressive educational methods into
practice. Where this is not due to the uncongenial school MUSEUMS AND OTHER AIDS TO EDUCATION
atmosphere the reason may be either that the teachers have Museums
not been adequately trained in and given practical
Museums play a great part in the education of school
demonstration and observation of such methods or the pressure
children as they bring home to them much more vividly than
and dread of examination may be cramping their efforts.
any prosaic lectures the discoveries of the past and various
So far as the first reason is concerned it is a fact that even developments that have taken place in many fields of Science
the demonstration schools attached to Training colleges often and Technology.
fail to put, into practice the ideas and theories advocated by
We have seen the great value that museums play in other
the college professors.
countries and the great importance that is attached to visits
So the teachers come out of these institutions with rather by school children at periodical intervals to these museums.
vague ideas about things like ‘activity methods’, ‘free work’ and They can also supply a background of information in regard to
group projects etc., but they have never seen them at work. history, art and other fields of learning.
This difficulty can only be overcome if good demonstration and
At present there are (within our knowledge) no museums
experimental schools are established and given all the necessary
in India. of the type that exist in some of the European and
facilities, material and psychological, to develop better methods
American cities. We believe it is necessary from the educational
of teaching.
point of view to establish such museums in important centres
We should like to commend in this connection a new at least, wherein both ancient and modern collections will be
experiment undertaken in one of the States whereby a certain exhibited and in some cases even demonstrations given of the
number of selected schools have been released from the usual actual process of development of various scientific discoveries.
departmental regulations about curricula, methods and
Nothing can impress the students in the formative age so
textbooks and given the freedom to work on new experimental
much as the actual visualising of these experiments in graphic
lines. If a few progressive schools are established in every
manner. We have seen exhibitions conducted in various
State, where experienced teachers would be free to work out
museusms from time to time and have been greatly impressed with the psychology of the young mind. It should not be treated
with their educational value. It will serve also to educate the as a routine duty which can be discharged by any teacher in
public at large and to give them a realistic approach to scientific the area.
investigations and scientific discoveries. Care must be taken to see that an expert panel of
It will not be difficult for every State to concentrate on one headmasters and teachers is constituted to decide on (a) the
such prominent Museum at least. While on this subject we may subject to be dealt with, (b) the manner in which it ought to
also refer to the desirability of providing small museums in the be dealt with, and (c) persons competent to give such a talk.
schools themselves. It may even be possible to have a more If school broadcasts are to be conducted on these lines, they
comprehensive set-up in the museum of a particular town to will form a very efficient supplement to education.
which all the schools can contribute and thus make it much We venture to hope that the adoption of the various
more attractive to school children and to the public. We. feel suggestions that have been made as well as the practical
that assistance from the Centre and the States should be measures that have been recommended will break through the
forthcoming for the starting of such museums. vicious circle which holds our schools in its thrall and release
Audio-Visual Aids—Films and Radio forces which will eventually transform the educational system.
It is hardly necessary to emphasise the role that audio-
visual aids, films and radio talks, can play in the liberalising
of the education of the school children. In some States they 1. The methods of teaching in schools should aim not
have been developed to such an extent that most of the schools merely at the imparting of knowledge in an efficient
are able to obtain from the Department of Public Instruction manner, but also at inculcating desirable values and
the audio-visual aids and films and to correlate them with the proper attitudes and habits of work in the students.
particular subjects that are being taught. 2. They should, in particular, endeavour to create in the
The students thus get not merely theoretical instruction students a genuine attachment to work and a desire to
but through these aids a graphic presentation of the subject. do it as efficiently, honestly and thoroughly as possible.
We recommend that a central library of educational films should 3. The emphasis in teaching should shift from verbalism
be available in each State and that films of great value be sent and memorization to learning through purposeful,
from the Central Government to the States periodically. We concrete and realistic situations and, for this purpose,
recommeded also that educational films suited to Indian the principle of “Activity Methods” and “Project Method”
conditions should be taken and made available to schools.
should be assimilated in school practice.
As regards the radio, we are glad to learn that through
4. Teaching methods should provide opportunities for
the All-India Radio, arrangements have been made for school
students to learn actively and to apply practically the
broadcasts. It is hardly necessary for us to emphasise that such
knowledge that they have acquired in the classroom.
broadcasts should be by well-qualified persons and should create
“Expression Work” of different kinds must, therefore,
an interest in the subject so that the boy’s curiosity can be
roused to learn more about the subject. form part of the programme in every school subject.
Nothing is calculated to produce in the child an aversion 5. In the teaching of all subjects special stress should be
for such broadcasts as the monotonous and none too graphic placed on clear thinking and clear expression both in
description that sometimes is given by persons not quite familiar speech and writing.
6. Teaching methods should aim less at imparting the 13. Suitable literature for the guidance and inspiration of
maximum quantum of knowledge possible and more on teachers should be produced by the Education
training students in the techniques of study and methods Departments of all States and either the Office
of acquiring knowledge through personal efforts and of the Director of Education or one of the
initiative. Training colleges should be adequately equipped for the
purpose.
7. A well-thought out attempt should be made to adopt
methods of instruction to the needs of individual students 14. In order to popularize progressive teaching methods
as much as possible so that dull, average and bright and facilitate their introduction “Experimental”
students may all have a chance to progress at their own and “Demonstration” schools should be established
pace. and given special encouragement where they exist.,
so that they may try out new methods freely
8. Students should be given adequate opportunity to work
without being fettered by too many departmental
in groups and to carry out group projects and activities
restrictions.
so as to develop in them the qualities necessary for
group life and cooperative work.
9. As the proper use of a well-equipped school library is
absolutely essential for the efficient working of every
educational institution and for encouraging literary
and cultural interests in students, every
Secondary school should have such a library; class
libraries and subject libraries should also be utilized for
this purpose.
10. Trained librarians, who have a love for books and an
understanding of students’ interests, should be provided
in all Secondary schools and all teachers should be
given some training in the basic principles of library
work, in the Training colleges as well as through
refresher courses.
11. Where there are no separate Public Libraries the school
libraries should, so far as possible, make their facilities
available to the local public and all Public Libraries
should have a special section for children and
adolescents.
12. In order to improve general standards of work in school
necessary steps should be taken to produce textbooks
as well as books of general reading which are of distinctly
superior quality to the books at present available.
180 System and Issues in Indian Education The Education of Character 181
impinge purposefully on the. character of their students but it

is meant to bring out the complexities and the magnitude of
the problem. A radical and comprehensive approach to it cannot
be confined to the school but must take the whole situation into
account. There is no doubt that the beginning must be made
7 in the schools and these cannot be content merely with reflecting
outside trends; they must provide a selective environment in
which children may be able to transcend, to some extent,
THE EDUCATION OF CHARACTER limitations of their home and neighbourhood.
In the great debate that has been going on for decades
between those who hold that education must only seek to
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES adjust the individual to his environment and those who think
In dealing with the aims and objectives of education, we that it should be an agency for the “superior reconstruction”
have made it clear that the supreme end of the educative of the environment and its pattern of life, we are definitely
process should be the training of the character and personality on the side of the dynamic and creative view of education. We
of students in such a way that they will be able to realize their are convinced that it is the business of the school to train
full potentialities and contribute to the well-being of the individuals who will not only be duly appreciative of their
community. One of the main criticism against modern education culture and the good qualities of national character and national
is that, by concentrating too much on examinations, enough traditions but will also be able to analyse and evaluate it
attention is not devoted to activities that promote the formation critically, to eschew whatever is weak or reactionary and to
of character and inculcate ideals which make for personal develop the qualities of character and intellect needed for the
integrity and social efficiency. We propose, therefore, to devote purpose. Our school teachers can be in fused with a high sense
special attention to some of the problems which arise in this of their destiny only when they are made to realize that they
field to discuss the basic principles which should underlie our are engaged in the making of better human beings and a better
approach and to suggest what the schools can do to deal with social order and not merely, teaching a dull, prescribed syllabus.
them. Secondly-and this follows a natural corollary from what we
have said above-in this education of character, the school has
NEED FOR COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL AND to win the active cooperation of the parents and the community
COMMUNITY in general. If the various educative agencies-the home, the
We should, in the first place, take due note of the fact that school, the neighbour-hood, the community, the religious
the school is a small community within a larger community and organizations and the State-have no common outlook and agreed
that the attitudes, values and modes of behaviour-good or bad- ideas about this problem but pull in different directions, the
which have currency in national life are bound to be reflected school will not be able to make an abiding and coherent
in the schools. When we complain of indiscipline or lack of impression on the character of its students. After all, they
earnestness or slipshod methods of work or failure to appreciate spend only one-fourth or one-fifth part of the day in school and
the dignity of labour in the students, we should not forget that the rest of their time is passed in direct or indirect contact with
these may be due largely to defects in the community. This does these other agencies, which can easily undo the good work of
not imply that we can condone this failure of the schools to the school. For, it is essentially the whole of the community
and not merely the school that educates. This implies the It is possible to organize school work in such a way and to
establishment of that active association between parents and build up such traditions that the students will do everything
teachers to which we have referred elsewhere. This should not they undertake with efficiency, integrity, discipline cooperation
be limited to rare and special occasions and to the sharing of and good temper. It is also possible for teachers and students
mutual complaints and grievances but should result in a better alike to do their work in a haphazard, slipshod manner, without
understanding between them and in reconciling their ideas and any discipline or social sense. We recommend that the
values so that, as far as possible, the same kind of motives, Headmaster and staff should discuss this crucial problem
methods and impulses may play on the formation of the students’ amongst themselves: and Plan their work in such a way, that
character at home as in the school. the qualities of character and mind, that they wish to inculcate
This association should, however, go further and draw into are reflected in everything that they do-the compositions they
its train not only the parents of the students on the rolls but Write, the speeches they make in the debating society, the
also other influential and worthy members of the community Pictures they paint, the maps they draw, the social activities
and leaders or various educative agencies who should be afforded they organize, the craft work they undertake. This would
opportunities of coming into contact both with teachers and require the setting before them of high standards of work and
children, of talking to them and discussing problems of common conduct-both personal and impersonal-and creating the desire
interest with them. In this way the staff of the school can to approximate to those standards. It would also call for the
tactfully help in building up a pattern of influences and activities rejection of any work-and deprecation of any form of behaviours-
in the life of the community which will cooperate with the that falls below the standard that may be expected from the
school in moulding the students’ character on right lines. particular student concerned. If all school work and activities
are made psychologically interesting and exacting-in the sense
Thirdly, it must be remembered that the education of
of challenging the full powers of the adolescents-and if they are
character is not something which can be relegated to a particular
trained to take them up in the right spirit, the most congenial
period or a particular teacher or the influence of a particular
conditions will be created for the right training of character.
set of activities. It is a project in which every single teacher
and every item of the school programme has to participate STUDIES AND CHARACTER FORMATION
intelligently.
While we recognize the basic importance of work in this
This is a truth which most teachers would readily concede context, we should not undervalue the part that the, proper
in theory. Some are apt to believe that it is the special theme presentation of the curriculum and the reading of great books
of religious and moral instructions or the special object of team can play in this behalf. Teachers can present all school subjects-
games and certain extra-curricular activities and has little, if particularly the social studies-in such a way that the students
anything, to do with the day-to-day and the hour-to-hour work may develop a right outlook on the world in which they are
of the school. We should like to emphasize, as strongly as we living and acquire a proper appreciation of the nature of human
can, the basic principle that ‘character is forged on the anvil relationship-individual as well as group relationships. History
of action’-of every kind of action, academic, social manual or and Geography can both, in their way, show the mutual
moral-and the way in which the student performs his manifold interdependence of nations and groups and, together with
duties in school or at home leaves an indelible impression on science, they can demonstrate how all great human
him. We would like to remind our teachers of Carlyle’s carpenter achievements have been made possible through the silent,
who “broke all the ten commandments with every single stroke often unrecognized, work of numerous individuals and groups
of his hammer !”. belonging to all parts of the world. They can also make their
pupils realize how these great achievements call for high INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ON
standards of efficiency and integrity Which are the basis of DISCIPLINE
good character. Indiscipline may take the shape of group indiscipline or
Similarly, ; an imaginative and sympathetic study of individual indiscipline. Group indiscipline is the worst of the
literature-not just textbooks but great books and great author- two. While as individuals Many of our students are as good as
scan inculcate noble ideals and values. By encouraging the students anywhere, the tendency to group indiscipline has
habit. of reading and by gradually raising the standards of increased in recent years. Many causes have led to this group
taste and appreciation, the school can mobilize a powerful and indiscipline. Incidents of indiscipline reported from elsewhere
beneficial influence which Will continue to exercise its way have their demoralising effect on students. For various reasons
throughout their life. under a foreign regime, acts of indiscipline became frequent,
It is in the context of these general principles that we have often necessitated by the political activities which were launched
to visualise the problem of character education And this has against a foreign government. While there may have been
to be visualized not in a social vaccum but with reference to justification for such discipline under different practical
our contemporary socio-economic and political situation. While circumstances, we feet that there is no Justification for such
the base ideals and values of good character may be regarded acts of indiscipline after the attainment of independence. The
as permanent, they have to be interpreted and applied in the democratic constitution which the country has adopted permits
special circumstances of our national life. of the redressing of grievances through a democratic machinery.
It would be against all principles of democracy in fact it would
We have already discussed, at some length in the Chapter
be against the very trend and safety of democracy, if such acts
on the Aims and Objectives of Education, the type of mind and
of indiscipline were to continue.
character that must be developed in our youth, if they are to
participate effectively and worthily in the expanding life of Factors Promoting Discipline
their country. The real purpose of education is to train youth to discharge
It is not necessary for us therefore to recapitulate that the duties of citizenship properly. All other objectives are
discussion and we can well confine ourselves to pointing out incidental. Discipline therefore should be a responsibility of
certain special issues that must be considered by all educationists parents, teachers, the general public and the authorities
and to suggesting how they can be successfully tackled. We concerned. There are some positive factors Promoting discipline.
propose to draw special attention to three of these issues-the The Indian students’ natural tendency is to be disciplined. It
problem of discipline, the question of moral and religious is only when forces act strongly on him that he may sometimes
instruction and the part that the various extra and co-curricular be led astray. He appreciates the rules and is normally inclined
activities can play in this field. to abide by them. Much can be done to encourage this trend
in school life. Personal contact between the teacher and the
DISCIPLINE pupil is essential and it is from this point of view that we
No amount of improvement and reconstruction in education maintain that there should be some limit in the number of
will bear much fruit if the schools themselves are undermined pupil admitted into different sections of a class and to the whole
by indiscipline. It is clear from much of the evidence we received school. Reference has been made to this aspect in another
that students and teachers alike need more of spirit of discipline. place.
If proper education is to be given, acts of indiscipline prevalent Emphasis is also to be laid on the role of the class teacher
in schools have to be checked. and the headmaster in promoting general discipline and the
welfare of the pupils. In regard to school life itself a greater discipline among students. We think it unfortunate that such
responsibility should develop upon the students themselves in trends are on the increase. If therefore some of the unhealthy
the maintenance of discipline. Nothing is more calculated to trends of political life are to be avoided in school life, a serious
develop a proper sense of self-discipline, and proper behaviour attempt should be made to see that children under the age of
than their enforcement not by any outside authority with any 17, who are in schools are not drawn into the vortex of
symbol of punishment but by the students themselves. They controversial politics and are not utilised for election purposes.
should choose their own representatives to see to it that proper The suggestion has been put forward that it should be considered
codes of conduct are observed both for the sake of the individuals an election offence for any member or party to utilise the
and for the good name of the school. It is from this point of view services of these pupils in political or civic campaigns.
that we commend what is known as the house system in schools, It may be difficult to prove which party has utilised students,
with prefects or monitors or student councils, whose but this should not be beyond the power of an election tribunal
responsibility it will be to draw up a code of conduct and to to tackle. We therefore recommend that suitable legislation
enforce its observance in the school. should be passed making it an election offence to utilize students
Another important method of bringing home to the pupils below the age of 17 for any of the purposes of political propaganda
the value of discipline is through group games. It is on the or election campaign.
playing fields the virtue of playing the game for its own sake There is another aspect of the question which we would like
and the team spirit can be cultivated. Such extra-curricular to mention. It is good that some of our politicians address our
activities as boy scouts and girl guides, the National Cadet students. It has an educational value and we should like to
Corps, Junior Red Cross and social service activities will encourage this practice of addressing gathering of students in
promote a proper spirit of discipline. The building up of a truly schools. In actual practice this has led to certain anomalies in
harmonious and united form of community.life in the school the publicity given by the Press to such meetings. Persons who
should be the endeavour of all institutions. address these gatherings have different audiences in mind and
Besides these positive factors, certain negative factors also speak not infrequently in a different strain from what is desirable
pro-mote discipline. The discipline of the youth of any country or necessary at school gatherings. We do not wish to generalise
depends upon the discipline that is exercised by elders. In some on this point, because there are many honourable exceptions,
parts of the country on occassions, certain activities of leaders but the tendency in view of the publicity given is to speak not
have not been such as are calculated to promote a healthy spirit to the audience before them, but to a wider audience whose
of discipline in the younger generation. School authorities are attention they wish to attract. This is not a healthy trend for
not always to blame for indiscipline in the schools. We have school education and discipline.
been given to understand that, at the time of elections whether
Role of Teachers
to the legislatures or to some civic bodies, those who aspire
for such places do not hesitate to utilise the students for the Lastly discipline among students can only be promoted if
furtherance of their objective namely, the winning of the there is discipline among the staff. Both within the school and
election. It is a well-known fact that in all democratic in organizations connected with the teaching profession, the
institutions, election time is a time of feverish activity not teacher has always to realise that all his activities are being
always conducted in the most healthy spirit, and the utilization watched by his pupils. To that extent therefore, both in his
of immature mind for purposes of campaigns with or without personal conduct and in his general attitude to all problems
slogans attached thereto is not calculated to promote sound concerning the country, he has to realise that there are
limitations within which he must act for the best interests of conducted by denominational agencies, where religious
the profession. We welcome the opportunity afforded in our education is given. There is, however, a clause, which is being
constitution for the teaching profession to be represented in the increasingly put into effect that no person who does not belong
legislatures of the country. To whatever group or party he may to a, particular religion can be compelled to attend religious
belong, it is necessary for him to adhere to the principles instruction. We are given to understand that in most of such
Mentioned above. schools it is now the rule rather than the exception that religious
Instances have been brought to our notice where school instruction is confined only to those of the particular faith. In
managers or members of Managing Boards have not refrained some of these schools what is known as moral instruction is
from utilising their position to influence teachers and pupils given to such of those pupils who do not attend religious
to participate in political or other electioneering activities. The instruction. Whether religious instruction or moral instruction
recommendation that we made that the utilization of pupils is given, the benefit of such instruction will be derived not from
should be considered an election offence will probably go a long its being treated more or less on the lines of classroom instruction
way to inhibit this increasing tendency. Ultimately, however, but from the spirit of the school and the influence exercised by
it is the school atmosphere and the teacher working there that the teachers. Healthy trends in regard to religious or moral
ensure proper codes of conduct and discipline in the schools. behaviour spring from three sources:
(1) The influence of the home which is the dominant factor;
RELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTION
(2) The influence of the school through the conduct and
Religious and moral instruction also play an important
behaviour of the teachers themselves and life in the
part in the growth of character. At different places which the
school community as a whole.
Commission visited, a good deal of emphasis was. laid on this
aspect of education. (3) Influences exercised by the public of the locality and the
extent to which public opinion prevails in all matters
There is little doubt that the whole purpose of education
pertaining to religious or moral codes of conduct. No
is not fulfilled unless certain definite normal principles are
amount of instruction can supersede or supplant these
inculcated in the minds of the youth of the country. The necessity
three essential factors. We, however, feel that such
for religious education has also been emphasised by some,
instruction can be supplemented, to a limited extent
while others are not in favour of religious instruction, in view
by properly organised instruction given in the schools.
of the diverse forms of religions practised in our country, and
One of the methods adopted in some schools is to hold
the positive decision in the Constitution that the State will be
an assembly at the commencement of the day’s session
a Secular State. This does not imply that because the State is
with all teachers and pupils present when a general
secular there is no place for religion in the State. All that is
nondenominational prayer is offered. Moral instruction
understood is that the State as such should not undertake to
in the sense of inspiring talks given by suitable persons
uphold actively, assist, or in any way to set seal of approval
selected by the headmaster and dwelling on the lives
on any particular religion. It must be left to the people to
of great personages of all times and of all climes will
practise whatever religion they feel is in conformity with their
help to drive home the lessons of morality. In view of
inclinations, traditions, culture and hereditary influence.
the provision of the Constitution of the Secular State,
Against this background we have considered this question religious instruction cannot be given in schools except
very carefully. The present position with regard to religious on a voluntary basis and outside the regular school
education is that there are certain schools, particularly those hours; such instruction should be given to the children
of the particular faith and with the consent of the parents and learn self-reliance through the daily life and activities of
and the management concerned. In making this the camps. The All India Scout Camp at Taradevi, Simla Hills,
recommendation we wish to emphasise that all is a very good example of the kind of thing we have in mind.
unhealthy trends of disunity, rancour religious hatred We recommend that the State should give adequate financial
and bigotry should be discouraged in schools. assistance to the scout movements and should help to secure
suitable sites for scout camps. Scouting and Guiding require
EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES proper guidance and, for this purpose, it is desirable that some
Elsewhere we have referred to the place and importance of the teachers should be trained in organising scout groups
of what are called “extra-curricular” or “co-curricular” activities. and supervising their activities. In this connection we may also
We would like to draw pointed attention here to their significance refer to the need to open summer camps and holiday homes
for the education of character. They are as integral part of the for school students in general. Such camps, too, can help to
activities of a school as its curricular work and their proper mould character by making pupils self-reliant and by enabling
Organisation needs just as much care and fore-thought. Such them to recognise the dignity of labour and the value of group
activities will naturally vary, within limits, from school to work as well as healthy community rife. All schools should, as
school depending upon its location, its resources and the far as possible, afford an opportunity of groups of their students
interests and aptitudes of the staff and students. If they are to spend a few days in such camps every year.
properly conducted, they can help in the development of very
National Cadet Corps
valuable attitudes and qualities. We proposes to refer here
briefly to some of these activities from the point of view of their During the last few years, the Government of India has
incidence on character. instituted the junior division of the National Cadet Corps which
is open to pupils of all Schools. The officers are drawn largely
Scout and Guide Activities from the teaching profession. This has the advantage of bringing
The Scout and Guide movement has taken deep root in teachers and pupils into closer contact in the training camps.
India and the new Organisation, the Bharat Scout and Guides, Through the N. C. C. certain physical and other activities of
has many branches in all the States. Scouting is one of the most a quasi-military nature are taught to the pupils. We have noted
effective means for the training of character and the qualities with pleasure the keen interest taken by them in this training
necessary for good citizenship. It has the great merit that it and the general demand for its expansion. Owing to financial
appeals to pupils of all ages and taps their mani-fold energies. difficulties, however, many of the State Governments have
Through its various games, activities and technical skills, it not been able to meet this demand, so that a large number
is possible to lay the foundation of the ideals of social service, of schools are left without National Cadet Corps. To ensure its
good behaviour respect for leaders, loyalty to the State and proper Organisation, efficiency and development it is necessary
a preparedness to meet any situation. The Commission has to centralize its working. The present variations in regard to
noted with pleasure the keen interest that is being taken in equipment, dress, parades and some of the other necessary
this movement in some of the States and is of the opinion that amenities require that this important Organisation should be
it should receive the fullest encouragement from all State a central responsibility. Moreover, the recruitment and the
Governments and that necessary provision should be made for training for the N. C. C. should receive greater attention from
carrying on all its activities in schools and in camps. It would the Defence Department. We recommend, therefore, that the
be of great advantage, if, in each district or regional area, a N. C. C. should be brought under the Government of India
centre is selected where scouts can meet for their annual camps which should have the responsibility for its proper maintenance,
improvements and expansion. The States should, of course, grants for their encouragement. The contribution that they can
cooperate fully in the furtherance of the movement. make to the training of character and the awakening of cultural
and practical interests is so important that petty considerations
Training in First Aid, Junior Red Cross and St. John’s
of economy should not be allowed to starve them.
Ambulance
All these various agencies that we have discussed-the home,
These have a special value because they enable the students the school with its curriculum and methods and discipline and
to render useful forms of social service and thus gain a sense extra-curricular activities, and the local community-will
of personal and social worth. We feel that it will be of great exercise. their influence in shaping the character of the students.
advantage to the students as well as to the community if every The books that they read, the moral and religious instruction
student is trained in First Aid and Junior Red Cross work and that is imparted to them and the personal example of the
if some of the students receive training in St. John’s Ambulance teachers will inculcate the right ideals and values. But the
work. Such training could be utilized on the occasions of fairs, most potent of these will be the all-Pervasive influence of the
festivals, epidemics or floods or whenever large congregations life of the school as a community, its wisely planned schedule
of people happen to meet at a centre. We have recommended of functions and duties its mutual give-and-take, and its
elsewhere that some teachers should be trained in ambulance willingly accepted discipline its chance of leadership, and its
work and first aid. If that is done, they could be entrusted with opportunities for social service. The success and the psychological
the task of training their pupils under the guidance of qualified understanding with which the school can be organised as a
officers of these organisations. community will largely determine how far it can effectively
function as an agency for the education of character.
Other Extra-Curricular Activities
There are many other extra-curricular activities which SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
schools can and should develop to the best of their ability and Discipline
resources e.g., hiking, rowing, swimming, excursions, debates,
dramas, drawing and painting, gardening. All such activities 1. The education of character should be envisaged as the
add to the appeal of the school and release the creative talents responsibility of all teachers and should be provided
through every single aspect of school programme.
and social aptitudes of the children. We repeat that the success
of these activities depends very largely upon the interest evinced 2. In order to promote discipline personal contact between
by the teaching staff. While the students should be encouraged teacher and the pupils should be strengthened; Self-
in every way to stand on their own feet and develop these Government in the form of house system with prefects
activities through their own initiative, the teachers should be or monitors and student-councils; whose responsibility
at hand to help and guide them so that their educative will be to draw up a Code of Conduct and enforce its
possibilities may be fully exploited and they may ensure that observance, should be introduced in all schools.
all students take part in one or more of these activities. It is 3. Special importance should be given to group games and
for this reason that we have recommended that all teachers other co-curricular activities and their educational
should devote a definite time to such activities and this time possibilities should be fully explored.
should be taken into account in fixing their maximum hours 4. Suitable legislation should be passed making it an
of work. We feel that, while part of the money may come from election offence to utilise students below the age of 17
students’ voluntary contributions or a specific fee charged for for the purposes of political propaganda or election
the purpose, the, Education Department should give liberal campaigns.
194 System and Issues in Indian Education Guidance and Counselling in Secondary Schools 195
Religious and Moral Instruction

5. Religious instruction may be given in schools only on
a voluntary basis and outside the regular school hours,
such instruction being confined to the children of the
particular faith concerned and given with the consent
of the parents and the managements. 8
Extra-Curricular Activities
6. Extra-curricular activities should form an integral-part
GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN
of education imparted in the school and all teachers SECONDARY SCHOOLS
should devote a definite time to such activities.
7. The State should give adequate financial assistance to
the Scout Movement and should help to secure suitable IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE TO PUPILS
sites for Scout Camps; schools should, as far as possible,
The provision of diversified courses of instruction imposes
afforded opportunity for groups of their students to
on teachers and school administrators the additional
spend a few days every year at such camps.
responsibility of giving proper guidance to pupils in their choice
8. The N.C.C. should be brought under the Central of courses and careers. The secret of good education consists
Government which should take the responsibility for its in enabling the student to realise what are his talents and
proper maintenance improvement and expansion. aptitudes and in what manner and to what extent he can best
9. Training in First Aid, St. John’s Ambulance and Junior develop them so as to achieve proper social adjustment and
Red Cross work should be encouraged in all schools. seek right types of employment. The subject of guidance has
gained great importance in many countries in recent years
particularly in America. In many schools well planned efforts
are made to provide assistance to individual boys and girls in
deciding upon their future careers and education, and other
personal problems. In our country. unfortunately not even a
beginning has been made in this direction, except in a few
States.
Educational and vocational guidance is not to be regarded
as a mechanical process whereby the advisers and teachers sort
out boys and girls as a grading machine sorts out apples ! It
is not a question of just deciding that one boy should stay on
the farm, another work in an aeroplane factory, a third
become a teacher and a fourth take to the management of a
garage. Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys and
girls to plan their own future wisely in the full light of all the
factors that can be mastered about themselves and about the
world in which they are to live and work. Naturally therefore,
it is not the work of a few specialists but rather a service in attention. Accurate, comprehensive and continuous information
which the entire school staff must cooperate under the guidance about occupations and about institutions of higher study should
of some person with special knowledge and skill in this particular be made available to the pupils, as without his information
field. Guidance in this sense is not confined to the vocational they cannot intelligently determine their future line of action.
field only. It covers the whole gamut of youth problems and Vocational and educational guidance should be made available
should be provided in an appropriate form at all stages of to the individual pupils at different stages because of the possible
education through the co-operative endeavour of understanding changes in his economic status, his aptitudes and interests as
parents, teachers, headmasters, principals and guidance well as the changes that are likely to occur in the nature of
officers. the occupation. Care should be taken to see that students do
not decide upon a vocation too early or too huriedly, but only
QUALIFICATIONS OF A GUIDANCE OFFICER after a careful study of the openings available and in the light
A good Guidance Officer possesses many good qualities. He of experience gained through trials. There should, therefore,
must have an understanding of young people and their problems, be provision for a reconsideration of their plans at the different
based on scientific knowledge but inspired with sympathy and stages of education.
the ability to look at life through the eyes of boys and girls. He
should have special training in good counselling methods, CAREER MASTERS
mental hygiene and in the discriminating use of tests and In some States we found that investigations in Guidance
school records. In the field of vocational guidance he should have been started and experimental laboratories established,
have an accurate knowledge of occupational opportunities and both for purposes of research and to train guidance officers. In
requirements. He must have ample time for conferences with States where a beginning has been made there are Career
pupils, parents and employers, and he must be fully familiar Masters attached to schools who have received a certain amount
with the purpose and programme of the school and have the of training to enable them to discharge their duties as vocational
capacity to work in close co-operation with the teachers. counsellors. We are aware that in some universities the Students’
Information Bureau are trying to collect necessary information
ROLE OF THE TEACHERS for the use of their students.
In all schools a good deal of guidance work will have to be There are also in most States Employment Exchanges which
done by the teachers in the class through informal contacts may give information to those seeking employment. This is,
with their students. They can play a very important role in this however, a different thing from what is needed at the schools
respect. The Guidance Officer will gather much useful stage. In most of the States there has been no serious attempt
information from them helping him to understand students so far to make a scientific study of the available careers or to
and their needs and problems. Likewise, he will furnish them bring home to the pupils the possibilities open to them at the
with information which would enable them to fit class work different stages of their education. It is not a question here of
more carefully to students’ aptitudes and needs. finding employment, but of seeking the knowledge necessary
to equip students adequately for suitable types of work. It is
PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN GUIDANCE at this stage that vocational guidance is required and Career
There are certain important points to be borne in mind in Masters can be of help in placing these pupils in their proper
connection with education and vocational guidance. Personal position or in giving advice to pupils in the choice of vocation
differences which are of a permanent psychological feature at suited to their training and aptitudes.
this stage must be recognised, understood and given due
PLACE OF VISUAL AIDS and Career Masters and their services should be made available,
The development of new types of visual aids provides in an increasing measure, to all educational institutions so
unlimited possibilities for the pupils to obtain knowledge of the that guidance may be given to students at different levels of
different occupations open to them at different stages of their education, particularly at the Secondary stage at which decisions
educational ladder Thus to broaden the pupils’ understanding about employment have to be taken by a large majority of
of the scope, nature and significance of the occupations or students.
industries, films should be available which not only depict the
CAREER CONFERENCE
actual nature and conditions of work in a particular industry
but also supplement this with information concerning the daily Among the agencies for imparting information about
routine of the worker on the job. Vocational guidance films are occupations is the “Career Conference” of teachers, parents,
available in different countries to bring home to the young students, employers and successful persons from different
student the different types of employment that are available vocations. Such a conference can stimulate interest, give fuller
as well as what is expected of the employee who chooses a knowledge of vocational requirements and encourage students
particular vocation. We believe that in this country there is to avail themselves of the service provided by the vocational
urgent need to prepare such educational films showing the and educational guidance staff. At this conference successful
conditions of industrial, agricultural, technical and other men and women from various walks of life can be invited to
vocations which will give the students information as well as discuss the requirements and opportunities in their special
guidance in the choice of their vocation. fields of work. The pupils too, should participate in it so that
their interest may be stimulated and their curiosity fully
It is not to be expected that every student will necessarily
satisfied. Often they do not know the further facilities available
accept what the teacher or the headmaster or the counsellor
in Technical Higher education or the conditions of admission
may advise him to do. In some cases the parents’ influence may
and the nature and duration of these courses, or the level of
out-weigh his opinion or the student may have a higher opinion
efficiency that they must attain if they are to pursue them
of his own talents than the more sober and objective view taken
success-fully. It would be the business of the Guidance Officers
by the guidance officer. We feel, however, that if the system
to provide necessary information and advise about all of these
is tried with tact and sympathy and the co-operation of all
matters.
persons concerned, it will develop, in course of time, into a
valuable method of avoiding the present waste of talent, and THE CENTRE’S RESPONSIBILITY
it will fit the trained aptitudes of students into types of work
which they can do efficiently and through which they can We have referred briefly to the need for guidance, the place
achieve at least a certain measure of self-fulfilment of Career Masters in schools, and the responsibility of the
headmasters and teachers in regard to the future of their
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES pupils. If this scheme is to be implemented satisfactorily, we
are of the opinion that the Centre should take the responsibility
In all progressive countries, Government aims at a wide
of opening in different regions, institutions for the training of
dissemination of facts concerning various occupations and
Guidance Officers and Career Masters to which each State
constantly seeks to establish suitable agencies and techniques
should depute its nominees. It would be neither possible nor
which will enable every individual to find employment suited
economical for each State to set up its own training centres.
to his inclination, ability, and skill. There should be in every
It may be possible to attach some of these centres to teacher
region in India a centre for the training of Guidance Officers
training institutions so that, besides providing necessary
training for Guidance Officers and Career Masters, they may THE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF STUDENTS
also train the teachers in the general principles of educational Importance of Physical and Health Education
and vocational guidance.
The physical welfare of the youth of the country should be
This will help them to understand better the methods of one of the main concerns of the State and any departure from
observation to ascertain the aptitudes of the pupils under their the normal standards of physical well-being at this period of
care, and thus enable them to co-operate with the Career life may have serious consequences-it might promote disease
Masters more intelligently in the common problem of adapting or render the individual more easily susceptible to certain
instruction to the pupils and preparing the pupils more disease. In many countries, particularly during the two world
successfully for their future vocations. wars, an examination of young men recruited for war service
In addition to the training institutions for Guidance Officers revealed a disproportionately large number who were unfit for
that we have envisaged we recommend that a Central Research such work. In India even among those persons who were
Organization may be established for carrying out research in recruited on a voluntary basis, it was noted that quite a large
educational and vocational guidance and for the preparation number of them were physically unfit for military service. It
of tests with particular reference to Indian conditions and the would not be an exaggeration to say that, if the whole. of the
needs of the pupils concerned and the opportunities available population at the particular age period at which recruitment
to them from time to time. takes place had been subject to a similar examination the
proportion of the unfit would have been higher than in any
In order to fulfil all the purposes we have in view we also other country. Physical fitness and health education, therefore,
recommend that in every State there should be a Bureau of assume an importance that no State can afford to neglect.
Vocational and Educational Guidance whose duty would be to
It is often stated that the proper care of the health and
plan and coordinate the activities recommended above.
sound physical education require an expenditure that may not
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS be within the reach of the State Government. It is unfortunate
that a long range view has not been taken in this matter. To
1. Educational guidance should receive much greater allow the youth to suffer from physical handicaps and thus to
attention on the part of the educational authorities. fall a victim to diseases and to allow incipient diseases to lie
2. In order to broaden the pupil’s understanding of the dormant and then develop it to increase the number that would
scope, nature and significance of various occupations require hospital treatment. Such an approach naturally swells
of industries, films should be prepared to show the the medical budget of the country. Apart from this aspect, it
nature of the work in various industries and this should has to be recognised that the increase in the number of physically
be supplemented by actual visits. handicapped people and those of low health levels means an
increase in the number of those with diminished economic
3. The services of trained Guidance Officers and Career
value and efficiency. The earning capacity of such individuals
Masters should be made available gradually and in an
being seriously diminished, it becomes an economic drain on
increasing measure to all educational institutions.
the resources of the country to support them and their families.
4. The Centre should take up the responsibility of opening If both these points are taken into consideration, it will be seen
in different regions centres, of training for Guidance that economising in health education and physical welfare is
Officers and Career Masters to which each State may unsound economy because the State has to spend much more
send a number of teachers or other suitable persons for on medical services than it would under properly organised
training. schemes of physical and health education.
HEALTH EDUCATION (iii) There is no follow-up not even in the case of those who
From what has been stated, it must be clear that unless have been declared as defective.
physical education is accepted as an integral part of education. (iv) Effective co-operation has not been established between
and the educational authorities recognised its need in all schools, the school authorities and the parents, and either
the youth of the country, which form its most valuable asset, through ignorance or through lack of financial resources
will never be able to pull their full weight in national welfare. or both, the parents have taken little interest in the
The emphasis so far has been more on the academic type of reports of the school medical officers.
education without proper consideration being given to physical We feel therefore that unless the present system is improved
welfare and the maintenance of proper standards of health of considerably, it would be a mere waste of time and money to
the pupils. continue it To bring about necessary improvements, we
Measures to be Adopted recommend that :
We shall now refer to some considerations that may be (i) Health examination should be thorough and complete.
borne in mind in regard to health education. Every student in If a choice is to be made between frequent and cursory
the school requires to be trained in sound health habits both examinations and more thorough examinations at longer
at school and at home. The instruction should be practical so intervals, the latter are greatly to be preferred. Every
that he may not only appreciate the value of health education pupil in the ‘School. should undergo at least one complete
but also learn the ways in which he can effectively maintain examination every year while in school and one just
and improve his health. This is essential not only for physical prior to leaving-the School.
reasons but because sound mental health depends on good (ii) Pupils with serious defects and those who suffer from
physical health. It should, therefore, be a responsibility of all severe illnesses should be examined more frequently.
schools to see that their children keep healthy so that they can
(iii) Much more should be done to assure prompt and effective
get the maximum benefit possible from their education.
followup whenever examinations reveal the need for
Medical Examination corrective or remedial measures.
It is necessary for this purpose, to subject all students to (iv) One copy of the health report should be kept by the
a medical examination, to ascertain whether they are normal school medical officer, another copy should go to the
in health and standards of physical development. Although the parent, and a third copy to the teacher in charge of a
system of school medical inspection has been in existence for particular group of students. This copy should be kept
a number of years in many States, we are of the opinion that as part of the personal record of the pupil and on this
the results have not been satisfactory for the following reasons should be based the programme for his health instruction
: and physical education. It should be the duty of the
(i) The medical inspection has been done in a perfunctory school physician to study the reports of health
manner. examinations and to select those cases for which remedial
or corrective treatment is indicated. Thus the health
(ii) The defects that have been brought out even by this
and safety of students will become an important concern
type of examination have not been remedied because
of the entire school and activities for promoting and
the remedial measures suggested are often not carried
safeguarding health will find a place throughout the
out.
school programme.
SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITY The Role of Teachers

We have stated at another place that the whole concept of We have stated that there should be a systematic follow-
the duties of the school needs to be enlarged, by including in up and that active methods should be adopted to afford the full
it various forms of fruitful co-operation with the community. benefits of medical treatment for such students as need it. In
There are various fields in which the school can serve the regard to the health of school children, it is necessary to realise
community, and various fields in which the community can co- that it is the teacher who can detect at a very early stage any
operate with the school. It is important to remember that in deviation from the normal, such as defective vision, postural
regard to the health and the care of the children, the activities defects, deficient hearing etc., because he is in constant
of the school should be extended to their homes, and contact with the child. We have therefore emphasised in the
neighbourhood and to the village or city as a whole. The reason Chapter on Teacher-Training that training in first aid and
for this is obvious. The health of school children is determined fundamental principles of health as well as the detection of
not only during the hours spent at school but even more so deviations from normal standards should form a part of the
during the time spent at home and in the neighbourhood of the instruction prescribed for all teachers in Training Colleges. If
home and at work. such training is given in the first principles of health
If the school neglects the home and community factors, maintenance, teachers can play a valuable part in bringing to
these out-of-school influences may prevent or cancel many of the notice of the school medical officer or other authorities
the beneficial effects of the school’s endeavour to improve the concerned any cases of deviation from the normal at a fairly
health of the child. It is not suggested that schools can directly early stage.
control the conditions outside, but they can influence them by Medical Examination of Children in Hospitals
educating both the pupils and their parents, by co-operating
A scheme has been formulated in one of the States, whereby
with the physicians and the health authorities of the city or
in those areas where well-equipped hospitals are situated, the
village and by educating the public to a better appreciation of
school children may get the benefit of attention from the
its health problems and a better recognition of what they can
specialists of the hospitals. In cases where defects have been
themselves do to improve health conditions. We may go further
noted and medical treatment is required, the children may be
and say that if the school could actually do something to improve
taken in groups by the teacher, the school medical officer or
the conditions of sanitation in small, selected locality, it would
the physical director to the hospital ‘concerned on one or two
be the best health education for both pupils and parents and,
afternoons in the week, when the staff will look after him. It
in fact, the whole community. In this endeavour, the health
has been suggested that the whole afternoon may be reserved
authorities of the locality should give their active co-operation
for this purpose. In this way a team of medical officers, who
and assistance to the school. This would also be a very good
are specialists in such branches as Opthalmology, Ear, Nose
method of promoting the idea of the dignity of labour in the
and Throat, Chest diseases, etc., together with a physician
children.
would be responsible for taking note of the physical defects and
This approach to the maintenance of school children’s health ailments of children and getting them suitably treated. Children
may appear impracticable at first sight. But a clear appreciation who require more frequent visits may be advised to attend such
of the factors involved and a better co-ordination of the agencies afternoon sessions or they may be told the remedial measures
concerned with the promotion of health will show that the which the escorting teacher should see are My carried out. In
adopting of such measures can produce tangible results within view of the paucity of trained personnel and the limited number
a reasonable time. of hospitals equipped for this purpose, it will not, however
be possible to extend such a scheme over the whole State. is, therefore, such more than mere drill or a series of regulated
There is reason to believe that, owing to over-crowding and exercises. It includes all forms of physical activities and games
other insanitary conditions of city life, the health of school which promote the development of the body and mind.
children suffers much more in urban than in rural areas. At If it is to be given properly, teachers of physical education
present the opportunities for school children to be taken to should evolve a comprehensive plan to be followed by the
well-equipped hospitals are greater in urban areas than in the students and it should be based on the results of the health
rural areas. It is suggested, therefore, that to begin with, the examination. Most of these activities are group activities, but
school-population of the urban areas may be given the benefit they should be made to suit the individual as well, taking due
of the scheme and the progress in its working should be watched. note of his capacity for physical endurance. Phyiscal education,
It is not by means implied that the rural children should be group games and individual physical exercises should be given,
neglected. Wherever such defects are noticed in them, it must no doubt, in the school under the supervision of the Director
be ensured that they also get the benefit or proper medical care of Physical Education, but there is one aspect of physical
at the institutions situated in the neighbouring towns or cities. education which should not be forgotten. As in the case of
They should be taken to the institutions concerned or the health education, the school should ‘go to the community’ and
medical staff may visit such schools on definite days, arranging seek its assistance in the furtherance of the programme of
mobile. hospital ambulances for the purpose. In any case such physical education. There are various types of physical exercises
remedial measures as the school medical officer may suggest that can be taken up by students with the necessary aptitudes,
should be adopted, and the school authorities should see that outside the, school under the auspices of other agencies in the
they are carried out. community interested in physical education, e.g., swimming,
One of the important factor leading to many defects in boating, hiking, and group games that may be locally popular.
health is malnutrition. At no period of life does malnutrition Where such facilities are available, special arrangements should
play such a large part in causing ill-health, or in promoting be made for school children to avail of them under proper
defects of growth as in the period of adolescence. Very little is guidance and special hours may be fixed for them in some
being done at present in educational institutions to see to the cases. e.g. in swimming baths and Akhadas, etc.
proper nutrition of children. We recommend that, in residential
Teachers and Physical Education
schools and hostels, balanced diets suited to different ages
should be prescribed by nutrition experts and managements be It has been noted that physical education is generally
advised about proper standards for children’s diet. considered to be the exclusive responsibility of the teacher for
physical education. So long as the other teachers of the school
PHYSICAL EDUCATION do not participate in this matter along with the physical
The Concept of Physical Education instructor, physical education will Dot be a success. That is
why we have recommended elsewhere that the teachers under
We have dealt with health education first because the
training should receive a certain amount of instruction in
success of physical education depends upon the health of the
physical education while specialists will of course be trained
student. It is an indispensable part of all health programmes.
in special institutions. We recommend that all teachers or at
Its various activities should be so planned as to develop the
least those below the age of 40 should actively participate in
physical and mental health of the students, cultivate
many of the activities of physical education and thus make it
recreational interests and skills and promote the spirit of team
a living part of the total school programme instead of being a
work, sportsmanship and respect for others. Physical education
side issue entrusted to an isolated member of the staff.
We place special value on group games as they help to of technical competence and well educated. Physical education
mould the character of the students in addition to affording does not consist in a mere display of strength but conduces to
recreational facilities and contributing to their physical well the physical, mental and moral welfare of the pupil concerned.
being. There is one aspect of group games to which we should As regards posts of greater responsibility such as Directors or
like to draw attention. Competitive group games between Inspectors of Physical Education, we feel that training for two
different schools and regions have come to stay and they no years may be necessary. To provide the training Schools with
doubt increase interest in group games. One defect which is qualified physical instructors, there is need for considerable
often associated with them has, however, to be guarded expansion of the training facilities. This may be done by,
against. In order to prepare teams for competitive matches the increasing the facilities in the existing colleges and by opening
playing fields are often utilised mainly by the, few students new colleges where necessary. To meet the needs of the whole
who are selected for the school teams, while the majority ate country we recommend that some of these institutions may be
content to watch them passively. To develop the health of the recognised as All-India Training Centres and given help both
school community, it is far more important that the majority by the Centre and the States to enable them to train a large
of the students should utilise the playing fields than that a number of personnel.
small minority should do so for the sake of winning tournaments
and bringing a kind of professional credit to the school. The SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
growth of this tendency towards a kind of professionalism in Health Education
school sports must be carefully resisted.
1. A properly organised school medical service should be
We have recommended the maintenance of school records built up in all States.
for all students, and would like to add here that these should
2. A thorough medical examination of all pupils and
include a full record of all activities in the field.
necessary follow-up and treatment where necessary
Training of Physical Education Teachers should be carried out in all schools.
Some of the States have established Colleges of Physical 3. Some of the teachers should be trained in first aid and
Education where training is given for about a year to candidates general principles of health so that they may co-operate
possessing certain prescribed qualifications. We are of the intelligently with the medical staff.
opinion that the training should be comprehensive including
4. Proper nutritional standard should be maintained in
all aspects like health education, first-aid, nutrition, etc. It
hostels and residential schools.
is important that they should have a good standard of general
education. Teachers of physical education in Secondary schools 5. The school should assist where possible, in the
should have at least passed the S. S. L. C. Examination and maintenance of the sanitation of the area and the school
should have received some training in general principles of children should thus be trained to appreciate dignity of
education and child psychology. They should be associated with manual labour.
the teaching of subjects like physiology and hygiene and should Physical Education
be given the same status as other teachers of similar
qualifications in the school. If graduate trained teachers are 6. Physical activities should be made to suit the individual
available they may take up teaching of certain special subjects. and his capacity for physical endurance.
If the training institutions are effectively to discharge their 7. All teachers below the age of 40 should actively
duties they should be staffed with carefully selected persons participate in many of the physical activities of students
210 System and Issues in Indian Education A New Approach to Examination and Evaluation 211
and thus make them a lively part of the school

programme.
8. Full records of physical activities of the students must
be maintained.
9. The training in physical education should be
comprehensive enough to include all aspects of health 9
education.
10. The teachers of physical education should be associated A NEW APPROACH TO EXAMINATION AND
With the teaching of subjects like Physiology and E VALUATION
Hygiene and given the same status as other teachers
of similar qualifications.
11. The existing facilities for training of teachers of physical The subject of Examination and Evaluation occupies an
education should be expanded by increasing the seats important place in the field of education. It is necessary for
in the existing colleges, by opening new colleges where parents and teachers to know from time to time how the pupils
necessary and by reorganising some of the institutions are progressing and what their attainments are at any particular
as All-India Training Centres to which aid may give stage. It is equally necessary for society to assure itself that
both by the Centre and the States. the work entrusted to its schools is being carried on satisfactorily
and that the children studying there are receiving the right
type of education and attaining the expected standards. This
kind of check up of the school work is essential in the interests
of all concerned-pupils, teachers, parents and the public.
Examinations are the usual means adopted for this purpose.
EXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

Examinations may be either internal or external. Internal
examinations are conducted by schools from time to time and
at least once during the school year, for evaluating the progress
of the pupils, for grading them, and when the time comes,
for selecting and promoting them to a higher class. Of the
purposes for which examinations are held, certainly the first,
namely, the evaluation of progress is the most important. On
it depends not only grading and promotion but even the method
of instruction.
Annual examinations are a common feature of our schools.
Some schools also hold terminal examinations, i.e.,
examinations at the end of each term. A few also hold weekly
or monthly tests. Usually in the eyes of both the school
authorities and the pupils, the most important of these internal have been widely questioned. It has been urged that the present
tests and examinations is the annual examination. On the system of examining by means of essay-type questions leaves
results of this examination the annual promotions are decided so much scope for the subjectivity of examiner that it cannot
so that it dominates all other tests and examinations. A few be relied upon to any great extent. In this connection reference
school have replaced the annual examination by the may be made to the findings of the Hartog Report on an
cummulative results of periodic test and examinations. Examination of Examinations which clearly proves the foibles
The external examination comes generally at the end of the of such a system. It may therefore be fairly inferred that as
school stage. Its purpose is two-fold selective and qualifying, at present conducted, examinations do not help us to evaluate
selecting those who have successfully completed a course and correctly even the intellectual attainments of the pupils.
qualifying them from among many for the next higher stage.
THE EFFECT OF THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM ON OUR
At one time besides the matriculation of University entrance
EDUCATION
examination (or its equivalent, the School Final or the School
Certificate Examination) there used to be in some parts of the We have already referred to the new concept of education.
country, two other examinations, one at the end of the primary Unfortunately our present system of education still lays
stage and another at the end of the middle school stage; and exclusive emphasis on the intellectual attainments of the pupils
all these were regarded as public examinations. We are told and this has been due mainly to the influence of our examination
that still these are prevalent in some States. We are convinced system. The examinations determine not only the contents of
that our system of education is very much examination-ridden. education but also the methods of teaching-in fact, the entire
approach to education. They have so pervaded the entire
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM atmosphere of school life that they have become the main
OF EXAMINATIONS IN INDIA motivating force of all effort on the part of pupil as well as
Both the internal and the external examinations in this teacher. It is not often clearly realised that a pupil’s effort
country are more or less modelled on similar lines and they throughout his education is concentrated almost wholly on how
follow the same general pattern. Both are intended to test to get through the examinations. Unless a subject is included
mainly the academic attainments of a pupil and his progress in the examination scheme the pupil is not interested in it. If
in intellectual pursuits. These do not test the other aspects of any school activity is not related directly or indirectly to the
the pupils development; or if they do, it is only indirectly. The examination, it fails to evoke or enlist his enthusiasm. As
twentieth century has witnessed a widening of the meaning regards methods, he is interested in only those which secure
and scope of education. The school of today concerns itself not an easy pass rather than in those which may be educationally
only with intellectual pursuits but also with the emotional and more sound but which do not directly concern themselves with
social development of the child, his physical and mental health, examinations. He is more interested in notes and cribs than
his social adjustment and other equally important aspects of in text-books and original works ; he goes in for cramming
his life-in a word, with an all-round development of his rather than for intelligent understanding since this will help
personality. If examinations are to be of real value they must him to pass the examination on which depends his future.
take into consideration the new facts and test in detail the all- As has already been stated it is not only the pupil but the
round development of pupils. teacher also who is affected by this examination craze. To the
Even as a test of the intellectual attainments of pupils, the teacher the system of examination affords an easy solution to
validity and usefulness of the present pattern of examinations many of his problems. While it is difficult if not impossible, to
show immediate, tangible and measurable results with regard
to those intangible efforts of a good education such as character of the hampering effect of examinations. They said and we
training, well rounded personality, a wholesome social generally agree with them, that the examinations to-day dictate
adjustment and a proper development of appreciation of the the curriculum instead of following it prevent any
finer values in life it is much easier to show results in intellectual experimentation hamper the proper treatment of subjects and
attainments and academic progress. And if society sets greater sound methods of teaching foster a dull uniformity rather than
store by these attainments than by what is conducive to originality, encourage the average pupil to concentrate too
character building and sound citizenship, how can the teacher rigidly upon too narrow a field and thus help him to develop
help paying attention to the former attainments. Moreover wrong values in education. Pupils assess education in terms of
examinations are, comparatively speaking, an easy method success.in examinations. Teachers, recognising the importance
of grading pupils and pronouncing judgment on their work. of the external examination to the individual pupil, are
Again, and this is most unfortunate, his success as a teacher constrained to relate their teaching to an examination which
is very often measured by the results of his pupils in the can test only a narrow field of the pupil’s interest and capacities
examinations. It is not uncommon to hear such statements a and so inevitably neglect the qualities which are more important
so and so is a good teacher because his pupils show a high though less tangible. They are forced to attend to what can be
percentage of success in the final examination. Headmasters examined; and to do that with success they often have to
in presenting their reports at the annual gatherings lay emphasis ‘spoon-feed’ their pupils rather than encourage habits of
on the results of examinations and on the brilliant success of independent study. We were told that in some schools notes are
some of their pupils, thus provoking the criticism that the dictated even in the lower classes and after some time the
report resembled a profit and loss account presented to children feel unhappy and helpless if this is not done. This
shareholders of an industrial concern. To judge the work of a system is not so uncommon as we would wish to imagine.
teacher by the percentage of passes of his pupils in the
examination is to keep alive the old and exploded system of THE PLACE OF EXAMINATIONS
payment by results. Nevertheless examinations—and specially external
The attitude of the parents also lends support to this state examinations—have a proper place in any scheme of education.
of affairs. Because of the close connection between employment External examinations have stimulating effect both on the
and the passing of external examinations, the average parent pupils and on the teachers by providing well defined goals and
is more interested in his child passing that examination than objective standards of evaluation. To the pupil the examination
in anything else. Even the authorities who provide higher gives a goal towards which he should strive and a stimulus
courses or employ young people are guided almost solely by the urging him to attain that goal in a given time, thereby
certificates awarded on the results of the external examinations. demanding steady and constant effort. This makes the purpose
To this may be added the unfortunate trend in recent times clear and the method of approach definite. He is judged by
to utilise the marks obtained at public examinations as the sole external and objective tests on which both he and others
criterion for admission of students to most colleges. interested in him can depend. And finally, it gives him a
hallmark recognised by all.
Thus all circumstances conspire today to put an undue and
unnatural emphasis on examinations, specially the external For the teacher, too, it is helpful to have a goal and
examinations and they have come to exercise a restricting stimulus. Without these his work may lose in precision and
influence over the entire field of Indian education to such an direction. The external examination gives him standards
extent as almost to nullify its real purpose. Many complained common for all teachers and therefore universal and uniform
in character. It also releases him from the responsibility of
making wrong judgments about the work of his pupils. Finally, schools have abandoned such examinations. They use the results
the external examination has another great advantage, namely, of periodical tests and of weekly or monthly examinations for
that it helps a school to compare itself with other schools. purposes of promotion. A few other supplement the annual and
periodical examinations by more elaborate records of work
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE done by pupils throughout the year. We commend these steps
PRESENT SYSTEM which will give the annual examination its proper place. The
In view of all these considerations it would appear that the promotion of a child should depend not only on the results of
external examination cannot be altogether done away with. the annual final examination but also on the results of periodic
Certain steps however have to be taken to minimise its tests and the progress shown in the school records. The pattern
undesirable effects. Firstly, there should not be too many of internal examination should also be changed. The objective
external examinations. Secondly, the subjective element which type of tests should be widely used to supplement the essay-
is unavoidable in the present purely essay type examination type tests ; other steps suggested with regard to the external
should be reduced as far as possible. The essay-type examination examination should also apply in the case of internal
has its own value. It tests certain capacities which cannot be examination
otherwise tested. But it cannot be the only test for measuring
the attainments of pupils. One of its greatest disadvantages is NEED FOR SCHOOL RECORDS
that it gives undue weight to the power of verbal expression But neither the external examination nor the internal
in which so many individual differences exist. In order therefore, examination, singly or together, can give a correct and complete
to reduce the element of subjectivity of the essay-type tests, picture of a pupil’s all-round progress at any particular stage
objective tests of attainments should be widely introduced side of his education; yet it is important for us to assess this, in
by side. Moreover, the nature of the tests and the type of order to determine his future course of study, or his future
questions should be thoroughly changed. vocation. For this purpose a proper system of school records
They should be such as to discourage cramming and should be maintained for every pupil indicating the work done
encourage intelligent understanding. They should not deal with by him in the school from day to day, month to month, term
details but should concern themselves with a rational to term and year to year. Such a school record will present a
understanding of the problems and a general mastery of the clear and continuous statement of the attainments of the child
subject matter. In this connection we consider that it is in different intellectual pursuits throughout the successive
undesirable to set two papers of three hours each on one and stages of his education.
the same day. Lastly, the final assessment of the pupil should It will also contain a progressive evaluation of development
not be based entirely on the results of the external examination in other directions of no less importance, such as the growth
; other things such as internal tests and the school records of his interests, aptitudes, and personality traits, his social
maintained by teachers should be taken into consideration and adjustments, the practical and social activities in which he
due credit should be given to them. With these safeguards and takes part. In other words it will give a complete career. We
changes, we feel the external examination can serve a useful have seen such records being maintained in some schools but
purpose. their number is few. We recommend that these should be a
With regard to the prevalent system of internal common feature of all schools all over the country. A few
examinations also certain changes are necessary. The emphasis specimens of cumulative record forms will be found in Appendix
on all-important annual examination should be reduced. A few VII School may devise their own forms on the lines indicated
therein.
MAINTENANCE OF RECORDS used to the system they themselves will come to appreciate the
This cumulative record will be maintained by the class advantage of such school records. The cumulative records will
teacher. The class teacher who will maintain it (he may also greatly influence their work in the classroom specially their
be a specialist in charge of a particular subject) is specially methods of teaching and handling children, so much so that
placed in charge of a class of pupils for one school year. He the entire character of their work will change.
teaches them one or two important subjects and thus spends Doubts have been expressed whether teachers will be able
more time with them than other teachers do. He gets to know to discharge this added responsibility satisfactorily in
them personally and individually. His responsibilities as far as maintaining the records will they not be swayed too much by
his class is concerned are not confined to the four walls of the their personal predilections and judgments thereby nullifying
class-room ; they extend over the pupil’s entire life in the greatly the value of these records ? Maintaining the records
school, He is thus the right person to maintain the record. would need a certain amount of training. We have no doubt
In some schools a class teacher remains in charge of a class that arrangements will be made by the State Departments of
for one year at the end of which he hands over the charge of Education to provide such training, perhaps in the Training
his pupils to the class teacher of the next higher class. In some Colleges for teachers. With such training and a certain amount
other schools the class teacher follows his class from year to of practice and with an occasional check-up by the head of the
year till the class goes out of the school. Both systems have institution and by the Inspectorate, we have no doubt that the
their advantages. Whether a teacher remains in charge of a teachers will be able to discharge these duties to the satisfaction
class for one year or for a number of years, the important thing of all. There may be occasional lapses here and there, but these
is that he gets the opportunity to establish personal contacts should not cause any anxiety or loss of faith in the teachers.
with a group of pupils. Such personal contacts, specially with In his sense of responsibility the average Indian teacher does
adolescent pupils have great value, and their importance cannot not yield to any teacher in any other country. What he needs
be exaggerated. is clear direction, encouragement and sympathy.
In most schools some sort of class-teacher system prevails NEED FOR RESEARCH
; but it is not fully exploited because of the supposed importance
In order to maintain the cumulative records properly the
of teaching by specialist teachers. Often the class-teacher’s
teachers will have to use a number of tests of different kinds-
responsibilities consist of only in maintaining the class register
intelligence tests, attainment tests, aptitude tests and others.
and collecting monthly school fees from pupils. There is no
We expect that the State Bureau of Education which will devise
inherent contradiction between the class teacher system and
the forms of cumulative records will also prepare these tests
the subject-specialist system. The two can be easily combined
in collaboration with the Training Colleges. There is need for
in the same system and the class-teacher can function in loco
continuous research in these fields. The Training Colleges should
parentis for the pupils under his care with great advantage for
also organise short courses of training in the. use of these forms
all concerned.
and tests.
TEACHERS AND SCHOOL RECORDS
EVALUATION AND MARKING
It has been said that the introduction of cumulative records
At this stage it is necessary to indicate the actual means
will increase the responsibilities of teachers and add to their
to be adopted in evaluating and grading the work of pupils
work. This is no doubt true. But the advantages would outweigh
whether in the external or internal examinations and in
the personal disadvantage to teachers. And once they become
maintaining the school records. The present system of evaluating arranged in the alphabetical order of their names and not as
by percentiles, i.e. by numerical marks, out of a hundred, may hitherto according to the percentile scale.
have certain advantages but the disadvantages seem to outweigh We have discussed at some length the general principles
the advantages. Firstly, it introduces too many subdivisions of evaluation of school work in view of its extreme importance
which are not only useless but cumbersome; and secondly, it in education. We now come to offer certain specific and firm
is indeed difficult to distinguish between two pupils one of recommendations on the subject.
whom obtains, say, 45 marks and another 46 or 47. This
system no doubt gives the semblance of accurate judgment A SINGLE FINAL EXAMINATION
which for most of the pupils it is hardly worthwhile to exercise We have referred to the desirability of reducing the number
and is beset with many errors. In this connection we would of external examinations. We recommend that there should be
again invite attention to the Hartog Report on ‘An Examination only one public examination to indicate the completion of the
of Examinations’ which fully reveals the limitations and errors school course. It may be either the High school final examination
of the system. A simpler and better system is the use of the or the Higher Secondary Examination depending on the nature
five-point scale to which ‘A’ stands for excellent, ‘B’ for good, of the School where the pupil completes his course. There
‘C’ for fair and average, ‘D’ for poor and ‘E’ for very poor. In should be no other public exami-nation before it. The certificate
this system pupils are grouped in broad divisions which arc to be awarded to indicate the completion of the Middle School
more easily distinguishable than the differences indicated by or any other school class will be given by the school itself and
percentile marks. We recommended that this system be adopted it will be based entirely on the school records which will include
for school records. the results of periodic and annual tests.
For written examinations, whether external or internal,
the same scale may be used with this modification that here SCHOOL CERTIFICATES
D and E will be combined to indicate ‘failure’. Here ‘A’ will Even the final public examination need not be compulsory
indicate ‘Distinction’, B ‘Credit’ and C ‘Pass’ and D and E for all; that is, if pupils so desire they need not take it. However
‘Failure’ or ‘Cases Referred Back’. The values of these categories every pupil who completes the school course will get a school
in terms of percentile marks may be determined by the certificate based on school records testifying to his progress and
examining authority. Individual examiners in different subjects attainments in different directions in school.
may even use the percentile system and then convert the The point has been raised that the school certificate may
percentile scores in terms of categories. The system not be reliable and that standards will vary. As regards
recommended here will work in almost all cases except where reliability, with all the provisions we have mentioned previously
the distinctions are to be: made for the award of scholarships we have little apprehension on that score. The only way to
and prizes. In these cases (whose number will always be limited) make the teachers’ judgments reliable is to rely on them. In
the system-may be modified to introduce a finer scale which the beginning there may be stray cases of wrong judgment, but
may show the difference between two cases which may be before long they will come to be more and more reliable and
almost similar. It must however be admitted that a difference trustworthy. “No one can examine better than the teacher who
of a few marks on the percentile scale is more often a matter knows the child, and a method of examination by the teacher,
of chance than of exact determination. We note that changes combined with school records, would be devised which would
have been introduced in recent years in several universities furnish a certificate giving information of real importance to
where candidates who have secured a first or second class are employer or college or profession, and yet would preserve in
fact the freedom of the school and would rid teacher and pupil described. For the final examination a candidate will ordinarily
of an artificial restrain imposed from without. As for uniformity take six subjects, two from Section ‘A’, one from Section ‘C’
of standards, even under the present conditions, two apparently and three from Section ‘D’ of the Curriculum (vide pp. 86-88).
similar certificates mean very different things and illusory He may also take an additional subject as provided under
uniformity can be brought too dearly.” (Norwood Committee Section ‘E’, but the result should be decided on the performance
Report on Curriculum and Examination in Secondary Schools, of the six subjects only. A pass in six subjects should be deemed
H.M.S.O., 1941, p. 32). sufficient for the satisfactory completion of the certificate. Of
these six subjects, at least four should have been obtained at
EXAMINATION CERTIFICATE the public examination, while two others may be passes obtained
Pupils who complete the school courses and take the final in the school records. If such school record passes are taken into
examination will get certificate to be awarded by the authorities consideration candidate should have obtained at least one credit
holding the examination. Elsewhere we have described the among the four passes of the public examination. In such a
constitution and function of the body which will be responsible scheme due notice would also have been taken of the school
for holding the two public examinations at the end of the school record of the pupil.
course namely, the High School Certificate Examination and We have indicated in a general way of the tests to be
the Higher Secondary Certificate Examination. observed for certifying satisfactory completion of the school
The form of these certificates needs also to be changed. courses. It is, however, , open to those concerned with the
Some States award a bare certificate mentioning only the selection of pupils for higher education, university, technical
division obtained by the pupil without mentioning in detail the or otherwise, or for those authorities which recruit public
courses taken by him. Such certificates are not very helpful services, to determine the exact standard of achievement
either to the colleges or to the employing authorities. In one required of candidates in the several subjects.
or two states, however, a more elaborate form of certificate We are of opinion that as far as the final public examination
is used which incorporates not only the results of the school is concerned the compartmental system should be introduced.
tests in these and other subjects which are not included in the If a candidate fails in one or more subjects of the public
public examination but also contain extracts from school records. examination he should be allowed to take these subjects of
.A specimen copy of such a certificate form is given in Appendix public examination at a subsequent examination but in such
VIII. We commend this latter form of certificate in preference cases the school records will not be taken into account. He need
to the former. not again sit for subjects in which he has obtained a pass. He
Examining authorities should prescribe a form wherein the will be given not more than three chances to appear at
schools could file in the details of the school record of the pupil subsequent examinations.
concerned. At the time of the public examination the school will A candidate who has passed the examination in the required
forward the record to the examining authority. The examining six subjects and wishes to qualify in any additional subject,
authority in its turn will enter therein the results of the public may appear at a subsequent examination. The result thus
examination and return it to the school to be forwarded to the obtained will be entered by the examination authority in the
pupil concerned. Every candidate who appears for the certificate already obtained by the candidate.
examination will get a certificate, showing the school record
The scheme recommended by us here for the reform of the
and the public test record. The system of evaluation to be
entire system of examination and evaluation of school work
adopted by the school and the examining body has already been
should be tried for a reasonably long period of time. It takes
224 System and Issues in Indian Education Improvement of the Teaching Personnel 225
time for such fundamental changes to be assimilated before

they can work satisfactorily and before any judgement can be
pronounced on them.
1. The number of external examinations should be reduced 10
and the element of subjectivity in the essay-type tests
should be minimised by introducing objective tests and
also by changing the type of questions. IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHING PERSONNEL
2. In order to find out the pupil’s all around progress and
to determine his future, a proper system of school
records should be maintained for every pupil indicating THE NEED FOR IMPROVING THE GENERAL
the work done by him from time to time and his CONDITIONS OF TEACHERS
attainments in the different spheres. In the preceding chapters of our Report we have referred
3. In the final assessment of the pupils due credit should to the various steps to be taken to improve the quality and
be given to the internal tests and the school records of standards of Secondary education and to make it a worthy
the pupils. medium for the balanced development of the students’
personality. We are, however, convinced that the most
4. The system of symbolic rather than numerical marking important factor in the contemplated educational reconstruction
should be adopted for evaluating and grading the work is the teacher-his personal qualities, his educational
of the pupil in external and internal examinations and qualifications, his professional training and the place that he
in maintaining the school records. occupies in the school as well as in the community.
5. There should be one public examination at the completion The reputation of a school and its influence on the life of
of the Secondary school course. the community invariably depend on the kind of teachers
6. The certificate awarded should contain besides the working in it. Priority of consideration must, therefore, be
results of the public examination in different subjects, given to the various problems connected with the improvement
the results of the school tests in subjects not included of their status. During our tour, we were painfully impressed
in the public examination as well as the gist of the by the fact that the social status, the salaries and the general
school records. service conditions of teachers are far from satisfactory. In fact,
our general impression is that on the whole their position today
7. The system of compartmental examinations should be
is even worse than it was in the past.
introduc-ed at the final public examination.
It compares unfavourably not only with persons of similar
qualifications in other professions but also, in many cases,
with those of lower qualifications who are entrusted with less
important and socially less significant duties. They have often
no security of tenure and their treatment by management is
in many cases, inconsistent with their position and dignity.
The same story of woe was repeated at almost every centre by
the Teachers’ Organizations and by responsible headmasters Government schools and schools under the management of
and others interested in education. private agencies. In the case of Government schools, the Public
It is surprising that, in spite of the recommendations made Service CommisSion selects teachers-at least in the higher
by successive Education Commissions in the past many of the grades-and in doing so they have the advice of the Director of
disabilities from which teachers suffer, still persist and adequate Education or some other high official of the Department. In
steps have not been taken to remove them. We are aware that privately managed schools, however, the procedure varies
in recent years, in many States, there has been a revision of from State to State and sometimes from institution to institution.
teachers’ grades and dearness allowances’ have been sanctioned. We recommend that in all privately managed institutions there
But they have not brought adequate relief, be-’ cause, should be a small Selection Committee entrusted with the
meanwhile, the cost of living has risen steeply and thus nullified responsibility of recruiting the staff, with the headmaster as
the concessions that had been granted. We are fully conscious an ex-officio member. It is also desirable that a nominee of the
of the financial difficulties of the State Governments and the Department of Education should be on the Managing Board.
fact that they have to attend simultaneously to a large number We also recommend that, in schools maintained by local boards
of urgent and pressing problems. But we are convinced that, or municipalities, a similar policy should be adopted and either
if the teachers’ present mood of discontent and frustration is the Public Service Commission of the State or a body constituted
to be removed and education is to be. come a genuine nation- on similar lines should be entrusted with the task of selecting
building activity, it is absolutely necessary to improve their teachers.
status and their conditions of service.
PERIOD OF PROBATION
METHOD OF RECRUITMENT At present there is no uniformity in regard to the period
There seems to be no uniform system in the different States of probation prescribed for teachers. Unless it is short-term
in regard to the recruitment of teachers. We have referred vacancy, it is desirable that a trained teacher, appointed to
elsewhere to the measures that may be adopted to attract the a permanent post, should be on probation for one year, and
best persons to the profession by giving them stipends and after satisfactory completion of the period he should be
treating them as on probation during the period of training. confirmed. In exceptional cases, the managements may extend
Many schools have still a large number of untrained teachers that period by one year which should be the maximum period
and it does not seem to have been realised by managements of probation before deciding confirmation. After confirmation,
that it is unfair on their part to let the students be taught by the teacher should normally be continued in service till the age
such teachers. Some management’s utilise untrained teachers of retirement.
for short periods and then discharge them and thus circumvent
QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGH AND
the departmental rules regarding the employment of trained
HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOLS
teachers. We realise that the training facilities available are
not adequate and that a considerable increase in the number We have already stated that, so far as the High schools
of training institutes is necessary. Still we are not convinced are concerned only graduates with a degree in education should
that the managements have taken all the steps possible to be appointed. We feel that at the Middle school stage also it
attract trained teachers. We feel that there should be a is important to have a fair number of trained graduates on the
reasonably uniform procedure for the selection and appointment staff. It is our hope that, in course of time, education at the
of teachers and this should not be very different as between Middle school stage win be imparted by graduate teachers, and
Secondary grades trained teachers will be available for Primary
or Junior Basic schools. We recommend this for consideration we feel that the qualifications of the teachers entrusted with
as a long-term plan. the last two years at the Higher Secondary stage should be the
In regard to the appointment of teachers for technical and same as prescribed in some universities for teachers of the
technological subjects included in the diversified courses of Intermediate. These qualifications are the Honours or M.A.
study, the qualification should be prescribed by the departments Degree or a first Class B.A. with a degree in teaching. For the
of education after taking into consideration the requirements traditional period we suggest that persons employed in Higher
of the particular subject to be taught. In the majority of cases, Secondary schools should have these high academic
we recommend that such teachers should be graduates in the qualifications and possess either a degree in Education or at
particular subject and should have received training in teaching least three years’ teaching experience in a college. In the Higher
it. Secondary schools which impart instruction in the technical
and vocational subjects some of the teachers dealing with the
We have noted that at present, in many schools, the staff
last two years should likewise possess high qualifications in
appointed satisfy only the minimum educational qualifications
their own subjects. These may be prescribed by the special
prescribed. It is very desirable that at least some of the teachers
advisory committees which we have suggested for technical
should possess higher educational qualifications both in general
education.
education and in teaching.
We have referred in another chapter to the importance of
Many universities have given teachers employed in
properly trained teachers of languages at the school stage. If,
recognised schools the privilege of taking the examination for
as we envisage, students have to be taught two or more
a higher degree after private study. As an incentive for the
languages, the need for properly trained teachers becomes
acquisition of such additional qualifications, we suggest that
even greater. At present, in a number of schools, the language
school authorities should grant some additional increments to
teacher is required to have a university qualification and in
teachers who obtain higher degrees while in service. Care
some State qualifications awarded by certain other bodies have
must, however, be taken to see that this does not interfere
been recognised as equipment. We trust this recognition has
with the satisfactory discharge of their normal duties.
been given with due reference to their academic standards,
We have recommended that the Secondary school course and that government have satisfied themselves about the
should be extended to cover an additional year and that at the courses, the methods of teaching and qualifications of staff. We
end of this period candidates must be eligible for the Higher feel that unless this is done, there will be wide variation in
Secondary schools certificate. This additional year of school the standard of attainment of language teacher in different
course carries with it the responsibility for greater efficiency schools. These teachers, like the teachers of other subjects,
in teaching and for the attainment of a higher standard. It is require special training in method of teaching. In some States
necessary before any school is recognised as Higher Secondary such training is provided for language teachers and certificates
school that teachers with higher qualifications should be are awarded by the University or the Government. We
appointed to the staff. We found that in one State, whenever recommend that all other States should likewise arrange for
a school is upgraded into a Higher Secondary school, it was the training of graduates, oriental title holders and other
incumbent upon the management to have on the staff persons persons possessing necessary linguistic qualifications.
with higher qualifications (a Master’s or Honours Degree) the
number of such teachers depending upon the number of subjects Conditions of Service
taught in the school. In view of the fact that one year of the In addition to what we have stated above there are certain
old Intermediate is to be added to the Higher Secondary schools, other important conditions of service which merit consideration.
Scale of Pay: Considerable dissatisfaction exists Generally, the teacher subscribes an amount not exceeding 6
everywhere about the scales of pay for teachers in the different 1/4 % of his salary and an equal amount is contributed by the
grades of schools. Certain minimum scales of pay have been management and the State or by the Local Board concerned,
recommended by successive committees and commissions as the whole amount being invested in some kind ‘of securities
well as in the Reports of the Central Pay Commission, the and paid to him at the end of his service. Teachers who are
Central Advisory Board of Education and the Kher Committee. transferred from one educational institution to another have
These recommendations, have not, however, been implemented the right to have their Provident Fund also transferred. In
and as we have pointed out, the concessions actually made some States, however, an equal contribution is not made to
have been largely nullified by the phenomenal increase in the the Provident Fund by the parties concerned.
cost of living. The problem therefore requires urgent Teachers in government service are entitled to pension as
consideration. in other services of government but not so the teachers in
Apart from the question of the actual scales of pay sanctioned private schools. We have had several unfortunate cases where
we see no justification for variations in the grades of teachers the sudden demise of a teacher has left the family almost
working in government schools and in schools conducted by penniless and the Provident Fund did not meet even the
local bodies and private agencies in the same State. We immediate needs of the family. It is, therefore, necessary to
recommend as a general principle that those who have similar think of other ways of overcoming such difficulties.
qualifications and undertake similar responsibilities should be
Triple Benefit Scheme for Teachers
treated on a par in the matter of salary irrespective of the type
of institution in which they are working. We have noted that Recently, in one of the States, a triple benefit scheme has
in some States the scales of pay are much lower than on other been instituted for government servants, called the Pension-
States. We wish to emphasise that the revision of the present cum-Provident Fund-cum-Insurance Scheme. We understand
scales of pay is urgent and this revision should take into due that this scheme has been introduced by some universities also
consideration the recommendations made by previous for their employees. We feel that, if the teachers are to be
committees during the last few years as well as the increase relieved of worries about the future of their family, this triple
in cost of living that has occurred since then. Since the cost of benefit scheme should be made applicable to teachers in all
living as well as the financial position of different States vary States. The details of the scheme are given in the Appendix IX
considerably, it is not possible for us to suggest a uniform pay Since the majority of the institutions are privately managed,
scale applicable in all States. We, therefore, strongly urge that the responsibility for the maintenance of the Provident Fund
the States should appoint special committees to review the and Pension Fund account should rest with the government
scales of pay of teachers of all grades and make recommendations through the Department of Education which will be responsible
that meet in a fair and just manner, the present cost of living. for working out the details and administering the fund.
Provident Funds and Pension: Apart from the scales of Security of Tenure
salary the general conditions of service should be such that The teaching profession in the country is much perturbed
teachers can duly discharge their family and civic responsibilities about security of tenure of office and the general conditions
without anxiety about their future and the security of service. under which they have to work. In some States, schools have
At present they are entitled to Provident Fund benefits in most been established by managements who have no experience of
of the States. The contribution made to the Fund by the teachers, educational work. There is no doubt that many managements
the States and private managements vary considerably. have abused their position and treated teachers shabbily and
this is probably responsible for the demand by some teachers appeal to a higher authority i.e., government. Where a local
and Teachers’ Associations that all schools should be brought board has a number of schools under its management, we deem
under the control of the government. We have also received it desirable that there should be a special officer of the Education
complaints that service conditions under local bodies have been Department to look after the conditions of service of teachers
unsatisfactory and that teachers have been subjected to employed under it. In the case of girls’ schools the special
humiliating treatment by the authorities concerned in the matter officer should be a woman of the status of an Inspectress of
of transfer, termination of services, and punishments. In brief Schools. These officers should be authorised to deal with
the present position of these bodies and their relationship to transfers, appointment, etc., subject to a right of appeal either
the teaching profession is not satisfactory. We have been told to the Director of Education or the Arbitration Board according
by responsible teachers and Teachers’ Associations that it is to the nature of the case.
not unusual for some managements to ask for “voluntary
Age of Retirement
donations” from the teachers for the schools. We consider it
essential that all those who have to do with educational At present, the age of retirement is 55, but in private
administration should recognise clearly and without any mental institutions, it can be extended up to 60 with the approval of
reservation the status of the teachers and the respect and the Department of Education. We feel that in view of the
consideration due to them. At the same time we must strongly expanding need for qualified teachers and in view also of the
affirm that it is the duty of teachers to set up such a high improvement in the general expectation of life within recent
example of personal and professional integrity as to win the years, the age of retirement may be extended to 60 with the
respect as well as the full co-operation of the management and approval of the Director of Education provided the teacher is
the community. physically and otherwise fit.
It has also been brought to out notice that punishment are Other Amenities
sometimes meted out to teachers inconsiderately-their services In addition to the above specific recommendations we feel
are terminated or their transfers made without adequate that there are certain other amenities that should be provided
grounds or increments stopped without justification. While we for the teaching profession so as to attract the right type of
would not suggest that an erring teacher should not incur any persons. Among these may be mentioned the following:
punishment, we feel that whenever such punishment are
meted out there should be provision for an appeal by the Free Education of Children: Free education up to the
teacher to a higher authority. We are aware that, in certain age of 14 is a responsibility of government under the
States, the managements are required to report to the Director Constitution. It would therefore, be in keeping with this policy,
of Public Instruction certain types of disciplinary action. For if the children of teachers are given free education in schools.
this purpose, Arbitration Boards or Committees should be We were glad to note that in one State the children of all the
appointed which will have a right to look into these appeals teachers are given free education up to the middle school stage,
and any grievances and to consider whether the punishment and half-fee concession at the high school stage, the State
accorded, suspension, dismissal, stoppage of increments, or compensating the managements concerned for the loss of fee
reduction to a lower status is justified. This board should consist on this account. We recommend this policy and suggest that
of the Director of Education or his nominee, a representative the children of teachers should be given free education
of the management and representative of the State Teachers’ throughout the school stage.
Association. The decision of the Board should be final, except Housing Schemes for Teachers: One of the difficulties
in the case of government servants who have the right to, experienced in recruiting teachers both for urban and rural
areas is the lack of suitable accommodation. This difficulty is profession as a whole will be greatly appreciated and will go
even greater in the case of women teachers, and instances have a long way to relieve them of anxiety.
come to our notice of women teachers transferred to certain Leave Concessions: We have stated elsewhere that the
places being entirely unable to find any residential minimum number of working days in a school should be about
accommodation at all. We suggest that through a system of co- 200. In a large majority of cases, the teacher will get the
operative house-building societies or in other ways teachers benefit of the vacation and the other causal holidays. Under
should be provided with quarters so as to enable them to live certain circumstances, however, special leave may be necessary
near the schools and devote more of their time to the many on account of illness or urgent personal work. There are three
sided activities of the School. types of leave, which may be considered in this connection—
Railway Travel Concessions: Teachers have to attend causal leave, medical leave, and, in the case of women
seminars and refresher courses organised by the Department teachers, maternity leave We recommend that there should
of Education or by Teachers’ Associations, and they should be be uniform leave rule for all educational institutions.
encouraged to attend regional and All-India Educational In addition to the kinds of leave mentioned above there is
Conferences. We were told that the railway authorities have a great deal to be said in favour of study leave being granted
extended certain travel concessions to them. We welcome this to teachers. Opportunities must be given to them to visit different
move and, recommend that it should be widened so that institutions within the country and some of them, in responsible
teacher wishing to go to health resorts or holiday camps or to position, may be given study leave on full pay to go abroad,
attend educational conferences, seminars, etc., be given travel for period ranging from 6 months to 12 months, for higher
concessions at half rates. education or to study educational work in foreign countries.
Holiday Homes and Health Resorts: One of the teachers’ Such study leave should be granted by the Centre or the State
special advantages is the long vacation during which they are Government concerned, and the teachers selected may be
expected to refresh themselves both in body and mind and either from Government or Local Boards or Private schools,
‘equip themselves better for their work when the school reopens. the chief criterion for selection being the extent to which he
It would be of advantage to start a nation-wide movement will gain by his study and experiences for use on his return.
encouraging teachers to go to health resorts or holiday homes Study leave may also be granted to obtain higher qualifications
during the vacation. This should not be very difficult or costly, in teaching or any other relevant subject of study.
if managements and State Governments co-operate to organise The system of granting a “subbatical year’s leave” that
such, camps on a permanent basis and afford necessary facilities exists in some countries of the West may also be considered
to teachers to spend at least part of their vacations in such with advantage by the State and Central Governments.
camps. In some States a beginning has been made in this
direction, and we would like to commend this example to other The Problem of Additional Employment
States and private managements. The most usual form of remunerative work taken up by the
Medical Relief: We feel that the teaching profession should teachers out of school hours consists of private tuitions. This
be entitled to the benefit to medical relief, free treatment in practice of private tuitions has unfortunately assumed the
hospitals and dispensaries, and, where necessary, free proportions of an educational scandal. We are satisfied that it
accommodation in State hospitals. We were glad to learn that is attended with several evils. Steps should be taken to abolish
in one of the States, all non-gazetted officers were entitled to it as early as possible. In view of the recommendations we have
this concession. The extension of this privilege to the teaching made for the improvement of the conditions of service. we
believe it will become increasingly unnecessary for teachers to school ultimately depends. The reputation of a school and the
take up private tuitions to supplement their income. We are position that it holds in the society depends in a large measure
aware that some students require special coaching to keep pace on the influence that he exercises over his colleagues, the
with other children but the right way of dealing with that pupils and their parents and the general public. Similarly the
situation is that the school should itself make provision for dicipline of the school and its esprit de crops are his special
extra tuition to such backward children at fixed hours charging responsibility. He also holds an important place in the life of
extra fees for purpose if necessary. the community, where he can exercise a very healthy influence.
We do not wish, to make any definite recommendations By this contact with parents and the general public he can help
in this matter but would leave to the State to consider whether, to forge that link between the school and the larger community
consistently with their school duties, some of the teachers in which we have repeatedly stressed. He is also responsible for
the rural areas could not be utilised for other local duties like carrying out the policies and programme of the Department of
Post Office or Rural Reconstruction ‘Work such as being carried Education and he acts a liaison between it and the management
on by the Community Projects on a remunerative basis. In view or the general local community.
of the paucity of educated persons in rural areas this kind of From all these points of view the choice of the headmaster
part-time employment may enable the teacher to perform some of the school is of particular significance. By his attainments
useful work for the local community and earn some additional and qualifications, his previous record as a teacher, his social
income. aptitudes, he should be able to command the confidence of his
colleagues and the public and the respect of his pupils. We
The Teachers’ Status in Society
believe that seniority is frequently not the best criterion in the
We have already referred to the importance of the teachers’ choosing of a headmaster. It is more important that he should
social status. There is a growing feeling, that the lead in this possess the other conditions and qualifications that we have
matter should be taken by persons in high public positions who mentioned as necessary for such a high and responsible post.
should show special recognition of the status and dignity of
The special qualifications to be stressed in addition to the
teachers and treat them not on the basis of their salary and
academic and professional are teaching and/or administrative
economic status but on the importance of the nation-building
experience of at least 10 years and qualities of leadership and
work that is entrusted to them. If they do so, society would
administrative ability.
follow their example in due course. At important public and
ceremonial functions, the head of the State or the Ministers We belive that to attract people of the right type to so
or the District Officer concerned should invite representatives responsible a position, the emoluments of the post should be
of the teaching profession and give them a position of honour. sufficiently attractive. For this purpose a special scale of pay
Many in the profession have shown outstanding merit in their or an allowance in addition to this salary should be given. To
work and are entitled to receive due recognition of it from the enable him to discharge his duties efficiently the number of
State as well as from the society. They must also be consulted students in the school must be limited. We have stated elsewhere
in all important matters pertaining to education so as to that the optimum number in a school is 500 and the maximum
strengthen their sense of professional responsibility. 750 except in certain multipurpose schools where it may be 1,
000 and where the headmaster should have a Deputy to look
The Headmaster after vocational side or the general side as the case may be.
Special mention must be made of the position of the Where the number exceeds this limit, a senior teacher should
headmaster in a school. On him the proper working of the be designated as Assistant Headmaster and certain duties of
the headmaster should be delegated to him. It is of the utmost State to State, but on the whole it is not high. In some States
importance however that headmaster should have opportunities they should have read up to the third form or the eighth
of getting into contact with all the pupils in the school, to standard of the High School or they should have completed the
scrutinize their records, to get to know the parents and to Higher Elementary course. Thereafter they are given one or
participate in the co-curricular and the community activities two years’ training and are then expected to teach in Elementary
of the school. or primary or junior Basic schools as they may be variously
In conclusion, we should like to reiterate that the whole called.
question of educational reconstruction hinges on the success Need for Better-Equipped Teaching Personnel
the Department and the community in winning over the whole
It is an accepted principle that teaching in the lower
hearted co-operation of the teachers. For this purpose, the
standards and especially in infant classes in the Primary grades
necessary climate of opinion must be created. This should be
requires as much, if not more, preparation as in the High
done not only through the various measures that we have
schools and that the lower the grade of pupils the greater is
recommended for improving their economic and social status
the skill required to teach them. In the course of our tour, we
but also by organizing nation-wide conferences, study groups,
have observed with pleasure in some nursery schools and
discussions and seminars at which creative ideas about
primary schools conducted by private agencies to what extent
educational reform may be discussed and popularized,
the quality of teaching improves when educated and well-
TEACHER-TRAINING trained persons are in charge. We have seen how the boys and
girls in these schools are not merely given training in the three
Importance of Training of Teachers
‘R’s’ but are also trained in habits of life and social conduct and
Having considered the general question relating to the in some elementary craft work which helps in the development
improvement of the teachers’ status it is necessary to devote of personality and creates in children a healthy interest in and
special attention to the problems of their training. It has been a love for education. These principles are no doubt implemented
noted that there are considerable variations in regard to the in what is known as the Basic typo of education. The point to
teacher-training programme in different States and also that be emphasised is that proper education at this very early stage
the number of institutions for teacher-training is very is not possible with the type of teachers as are now accepted
inadequate compared even to the present needs. Moreover, the for Primary schools. If a good foundation is to be laid at this
prospects of teaching profession are not satisfactory enough to most impressionable stage, efforts should be made to see that
attract sufficient number of candidates to join the teacher- better equipped and better trained teachers are available. We
training institutions. are, therefore, of the opinion that the minimum general
Types of Teacher-Training Institutions educational standard for all Primary school teachers should be
the School Leaving Certificate and that their period of training
Broadly speaking, the existing teacher-training institutions
should extend over two years and it should consist of training
may be classified under three heads: (i) Primary (or Basic)
both in general as well as in the professional subjects.
Teacher-Training; (ii) Secondary Teacher-Training; and
(iii) Graduate Teacher-Training Institutions. In our opinion, there should be only two types of institutions
for teacher-training: (1) for those who have taken the School
The Primary (or Basic) Teacher-Training Institutions are
Leaving Certificate or the Higher Secondary School Leaving
intended for teachers of Primary or junior Basic schools. The
Certificate as envisaged by us, and for whom a two-year
general educational qualification of these teachers varies from
teacher-training should be required; and (2) for graduates for
whom the training should be, as at present, of one academic interest in teaching should be stimulated by visits to schools,
year. We suggest as a long-term programme that graduate discussions and some amount of teaching practice under
teachers should have their training extended to two academic supervision. In the second year, special subjects pertaining to
years; but we realise that both financially and in view of the pedagogy and the practice of methods of teaching should form
number of teachers required and also because the teachers a large part of the curriculum. Secondary-grade trained teachers
them-selves can ill spare two years for such training, this is should largely be employed for the nursery schools and the
not immediately possible. primary or junior Basic schools. While every one of them may
probably be given training to deal with general subjects in
Graduate or First-Grade Teacher-Training
these different types of schools, some should have special
In regard to graduate teacher-training, we are definitely training in one or other of the following : (a) Nursery-school
of the opinion that institutions for this purpose should be education. (b) Craft education and principles of craft-centred
recognised by and affiliated to the universities and the diplomas education. (c) One or other of co-curricular activities.
and degrees should be granted by the universities and not by
The general approach to co-curricular activities will be
the State Departments of Education or by ad hoc bodies. In
taught to all, but one or two of these co-curricular activities
some States, it would appear that some graduate teachers
should be more intensively taken up by the student-teachers
obtain as their training qualification a degree awarded by a
for a limited period of training, say for 8 or 12 weeks. The
university while others obtain for the same purpose a diploma
object of the special training in such co-curricular activities like
given by the State Department of Education. We consider that
physical education, scouting and guiding, first-aid, excursion,
the maintenance of two standards in training is wholly
library organisations etc., is to provide teachers specially trained
unnecessary. It is not desirable that the State through their
to organise these activities properly.
Departments of Education should conduct tests and grant
diplomas at this stage. Graduate training being a post-graduate Graduate-Training
qualification should come under the university and when there Graduate-training is restricted to one year, and although
are universities carrying on this function, all graduates should we have recommended as a long-term programme the
be trained in institutions which are affiliated to the universities desirability of increasing this period to two academic years, we
and submit to tests conducted by the university. As for the realise that it cannot be thought of in the immediate future.
other type of teacher-training institutions, they should be During this one year of training, the graduate teacher should
under the control of a separate Board appointed for this purpose be trained in methods of teaching at least two subjects. The
and not under the Department of Education. We shall refer to subjects so chosen should have studied, at least up to the
the constitution and functions of such a Board later. In some .Intermediate or Higher Secondary Certificate standard. This
States even these are under the control of the university; but point is important. For we are told that in many instances
we do not think that the university can effectively supervise graduates with a combination of subjects which have nothing
and guide the large number of such institutions catering for to do with schools come for training. Such graduates, even with
many thousands of teachers. training, can hardly make good subject-teachers. They should,
Secondary-Grade Training therefore, be discouraged from joining the teaching profession.
In the secondary-grade training institutions for which we Practical Training
have recommeded a two-year course, the first year will be The importance to be attached to teaching practice in schools
devoted largely to general education. The student-teachers’ cannot be over-emphasised. We believe that it-will be conducive
to sound training if every Teacher-Training college has a by sample test by the Board of Examiners conducting the
demonstration school-more commonly called a model school-as university examination.
well as a certain number of other schools at a reasonably near
Training in Co-Curricular Activities
distance associated with it for purposes of practical training.
These schools themselves should have trained graduate teachers In view of the importance we attach to co-curricular
on the staff. We do not propose to enter into the details with activities, to which reference has been made elsewhere, every
regard to the nature of the training that is to be imparted but student-teacher should have special training in one or other of
we wish to emphasise that at present the practical training for the co-curricular activities in a manner we have suggested for
student-teachers is very limited and in some places almost non- secondary-grade trained teachers. The object of this training
existent. There is one point, however, which should be is not to supplant the fully trained personnel, but rather to
mentioned in this connection. The practical training should not supplement their activities and to give them valuable assistance
consist only of practice in teaching, observation, demonstration in this respect. Thus, a short course of training in school
and criticism of lessons, but should include such subjects as librarianship will enable the teacher concerned to give valuable
construction and administration of scholastic tests, Organisation assistance to the trained librarian of the school. Likewise,
of supervised study and students’ societies, conducting library training in physical education will enable the teacher to co-
periods and maintenance of cumulative records. We feel that operate with the medical officer, and with the physical education
the scope of teacher training, particularly in its practical teachers in looking after the physical welfare of the school
aspects, should be broadened to include some of these activities children. So far as medical care is concerned, we have in
that a student-teacher will be expected to perform when he another place referred to the fact that student teachers can be
becomes a full fledged teacher. given a short period of training in regard to certain fundamentals
of school health and care of the children; we have also stated
One aspect of such specialised training deserves attention.
that school teachers so trained would form a useful link with
The training of teachers of handicapped children concerns not
the other trained staff in looking after the health and welfare
only the physically handicapped but also the mentally
of the school children. Each training institution must develop
handicapped children. Teachers of mentally handicapped
along these lines so as to supplement the usual teacher-training
children also need very special kind of training in which problem
programme by intensive courses over short periods for teachers
of mental disorders and mental hygiene should figure
With particular aptitudes in any of the co-curricular activities.
prominently. It would however, be an advantage if A teachers
Likewise, training in school administration, audio-visual
are initiated during their training into the general principles
education, school broad-casts, social education, scouting and
of mental hygiene because of the insight it provides into the
guiding, citizenship, training, junior Red Cross as well as
behaviour problems of even ordinary children. In fact we are
training in conducting students’ clubs, debating societies, etc.
of opinion that mental hygiene should receive greater emphasis
and in organising social service and community life can be
than it at present does in the teacher training courses at all
given to the student-teachers. Many of these activities require
levels.
a good deal of knowing and preparation if they are to be
As regards the assessment of a teacher’s practical ability, effectively utilised in the school programme.
we realise that it is not possible for large numbers to have an
examination test in practical training conducted by an outside In-Service Training
agency like the university, but internal tests by the staff However excellent the programme of teacher-training may
should be required in all cases, supplemented where necessary be, it does not by itself produce an excellent teacher. It can
only engender the knowledge skills and attitudes which will in different schools. For this purpose every training college
enable the teacher to begin his task with a reasonable degree desiring to conduct educational research should have under its
of confidence and with the minimum amount of experience. control an experimental or demonstration school besides the
Increased efficiency will come through experience critically practising schools already mentioned.
analysed and through individual and group efforts at
Training in Special Subjects
improvement. The teacher training institution should accept
its responsibility for assisting in this in-service stage of teacher- There are certain special types of training which are being
training. Among the activities which the training college should given in different institutions. Physical education, for instance,
provide or in which it should collaborate are : (1) refresher is at present given in specialised institutions for the purpose.
courses, (2) short intensive courses in special subjects, (3) Likewise, training for handicapped children, for deaf-mutes
practical training in workshop, (4) seminars and professional and the blind are given in separate institutions. Rightly so, for
conferences. It should also allow its staff where possible to the effectiveness of the training will be preserved only if given
serve as consultants to a school or group of schools conducting in institutions where the. principles of pedagogy in relation to
some programme of improvement. these particular subjects concerned will be given due emphasis.
Liasion Between Training Institutions and Other Recruitment to Training Colleges

Agencies Recruitment to training colleges should be carefully made
Training institutions should be in close liaison with the so as to admit only those who hold the highest promise of
Department of Education and the schools. Such close becoming successful teachers. Admission. should generally be
relationship will be fruitful in many ways specially in regard carefully devised after tests and interviews. We cannot afford
to the placing of student-teachers. Except in the case of deputed to waste money on training people who have not the making
teachers, training institutions are not now in a position to do of good teachers. We have had enough evidence to show that
anything for placing other students in educational institutions. in many places it has not been possible to recruit a sufficient
It would be to the advantage of all concerned if training number of trainees to meet the needs of the schools in the
institutions could keep in touch with their alumni and follow State. Even where a sufficient number of recruits is available,
their subsequent careers. In recruiting teachers, therefore, they seldom possess high qualifications. This is no doubt owing
training colleges should be consulted by the department as well to the present very unsatisfactory position of teachers’ status
as by the other agencies. and emoluments. As long as the conditions of service and salary
are so unattractive and the status of teachers remains low and
Training Colleges and Research in Education unimportant corn. pared with other learned professions, there
One aspect of the training college should not be lost sight is no possibility of drawing large numbers of really qualified,
of. The training college should in essence be not merely a enthusiastic and devoted candidates to join the profession. We
college for training teachers, but an institution for research have referred elsewhere to the Urgent need of improving the
work in all aspects of pedagogy. conditions of teachers in all these respects.
The staff of the college should be such as would be capable There is one other aspect of the question, however, which
of devoting some of their time to research in curricular and we wish, to emphasise at this stage. There is great diversity
extra-curricular activities, general administration, modern in regard to the terms offered to student-teachers in the different
trends of pedagogy and also from time to time in research to training institutions in the States. In some institutions the
evaluate results of the particular method of training adopted training is given free; in other a fee is charged. Taking into
consideration the need for a very large number of teachers and of training may be increased to a minimum of 180 days by
also the need for attracting the right type of teachers to the eliminating the number of unnecessary holidays. Within this
profession, we recommend that no fees should be charged in period, it should be possible for the students to have practical
training colleges and all student-teachers should be given training in schools and to have the theoretical training in the
suitable stipends by the State during the period of training. subjects concerned and some training in a few of the co-curricular
This was the practice some years ago. We also suggest that activities.
teachers already in service should be given, during the period
Residential Training Colleges
of training the same salary which they were getting. They
should, however, under such circumstances, be expected to There is one aspect of the life of the student-teacher which
execute a bond to serve as teachers for a period of five years. we wish to emphasise. We believe that the time at the disposal
This will apply both to graduate teachers and to second-grade of the student-teacher, whether in the second-grade or the
teachers. graduate-grade, is so limited that his whole time should be
devoted to the study of various aspects of education, school life,
We have suggested that young pupils who show promise
community life, administration, etc.
of developing into good teachers should be recruited. We wish
to point out that the teachers themselves are potentially Life in the training institutions should be a guide to the
recruiting agents par excellence. By their attitude towards the activities in the school with the pupils. We wish, therefore, to
public and the students, they are daily recruiting young people emphasise that this community life in the training institutions,
into or out of the profession. At the upper secondary school the devotion to the various activities that can be attempted in
level and in the undergraduate colleges, teachers can perform such institutions and the mixing of the student-teacher
an outstanding service to students and the profession if they themselves in all social and useful activities both in the school
actively encourage young people who possess intelligence and community as well as in the community life of the area where
other characteristics which may lead to success in teaching, to the school is situated would best be promoted by a residential
consider teaching as their career. Such students, after system of training. We, therefore, strongly advocate a
graduation, may serve for some period in some school and residential type of training institutions for all students. Such
acquire practical experience before going in for professional residence will train them in self-reliance, provide a certain
training. amount of manual labour and cultivate community life within
and outside the school premises. We expect them to manage
Preparation of Teachers Before Admission and Duration their own hostels, to take turns in the different kinds of work
of Course connected with the kitchen and the dining room, to be
In view of the comparatively short duration of the training responsible for the general cleanliness of the institution, and
course at present, it is suggested that the selection of the thus to develop habits of healthy and active living and sense
students for teacher training may be made some months in of the dignity of labour.
advance of the opening of the course. The majority of candidates
Post-Graduate Course in Education
will be those who are already teaching or who have settled on
teaching as their profession. During this period, they may be We have referred to research in training institutions. This
given opportunities to study some selected books recommended brings up to post-graduate training in Education. We feel that
by the training colleges concerned, so that when they come for there is scope for post-graduate courses in Education and we
training they will have some information as a back-ground for are glad to note that in some of the universities a post-graduate
the study they are to launch upon. We suggest that the period degree, the Master of Education, has been instituted. A clearer
conception of what is intended by the Master’s degree in qualification may be three to five years experience as an
education seems to us to be required. This degree is primarily Inspector. In the case of second grade training institutions the
intended for higher studies in pedagogy: (1) to give ideas through minimum qualification should be a first or second class bachelor’s
the study of comparative education of modern methods that are degree, with an L. T. or B. T. qualification. In the case of
being followed in different countries, (2) to, cultivate aptitude graduate training institutions, the minimum qualification
for research so that experiments on new methods and techniques should be (i) an Honours or Master’s degree, or a, first class
of education suited to the country and the community may be B.A. or B.Sc. degree in the particular subject, (ii) a. professional
undertaken, (3) to afford opportunities for specialisation in one qualification a Master of Education degree with three years’
or other of the branches of study pertaining to (a) the curricula teaching experience or an L. T. or B. T. degree with five years’
of school studies, (b) craft-centred education, (c) co-curricular service as an Inspector or headmaster. We are of opinion that
activities, etc., and (4) to train teachers for higher grades in there should be a free exchange between professors in training
the profession such as the headmaster, the inspectorate, and colleges on the one hand and selected headmasters of schools
teaching staff of training institutions. In fact this higher and Inspectors of the Education Department on the other and
education should be designed to inculcate the qualities of that for varying periods of three to five years there should be
leadership in education. a possibility of sending one or other of these to any of the posts
At present the Master’s degree can be taken immediately mentioned herein. Professors in training institutions should be
after the first degree in education. Owing to the limited number enabled for short periods to take up the duties of headmasters
of seats the selection is more often made from those who have or Inspectors so that they may become familiar with the actual
had experience as teachers subsequent to their first degree in conditions of school life and realise how the training that is
teaching, but it is not limited. to such people. We believe that imparted by them in the training colleges is actually put into
it would be an advantage if for this higher degree in education practice.
trained teachers who have done normally a minimum of three We agree that so far as the nursery and primary stages of
years teaching in a school are only selected. It is desirable that instruction are concerned, women are better teachers than
a certain number of scholarships should be made available for men. In regard to Middle schools also a considerable body of
such teachers for the period of study they have to put in for opinion is in favour of giving ample opportunities for women
the higher degree and that the teachers concerned may be to be employed as teachers in these institutions. We agree with
selected after consideration of their qualifications, their record this view. In girls’ schools obviously women should be the
as school teachers, their aptitude for research shown by any teachers. We have been forcibly impressed by the fact that the
contributions that they may have made, their general education of girls has much leeway to make up. The facilities
personality and their conduct in the profession. available for girls in many States are very much limited. A
rapid expansion of girls’ education depends to a very large
Staff of Training Colleges
extent upon the availability of women teachers. We have
From what has been stated above, it seems obvious that examined this question very carefully and have come to the
care should be taken in selecting the staffs of training colleges conclusion that under present conditions it will not be possible
whether for the second grade institutions or the first i.e., to recruit adequate number of women student-teachers in the
graduate training colleges. We believe that there should be a existing training institutions. We feel therefore that special
picked staff of teachers possessing (i) a good general educational efforts should be made in this direction. As a short-term policy,
qualification; (ii) a degree in teaching; and (iii) at least five at any rate, we would recommend part-time courses being
years of experience as a teacher in a school. An additional made available to women who could spare a little time and who
with the appropriate training take up teaching as part-time ideas. We are convinced that, if the training colleges could be
workers. Such part-time training may be in the mornings or organized on right lines and become dynamic centres of
in the evenings but necessarily the total period of training will progressive educational movements, the whole task of
have to be-extended. We suggest that three years may be the educational reconstruction would be greatly facilitated.
period for second grade teachers, and two academic years for
graduate teachers. The question may be raised as to how they SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
could have practical training on a part-time basis. We think Improvement of the Teaching Personnel
that for the limited time for which this practical training is 1. A reasonably uniform procedure should be devised for
needed it should not be difficult to arrange it in such a manner the selection and appointment of teachers for all types
that they can spend their time in the schools concerned. These of schools.
part-time student-teachers should also be eligible for some
2. In all privately managed institutions and in schools
stipend during their period of training and if such stipend is
maintained by local boards there should be a small
given they should undertake to perform the duties of a teacher
Selection Committee entrusted with the responsibility
for a minimum period of three years. We shall refer to the
of recruiting the staff, with the headmaster as an ex-
employment of women as teachers in another part of our Report. officio member.
We are of opinion that women may be employed as part-time
teachers after training and much help may thus be obtained 3. The normal period of probation for a trained teacher
from them if a little more care is devoted to the manner of their should be one year.
employment as part-time teachers. 4. Teachers working in High Schools should be graduates
We would like to stress, in conclusion the importance of with a degree in education; those who teach technical
the training colleges assuming the role of leadership, in the subjects should be gra-duates in the subject concerned
task of educational reconstruction. Our impression is that they with the necessary training for teaching it; teachers in
Higher Secondary schools should possess higher
have not so far been able to do so. They should become active
qualifications, somewhat similar to those prescribed in
centres not only of research but of practical experiments directed
some Universities for teacher of the, Intermediate
to the improvement of educational methods, curricula, discipline
College.
and organization of schools. They should, in the first instance,
successfully work out new ideas in their own Demonstration 5. The teachers possessing the same qualifications and
Schools and then, through the example of the school as well performing the same type of work, should be treated
as the training given to their students, this influence should on a par in the matter of grades of salary irrespective
permeate into all institutions of the State. At present their of the type of institutions in which they are working.
work is greatly vitiated by the fact that there is considerable 6. Special Committees should be set up to review the
divorce between their theory and practice and the educational scales of pay of teachers of all grades and recommend
ideas advocated in the lecture room are not actually translated such scales of pay that will meet in a fair and just
in practice in the schools under them. In order to overcome this manner the varying cost of living.
difficulty, it would be an advantage if each training college 7. In order to relieve teachers from anxieties about their
could be given the responsibility of supervising the work of a own and. their dependents’ future which will affect the
certain number of schools in the neighbourhood, which would, efficiency of their work, the, system of triple benefit
on the one hand, improve their standards and, on the other, scheme pension-cum-provident fund-cuminsurance,
enable the members of the staff to give practical shape to their should be introduced in all States.
8. Arbitration Boards or Committees should be established Certificate or Higher Secondary School Leaving
to lock into the appeals and grievances of teachers and to Certificate for whom the period of training should be
consider matters relating to suspension, dismissal etc. two years; and (ii) for graduates for whom the training
9. The age of retirement in the case of physically fit and may for the present be of one academic year but extended
competent teachers may be extended to 60 with the as a long term programme to two academic years.
approval of the Director of Education. 20. Graduate teacher-training institutions should be
10. The children of teachers should be given free education recognised by and affiliated to the universities which
throughout the school stage. should grant the degrees, while the secondary grade
training institutions should be under the control of a
11. Through a system of cooperative house building societies,
separate Board appointed for the purpose.
teachers should be provided with quarters so as to enable
them to live near the school and devote more time to 21. The teacher-training should receive training in one or
the many-sided activi-ties of the school. more of the various extra-curricular activities.
12. Teachers wishing to go to health resorts or holiday 22. The training colleges should, as a normal part of their
camps or to attend educational conferences, seminars, work, arrange refresher courses, short intensive courses
etc. should be, given travel concessions and leave in special subjects, practical training in workshop and
facilities. professional conferences.
13. They should be given free medical attention and 23. The training college should conduct research work, in
treatment in hospital and dispensaries. various important aspects of pedagogy and for this
14. The leave rules should, as far as possible, be uniform purpose it should have under its control an experimental
for all educational institutions. or demonstration school.
15. Opportunities should be provided on a generous scale 24. No fees should be charged in training colleges, while
for teachers to visit different institutions within the during the period of training all the student-teachers
country and in special cases to go, abroad on study should be given suitable stipend by the State; the
leave for higher studies. teachers who are already in service should be given the
same salary which they were getting.
16. The practice of private tuitions by teachers should be
abolished. 25. All training colleges should provide adequate residential
facilities so as to be able to arrange community life and
17. Persons in high public position should give special other suitable activities for the trainees.
recognition to the teachers’ social status and the dignity
of their profession. 26. For the Master’s Degree in Education only trained
graduates who have normally done a minimum.of three
18. In order to attract persons of the right type to the,
years’ teaching should be admitted.
responsible position of the headmaster the emoluments
of the post should be made sufficiently attractive. 27. There should be a free exchange between professors In
Train-ing Colleges, selected Headmasters of Schools
Teacher-Training and Inspecting Officers.
19. There should be only two types of institutions for teacher- 28. In order to meet the shortage of women teachers, special
training (i) for those who have taken the School Leaving parttime training courses should be provided.
254 System and Issues in Indian Education Problems of Administration 255
Joint Secretary and should have direct access to the Minister.

It would of course be open to the Minister when he considers
it necessary to consult the Secretary particularly in regard to
administrative and financial matters.
11 Need for Co-ordination

We have noticed that in the States as well as at the Centre
different Departments and Ministries have responsibility for
PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION various aspects of education for the age period of 10 to 17. Thus,
while the Department of Education is responsible for most of
the activities connected with school education there are other
Ministries which have their own organization for imparting
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
education of particular types. The Ministry of Agriculture, the
In any scheme of educational reconstruction which envisages Ministry of Industry and Commerce, the Ministry of Transport
a large scale development of educational institutions of diverse and Communications and Ministry of Labour, both at the
varie-ties, it is necessary to consider carefully the administrative Centre and the States, have under their control, schools of
machin-ery that should be responsible for the spread of education different kinds which cater for the needs of this age group. It
and for its orderly development. has often happened that these different Departments are not
The present administrative set up is that in all States there in touch with one another’s activities nor is the Education
is a Directorate of Education working under the direct control Department in a position to coordinate them with a view to
of a Minister who has a Secretary to assist him at the Secretariat increasing efficiency and securing economy of effort. It seems,
level and a Director of Education as the executive head of the therefore necessary that there should be a coordinating agency
Department responsible for offering technical advice to the and that problems of a similar nature pertaining to more than
Minister in all educational matters and for carrying out the one Ministry or Department should be discussed by them
policy of the Department. thoroughly and a concerted programme of education should be
In actual practice the Director of Education has to submit formulated. In some cases, the Departments mainly responsible
his propos-als for the reorganization and expansion of education for producing technicians have not utilised their resources
to the Minister through the Secretary. This has actually meant adequately for the furtherance of Technical education by starting
that such proposals and policies are subjected to criticisms by suitable types of Technical schools.
the subordinate officers of the Secretariat and are often The Department of Transport and Communications, for
presented in a form which may be quite different from what instance, maintains a few Secondary schools of the usual type
was originally conceived by the Director. The Secretary himself for the children of its employees. In our view the responsibility
may not be fully conversant with these problems as he is for training technicians of various grades should be shared by
frequently transferred from one Department of the Secretariat the Central Department of Railways along with other allied
to another. If education is not to be treated as a mere administra- departments. This Department has a large number of
tive problem, we feel that the Director of Education should be workshops, and it is intended that in course of time India will
mainly responsible to advise the Minister and for this purpose become self-sufficient in the production of railway engines and
we recommend that where the Director himself is not the all varieties of rolling stock and other necessary equipment. It
Secretary of the Department he should have the status of a is also desirable that there should be an efficient service for
repairing, overhauling and the maintenance of all rolling stock educational programme. The Minister of Education may be the
and engines. We are aware that a certain number of apprentices Chairman and the Director of Educa-tion, the Secretary of the
are trained for employment in the railways, and that in some Committee.
of the central workshops, work connected with the manufacture
Co-ordinating Committee of Departmental Heads
and repair of engines and rolling stock is being carried on. But
if trained personnel of the required standard and in sufficient At the next level, there is need for a coordinating committee
number is to be available the facilities need to be expanded and consisting of the departmental heads concerned with the various
improved. Since the railways are the largest employers of as-pects of education. Here we suggest that heads of departments
technicians of all grades. it should be one of their main functions respon-sible for education, general, technical, agricultural,
to maintain or help in the maintenance of technical schools of commercial and other types should meet and discuss the working
different grades to trained skilled labour for their work. of the existing ma-chinery and the possibilities of its expansion
and improvement. The Director of Education may be the
Again during the war, the Department of Commerce and
Convener of this Committee and a Deputy Director of Education
Industry in the Central Government was responsible for starting
may act as Secretary. If there is a Deputy or Joint Director of
a number of train-ing institutions for technician and many
Technical Education, he should be a member of the Committee.
available workshops in the country were utilised for the purpose.
This Committee will have to meet several times a year to
Since the conclusion of the war, a few institutes originally
review the position and to consider methods of improvement
started for this purpose have been kept going by the department
and expansion in all relevant fields. At the outset the Committee
where training is given in the craft or trade concerned but no
should review the whole educational structure and draw up a
provision has been made for general education. In the
master plan showing how the necessary integration can be
coordinated programme of Technical education at this level,
achieved smoothly and expeditiously in the different types of
agriculture has also a large part to play. It seems to us that
schools established by the State or Centre. The whole object
such departments should pool their resources and adopt a
of this planning would be to avoid duplication, to improve and
uniform policy in regard to the training of various types of
expand the facilities needed for the different educational
skilled workers needed for the different industries of the country.
institutions and to use them more effectively by their
We may recall here what we have already stated that in all
coordination or merging, and to lay down a programme under
schemes of Technical education there should be room for an
which special types of education may be progressively provided
adequate amount of general education without which it is not
either in separate institutions or in multipurpose schools. Any
possible to give intelligent training in technical skill. Moreover,
department of the States or Centre which is interested in
the object of all education at this stage whether technical or
developing a particular branch of education should place such
general is to ensure that all educated youths are also trained
proposals before this Committee. It will thus afford an
for the efficient discharge of their duties as citizens.
opportunity for getting an over-all picture of the whole field of
Committee of Ministers education and enable the public and the State to know exactly
In view of all these considerations we recommend that what is being done and what are the plans proposed for the
there should be a committee constituted at the Centre as well future.
as in the States consisting of the different Ministers concerned Director of Education
with the var-ious types of education as well as the Minister for
The Director of Education should be assisted in his work
Finance. They must meet and discuss how best the resources
by a number of experts, including a Joint Director of Vocational
of the departments could be pooled for the furtherance of the
or Techni-cal Education to give expert advice on Technical Two distinguished educationists co-opted by the other
education. The various Deputy Directors should deal with members of the Board.
particular aspects or grades of education and there should be Two persons nominated by the Department and a Principal
a Deputy Directress of Education, whose chief responsibility of a Training College nominated by government.
should be to, look after the education of girls, and to see to
One of the Deputy Directors as a Member-Secretary.
it that adequate facilities are provided for them in the
educational system of the State. She should also be responsi- Functions of the Boards
ble for the development of women’s education and for advising The Board will be generally responsible for the following
on their special needs and problems. mat-ters:
Board of Secondary Education (1) To frame conditions for recognition of High schools,
Higher Secondary schools and the qualifications of the
We recommend that there should be a Board of Secondary
teaching staff.
Education under the chairmanship of the Director of Education
to deal with all details of education at the Secondary stage (2) To appoint committees of experts to advise on the
(general and technical). This board should be composed of syllabuses etc., for the different courses of study.
persons with wide experience and knowledge-of different aspects (3) To frame courses of study on the recommendation of
of Secondary education. We recommend that it should consist Expert Committees that may be appointed for this
of not more than 25 members, ten of whom should be specially purpose.
conversant with matters pertaining to Vocational or Technical (4) To draw up panels of question Paper Setters, Chief
education. Examiners and Assistant Examiners.
We suggest the following constitution for the Board which (5) To frame rules prescribing the minimum conditions for
can of course be modified to suit special needs of the States selec-tion of Examiners, Assistant Examiners, etc.,
concerned: and generally to frame such other rules as may be
The Joint Director of Vocational Education necessary for its effective functioning.
The Director of Agriculture (6) Generally to advice the Director of Education when
The Director of Industries required on all matters pertaining to Secondary
One Head of a Polytechnic education.
Two representatives nominated by Government from the In this connection we wish to point out that in some States,
the Boards which have been recently constituted for the purpose
senior teaching staff of Vocational Schools.
are un-weildly in number and some of the interests represented
The Deputy Directress of Women’s education. on it are not likely to promote efficiency or harmony. We
Four Headmasters of High schools including headmasters consider that, if Second-ary education is to progress on right
of Multipurpose schools, nominated by government. lines, the Board must be a com-pact body mainly composed
Two representatives of Provincial Secondary Teachers’ of experts, whose functions will be limited to the formulation
Association, elected by the Executive of the Association. of broad policies.
Five nominees of the universities of the region, of whom The Board is not expected to function as an executive body
two shall be professors dealing with Technical education. which is the province of the Director of Education.
With regard to the conduct of examinations, we recommend (4) A principal of a Polytechnic.

that a small committee of the Board, consisting of not more (5) Three persons nominated by the government, one of
than five mem-bers, should be appointed, with the Director whom at least shall have experience of vocational
of Education or a senior member of the Directorate as Convener. education.
This committee will be respon-sible for framing its scheme and
conducting public examinations and for publishing results. The (6) A dean of the faculty of teaching and another
representative of the faculty nominated by the Vice-
Director will be assisted in this work by a senior officer with
Chancellor or Vice-Chancellors of the universities in the
the necessary staff to carry out the day-to-day duties and
State.
responsibilities in this connection and to attend to all the details
concerning the conduct of examinations. The functions of this Board would generally be as follows:
The executive powers needed to implement the (1) To frame schemes and syllabuses for. the training of
recommendations of the Secondary Education Board will be undergraduate teachers.
vested in the Chairman of the Board, the Director of Education. (2) To draw up the condition for recognition of such
This Board shall ordinarily meet at least twice a year, but may Secondary grade training centres.
meet on other occasions when summoned by the Chairman or
(3) To draw up schemes of examinations for these teachers.
on a requisition made by 1/3rd of the members consti-tuting
the Board. It will have its own office and establishment with (4) To draw up qualifications necessary for the teachers of
a whole-time Office Secretary for that purpose. the different subjects in the training institutions.
(5) To appoint expert committees wherever necessary and
Board for Teacher Training Institutions
to advise the Board on the schemes of special training
We have referred to the need to establish many new necessary in the different vocational subjects of study.
institutions to train teachers in general as well as in vocational
subjects. While the training of graduates will be arranged in (6) Generally to advise the Director of Education when
University Colleges the training of under-graduates teachers required on all matters pertaining to teacher training.
will be carried on in a large number of centres for the supervision Central Advisory Board of Education
and guidance of which we recom-mend the establishment of a The Central Advisory Board of Education constituted by
Board that will lay down the conditions necessary for their the Cen-tral Government has been functioning for many years
proper training. It should also be empowered to suggest for the in order to, advise the Central Government and incidentally
consideration of the universities any improvements that may the States on all matters pertaining to education at different
be needed in the graduate training programme. levels. Composed as it is of representatives of all educational
Regarding the conditions of this Board, we suggest that interests as well as States, its deliberations have been very
the Director of Education will be the Chairman, with the useful and its reports have furnished valuable material both
following as members: for the States and the Centre. We are of opinion that such a
(1) The Joint Director of Education (Technical). body should continue to function as a coordinating agency to
consider all India problems concerning education.
(2) Two heads of secondary grade training institutions.
Provincial Advisory Boards
(3) Two headmasters or headmistresses of schools, one of
whom will be connected with vocational education. We recommend that provincial Advisory Boards should be
constitut-ed in all States to advise the Department in all matters
pertaining to education. The Board may function on lines similar etc., there should be attached to the Director’s Office certain
to the Central Advisory Board of Education and should be experts in these subjects who will inspect the different schools
composed of representatives of the teaching profession, the periodically and help in improving the standards of teaching.
universities, Managements of High schools and Higher
Selection of Inspectorate
Secondary schools, heads of departments dealing with different
spheres of education, representatives of Industry, Trade and At present the Inspectorate Is made up in diverse ways by
Commerce, and the Legislature and the general public. The differ-ent States. In some cases Inspectors are recruited directly
Minister of Education should be the Chairman of the Board and to in-spectional. posts and while certain academic qualifications
the Director of Education or the Education Secretary should are pre-scribed, experience and other relevant qualifications
be the Secre-tary. This body will advise the Department of are not duly emphasised. Once a, person has been chosen for
Education on all mat-ters pertaining to education, particularly the Inspectorate he often continues in that line till the age of
its improvement both in the quality and quantity. retirement. We are of the view that. a person, to be chosen
as an Inspector, should Possess high academic qualifica-tions
SUPERVISION AND INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS (an Honours or Master’s degree) and should have had teaching.
Existing Defects experience in schools for at least ten years, or should have been
Headmaster of a High school for a minimum period of three
The present system of inspection of schools was subjected
years. In addition to direct recruitment the Inspectors should
to criticism by several witnesses. It Was pointed out that
also be drawn from:
inspections were perfunctory, that the time spent by the
Inspector at any particu-lar place was insufficient, that the (i) Teachers of ten years’ experience.
greater part of this time was taken up with routine work like (ii) Experienced Headmasters of High schools, and
checking accounts and looking into the administrative aspects
(iii) Qualified staff of Training colleges.
of the school. There was not enough time devoted to the academic
side and contacts between the Inspectors and teachers were We recommend further that suitable persons from any of
casual. It was also stated that the number of schools entrusted these categories may be appointed as Inspectors for a period
to the care of an Inspector was too large and the range too wide of three to five years after which they may revert to their
for him to be able to acquaint himself with their work and original posts. In the initial stages, we suggest that fifty per
appre-ciate their problems; nor was he in a position to advise cent of such posts may be reserved for recruitment on this
and guide the teaching staff in improving the work of the basis. It is necesary that Pro-fessors of Training colleges should
school. It occasionally happened that the Inspector instead of be conversant with the work done in the schools; and that
being “the friend, philosopher and guide” of the school, behaved Headmasters should likewise have a chance to serve as
in such a critical and unsympathetic way that his visit was Inspecting Officers for short periods. This will enable them to
looked upon with some degree of apprehension if not of appreciate the position of the Inspector and to approach the
resentment. In our view the true role of an Inspector-for whom prob-lems of the schools with greater appreciation of the realities
we would prefer the term Educational Adviser-is to study the from their own experience.
problems of each school, to take a comprehensive view of all Duties of Inspectors
its functions and to help the teachers to carry out his advice
The duties of an Inspector are divisible into administrative
and recommendations. We also recommend that for special
and academic. The administrative duties relate to the annual
subjects like Physical Education, Domestic Science, Art, Music,
inspection of records, accounts, office routine, etc. For this
purpose he must have the assistance of a competent staff. With (2) Other Types of Managements: The large increase in the
the increase in the number and types of schools, this duty will number of students anxious to join schools has led to
require a considerable amount of his time it he is to discharge a rapid increase in the number of schools and these
these functions properly and efficiently. The time needed for have been started by a variety of manage-ments, many
the. purpose has necessarily re-stricted the scope of his activities of whom were not conversant with the needs of the
on the academic side. Moreover, the multiplicity of the subjects schools or the methods of their management. There are
taught in the school by specially qualified Staff now makes it various types of schools managed by:
very difficult for any single officer, however qualified to inspect (a) Local bodies such as District Boards or
them thoroughly and to advise on all their problems. We, Municipalities;
therefore, recommend that the academic work of the school
should be thoroughly inspected by, a panel of experts with the (b) Religious organisations and other denominational
Inspector as Chairman and this should be done once in three bodies;
years. We recommend that three persons may be chosen from (c) Registered Trust Boards;
senior teachers of headmasters to visit schools in the comPany (d) Certain private bodies;
of the Inspector and to spend two or three days with the staff,
discussing with them all aspects of school life-the library and (e) Individuals;
laboratory facilities, the curriculum, the organization of extra- Schools Maintained by Local Boards: There are many
curricular activities, the use of the holidays and all other schools which are maintained by local bodies and though we
problems connected with school activi-ties. Through these full do not wish to make any unfair generalisation about their
and frank discussions, the inspectors will be in a far better efficiency, we have had enough evidence to show that there
Position to help in the improvement of the school. What is is considerable need for a, toningup of these institutions.
suggested is nothing new-colleges affiliated to universities are As in the case of private managements, the Local Boards
visited by, commission of “Parts who inspect their working, should have a small executive body for the management of
dis-cuss their problem and report to the university. schools. This executive body should not exceed nine members
with either District Educational Officer or some nominee of the
MANAGEMENT AND CONDITIONS OF RECOGNITION Directorate as an ex-offi-cio member of the Board. In the case
Types of Managements of Municipalities or Panchayats, which have only one school
During our tour we realised that there were several types in their charge, the headmaster should be ex-officio member
of school managements. Among these may be mentioned: of the Executive Committee. We feel strongly that the board
should not interfere with the internal management of the schools
(1) Schools Managed by the States or the Centre: These
concerned, or with the powers and duties of the headmasters.
schools are comparatively few in number in the different
We regret to note that, in many cases, members of local bodies
States. They were at one time intended to be model
have not hesitated to assume a responsibility to visit schools,
schools whose general methods of work and organization
to examine the records and sometimes actually to interfere
might be adopted by those who wished to start schools.
with the teaching. We think this tendency on the part of
We cannot say that at present many of the State schools
individual members of the Local Boards to act as an inspecting
serve as models. In many respects, in view of the great
agency should be strongly discouraged, and no member should
demand for admission to schools, great laxity in the
have the right to inspect the school or to call for any statement
conditions which were ob-served previously was noted.
or documents or in any other way to interfere with its internal
management. The President of the Committee alone may be such cases to permit the admission of all children to such
authorized to call for returns or information from. the schools but till that is done they should be eligible to receive
headmaster. Defects or complaints should be brought to the grant-in-aid like other schools.
notice of the District Educational Officer who may be asked to Private Managements: A large number of private bodies
report on them. It is impor-tant to safeguard the status of the are at present managing schools. We are of opinion that all
headmaster and the teachers, if they are to function efficiently such bodies should be registered and should function as
and exert their influence for good over the pupils. This does registered associations.
not obviously, imply that any serious lapse on the part of the
Individual Managements: There is also a fairly large
teachers should be condoned. What we suggest is that the
number of schools which are run as “proprietory schools” by
proper channel for enquiry into all such complaints should be
individuals. We feel that no Secondary schools should be run
the Headmaster and the District Educational Officer and not
on such lines but that they should be governed by a suitable
the members of the Boards, either collectively or individually.
managing board registered under the Companies Act.
Religious Organisations: A number of religious
organizations also conduct schools in the different States. These Control over the Opening of Schools
organizations have contributed to the expansion of educational In recent years, the great increase in the number of schools
facilities and many of them have, on the whole maintained a has led to a great laxity in the conditions laid down for starting
reasonable level of efficiency in their schools. Some of them, new schools. Our attention has been drawn to a large number
however, suffer from the various defects pointed out elsewhere of ‘unrecog-nised schools’ in some States and schools run by
such as over-crowding and ill-qualified staff. In some cases the private individuals without prior consultation or approval of
recruitment of staff is influenced by reli-gious or sectarian the education authorities concerned. This laxity has
considerations. These trends are also noticeable in schools run unfortunately led to a state of affairs where schools are run
by other educational associations. Institutions run by communal more like commercial enterprises than as educa-tional
organizations are also spread over different parts of the country institutions. We have also been given to understand that, in
and some of them are run on lines which have tended to many cases, private individuals or groups of individuals start
promote unhealthy trends. The manner in which the teachers schools without. proper buildings or equipment and having
are selected and in some cases the spirit in which the school enrolled a number of students, create a situation where the
is administered are not calculated to promote a broad and department has no alternative but to recognize them for the
healthy national outlook. sake of the students, though normally such schools should
Registered Trust Boards: There are certain registered never have been allowed to function. Such educa-tional
Trust Boards maintaining schools. It is laid down in some institutions often spring up largely because of the paucity of
instances, under the terms of the trust deed that the schools recognised schools to cater for the needs of an ever-increasing
should be run exclusively for certain purposes or for certain school-going population.
sections of the population exclu-sively. This is contrary to the From what has been stated above, it will be obvious that
growing trend of opinion that all educational institutions should if schools are to be run on proper lines, if educational interests
be open to children of every religion and community. The are to be duly stressed and a healthy spirit of citizenship is to
managements, however, are prepared to open their schools be incul-cated in the pupils, care should be taken that
to all, but they are prevented from doing so by the terms of recognition is given only on clearly defined conditions which
the trust. We recommend that legislation should be passed in will ensure their proper running and the maintenance of the
right atmosphere in them. In certain States representations may be adopted with suitable modifications by all States for
were made by teachers of privately managed institutions the purpose.
requesting that all schools should be taken over by the State. (1) Individual or proprietory managements should be
We are not ourselves in agreement with this view and cannot, definitely discouraged. All the managing bodies should
therefore, recommend such a course of action. On, the other. be registered and should consist of a limited number of
hand, we feel that private managements have got an important persons. We recommend that the member-ship of such
part, to play in the scheme of education and that if a number managing bodies should not exceed fifteen.
of managements conduct schools in a. spirit of emulation
calculated to secure greater efficiency and co-ordination they In all such managing bodies, the headmaster should
will be better served. If such schools are run side by side with be an ex-Offi-cio member. In the case of schools which
State schools, in an atmosphere of healthy competition, are to be started in future as well as in case of schools
improvements in teaching and other aspects of education will where managements have not already complied with
be fostered. the conditions of recognition, we recommend that a
nominee of the Director of Education should be made
We have drawn attention to the many defects noticed in
a member of the managing body. His functions would
schools run by private managements but we recognize that
largely be advisory, and we hope that his presence will
some of them have been doing their work very efficiently and
help the managing body to understand the condi-tions
should be given every encouragement. It is equally imperative,
to be satisfied for recognition and the measures to be
howev-er, that managements which have failed to reach
taken for improving its efficiency and its activities. We
reasonable level of efficiency or have shown gross irregularities
understand that this procedure has been adopted in the
or indifference to educational interest should be given a clear
case of colleges affiliated to certain universities and it
directive to remedy these defects within a definite period.
has been found to work satisfactorily.
Attention of the State Governments may be invited to the
British Education Act of 1944 which empowers the Ministry of (2) No member of the Managing Board should directly or
Education to take over such schools which fail to conform to indirect-ly interfere in the internal administration of
conditions prescribed and run them as State schools for a time, the school, the disci-pline of the students or the duties
and eventually hand them back to the management concerned of teachers.
if it is found to be in a posit-ion to take over charge. We (3) Where a large educational society is responsible for the
recommend that, wherever possible, the States should similarly starting of the school, the actual management should
take over such schools. If this is not possible, it should not be delegated to a small board functioning on the lines
hesitate to close down such schools and make alternative stated above.
arrangements for the education of the pupils of those
(4) The managing body should be responsible for the passing
institutions.
of the budget for proposals to start new branches of
Conditions for Recognition of Schools study for corre-spondence with the Directorate of
In many States there are, definite conditions regulating Education in all matters pertaining to the managements
the procedure to be adopted for recognition of schools. We of the school and for the appointment of the teach-ing
believe that managements are complying with these conditions staff under definite conditions of service. Every
in such States. We, however, feel it necessary to suggest management should draw up definite rules of service
certain general standards and conditions of recognition which wherein the conditions of salary, leave etc., are definitely
laid down and every teacher on his appointment should (7) The management should satisfy the Directorate of
receive a copy of these conditions and execute an Education that qualified staff is available and will be
agreement for service in the school. appointed in accordance with the rules laid down by the
(5) Every management should be required to provide an Department for affiliations. The con-ditions of service
endowment for the proper running of the school, the should be uniform for the whole State, and there should
amount of the endowment being determined with be no difference between teachers in State schools and
reference to the number of diversified courses that the those in privately managed schools so far as the
school may undertake and the general requirements of minimum scale of salary, conditions, security of service
effi-ciency. The finances of the school should be kept and the minimum amenities recommended are
separate from those of any other institutions under the concerned.
same management and the interest or income accruing (8) The number of pupils admitted per class and the total
from the endowment should be shown in the receipts number that should be admitted for the whole school
for the year. Full and proper accounts should be should conform to the instructions of the department,
maintained, and the acquittance roll should clearly taking into consideration the material facilities and the
show each teacher’s scale of pay and the amount drawn staff available, as well as the number of subjects for
each month by him. Separate accounts should be kept which the school seeks affiliation. We have already stated
for any special fees levied by the school. These accounts that ordinarily we consider 500 as the optimum, 750
may be kept by the headmaster and scrutinised by an as the maximum, except in the case of schools with
Account-ant or Auditor of the school. These accounts diversified courses of instruction where the maximum
should be prepared annually and should be subject to may go up to 1, 000 provided that not more than 40
audit by the Department of Educa-tion. In regard to
pupils are admitted in any section.
special endowments, gifts, etc. made to the school, a
separate register of accounts should be maintained which We have noticed that at present there is no limit to the
should also be duly audited, the income accruing number of divisions that can be opened in each class.
therefrom being added to the general endowment fund Some managements have opened a very large number
of the schools. of sections in their congested premises, thus increasing
greatly the total number of students as well as the
(6) Every management should satisfy the Directorate of
number of sections which each teacher has to teach. We
Education that adequate accommodation is available
for the running of the school in a satisfactory manner. do not think that this kind of education can possibly be
There should be adequate playgrounds and where efficient. We, therefore, recommend that the number
possible rest rooms and cafeteria or tiffin rooms where of sections in each class should be limited, and before
the pupils may have their mid-day meals. any increase in the number of sections is made, the
prior approval of the Department of Education should
Where the school admits girl students, whether in be obtained.
mixed schools or co-educational institutions separate
provisions should be made for retiring rooms and The Department of Education should take note of all
common rooms. We have already recommended that a factors and limit the number of sections in such a manner
certain number of women should be on the staff of such that teaching does not re-duce itself to a mere mechanical
schools, and provision should be made as far as possible process of repeating the same lesson over and over
for their accommodation near the school premises. again in the course of a week.
(9) There is a wide divergence in the scale of fees charged a month and the items for which they are to be expended
by different managements. While we realize that no are also specified. In some institutions, subscriptions
uniform scale of fees can be fixed for all institutions, we or donations are asked for the building fund, sinking
feel that the scales of fees fixed by managements should fund, etc. on a supposedly voluntary basis. This may
be subject to approval by the Department of Education. lead to abuse and should be discouraged.
We recognize that in some schools in view of the ameni- (10) We have referred to the fact that a large number of
ties provided and the appointment of better trained schools is managed by certain denominational agencies
staff, it is necessary to charge a higher rate of fees. At or by certain sections or communities. In some of these
the same time, we are anxious that the managements institutions it has been noticed that recruitment of the
should not indiscriminately raise the scale of fees. They teaching staff is confined to the particular caste, creed
should in any case be able to satisfy the depart-ment or section concerned.
that the higher fees charged are being actually utilised
In our opinion this is not a desirable practice. Whatever
in the interests of the pupils. At the other extreme,
may be the composition of the Managing Board, we are definitely
cases have been brought to our notice where
of the opinion that, so far as the school teaching staff Is
neighbouring schools have been entered into unfair
concerned, it is the duty of the management to gee that no
competition by lowering the scale of fees and by offering
such restrictions are imposed on their selection in the large
concessions and scholarships merely to attract students.
Interests of the school.
We recommend that in the interest of general efficiency
of schools, rules should be framed preventing such In view of the importance and urgency of providing for
undue competition amongst neighbouring schools. diversi-fied courses of instruction, we strongly recommend
that in the exist-ing as well as the new schools when diversified
We have noted that a large number of “other fees” are
courses of study are to be started, liberal financial aid and
levied by school managements for various purposes,
encouragement should be given. We realise that this would
and that the total amount of such fees, in some cases,
Involve a considerably additional financial burden and we feel
comes to nearly half the tuition fee charged. We consider
that this responsibility may well be shared by the State and
that this is too heavy a burden on many pupils which
Central governments. In all such cases particularly when
can certainly be lessened by carefully defining the
Technical and Agricultural courses are started, we recommend
activities for which such additional fee can be levied. It
that the State and Central governments should contribute
is desirable that some sort of uniform practice should
towards necessary equipment. It would then be the responsibility
be followed in this matter in each State. We suggest
of the managements to carry on their work, with such grant
that the question should be looked into by a committee
as the State may be able to give towards meeting their deficit.
appointed by the Education Department. It should not
If this recommendation is not implemented there will be little
be open to any management to add arbitrarily to the
chance of diversified courses being introduced in the near future.
special fees charged for such activities. It should also
be ensured that such fees are spent for the objects for We have described the conditions which should be fulfilled
which they are collected. In this connec-tion we have by educational institutions and reiterate that managements
been informed that in one of the States it has been laid should be re-quired to obtain prior approval of the Director of
down that such fees should be charged once in the year Education before opening a school which should not be given
and should not exceed the amount of the tuition fee for unless the minimum condi-tion prescribed have been fulfilled.
It is advisable that a survey be made in each State of the
existing educational facilities and a definite plan be formulated in schools where agriculture is taught as a practical subject..
for the opening and location of new schools to meet the growing Such farms may belong to the school or they may be taken on
needs of population. lease from neighbouring farmers who may rent them for a
consideration.
SCHOOL BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT
Whatever be the type of school building that is ultimately
Open-Air-Schools ap-proved certain important requirements should be fulfilled:
There has been some criticism regarding the construction (i) sites for buildings and playgrounds; (ii) extent of site required;
of school buildings and the type of designs approved for this (iii) type design of school buildings; (iv) easy means of transport
purpose. Examples have been quoted of schools in open spaces or easy accessibility.
under the shade of trees, with very few permanent buildings
Sites for-Buildings and Playgrounds
constructed for the school. It has been suggested that in a
country like India open-air school should be encouraged and Selection of a site will depend on whether the school is to
the heavy cost of construction of school buildings avoided, at be situated in a rural or urban area.
least for the present. We visited some of these open-air schools Rural Schools: These schools should be established in
and we felt that under certain conditions some of the activities villages with a fair amount of population and easily accessible
of the school may be carried on in the open air during part of to the surrounding villages. There should also be enough open
the year. ground available for playgrounds and extracurricular activities
Open-air schools serve a different purpose in other countries. of the school. If a residential school is thought of in the rural
Such schools, under the prevalent climatic conditions cannot area, care must be taken to see that sufficient ground is
possibly be a substitute for properly constructed buildings, but available for the residence of staff and pupils for out-door
in the cases of certain types of handicapped children open-air games. We have referred to the fact that the school should be
schools are necessary and are encouraged. For children affected a centre for the intellectual, social and physical activities of
with tuberculosis and other diseases which require plenty of the community of the neighbourhood, and therefore, it is
fresh air, open-air schools are encouraged. In such schools desirable to see that easy accessibility is secured and that the
however, admission is limited to children suffering from the open area available is also adequate.
particular disease. Urban Schools: Here a site for a school may present many
Two factors may, however, be noted : (1) The open-Air diffi-culties. We believe that by encouraging rural schools, the
system lends itself to small groups of students being taught pressure on urban schools will diminish more particularly if
there, and it also requires good shade and a large area for residential rural schools are encouraged by the State. The site
carrying on instruction satisfactorily; (2) while much theoretical for an urban school should not be in very congested area or in
instruction in certain subjects may be given in open-air classes industrial areas. As far as possible the school should be so
it is impossible to certain other subjects unless suitable located that while facilities for transport of students are
accommodation is provided for them. Thus the laboratories, available, the school itself should be in an area free from the
libraries and work-shops should be located in buildings suitably noise and bustle of city life. Many schools nowadays make their
constructed. In any case the school requires considerable grounds own transport arrangements for the students and this should
for the physical education programme to be carried out, for be encouraged. As in the railways the public transport should
group games and certain of the extra-curricular activities of the be made available to school-going children at a concession rate.
school. We have also referred to the need for agricultural farms In big cities the possibility of locating some of the schools In
one area with sufficient playground and open space should be bigger villages is made and that a complete record of this is
explored with the necessary arrangements for transport. main-tained and necessary legislation passed to prevent such
encroachment for industrial and commercial purposes or for
Playgrounds
housing societies with-out proper sanction by the government.
Playgrounds and open spaces for students’ recreation are If the youth of the country are to be properly encouraged in
essen-tial. It may not always be easy to secure enough physical education and their health improved, we believe, that
playground and open spaces in a crowded city, but such open this is one of the urgent steps that should be taken and we
spaces as are available must be conserved to be utilised by therefore recommend early legislation towards this end. Where
groups of schools, if necessary. It is desirable that in all cities there are open spaces belonging to the State or the Centre in
more particularly in the big cities, a Committee representative any part of the country, rural or urban, the first consideration
of the school managements, headmasters, city authorities and that should be borne in mind when any scheme is entertained
others interested in the physical-welfare of the students together for the utilisation of such sites is the need for preserving them
with representatives of the State should be organized to promote as open spaces, parks or playgrounds for the community as
“Play-centre Movement” and from time to time to see that the lungs for the city or the rural area concerned. It is only when
playgrounds available in the city are effectively used by the these conditions are fully satisfied that the assignment of such
schoolgoing population. open spaces as are under the control of the government for
Legislation Acquiring Open Spaces other purposes should be considered. We feel that unless a
legislative measure of the kind stated above is passed urgently,
In this connection we wish to stress the importance of open spaces now available for use as play-fields and recreational
keeping playgrounds and open spaces in the big cities free from grounds for the children and the youth of the country would
encroachments either for industrial purposes or for business soon be denied to them. We recommend also that wherever
concerns or for building programmes. We regret to note that such open spaces are available steps should be taken by the
in several cities it has become a regular feature for building State in consultation with the local authorities or the rural
programmes to encroach upon these spaces not realising the community to convert them into suitable playing fields and
necessity of keeping such open spaces free and of utilizing them place them at the disposal of the schools and of the public of
for the health and welfare of the youth of the country. In this the area concerned.
connection, attention is invited to the Open Spaces Act of 1906
as amended in 1912 to cover open spaces and recreation grounds Type and Design of Schools
enacted in the United Kingdom. Under this Act, any park. There are at present rules and regulations prescribing the
open space or playing field cannot be encroached upon by any condi-tions under which schools be constructed. Provision is
of the local authorities without the matter being placed before made in such schools to see that there is a free circulation of
the Parliament and a specific sanction being obtained. air, proper light, shelter from monsoonish weather, and it
Consequent upon this wise measure, we find that the open is also laid down that the rooms constructed should have a
spaces in the large cities in England are still kept as open certain minimum area to accommodate a certain number of
spaces and in spite of a very heavy building programme, none school children in a class. Attention in this connection is invited
of these open spaces has been encroached upon. We recommend to the Report of the School Buildings Committee appointed by
therefore that the State and Central governments should the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1941. The Report
immediately take steps to see that a survey of open spaces, which is comprehensive has made valuable suggestions
parks and playing fields in all cities, municipalities and in the regarding the school buildings and their equipment. We believe
that every classroom should provide for an area of not less than of the work of the individual student, but in the maintenance
10 sq. ft. per student. of discipline and in the relationship that should exist between
We are also of opinion that the number of students in any the teacher and the taught, In certain cases pressure has been
class. should be limited so that classrooms are constructed to brought to bear on the headmasters of schools by managements,
accommodate this number. In some States the number is limited by parents’ associations and by public bodies and sometimes
to 30, in others. to 40, but we have noted with regret that by the authorities concerned, to admit a much large number
in recent years, these num-bers have been exceeded; in some of students and even to adopt the double shift system to increase
cases 50 to 60 pupils are admitted into a class. We feel strongly the number of school-going population. The schools under such
that at this age period, with a) view to establishing personal circumstances have to work like factories and the bad effect
contact between the teacher and the taught and to exert a upon the education imparted to children of such schools can
wholsome influence on the pupil, the optimum number that hardly be exaggerated.
should be admitted to any class should be 30 and the maximum Construction of Schools
should not exceed 40. We recommend that in future, schools
The schools must provide for (1) certain amenities for the
should be so constructed that they can develop later into the
students such as common room, sanitary conveniences,
pattern of multipurpose schools affording facilities for more
provision for mid-day meals and refreshments to be taken, and
than one type of diversified courses. It is very likely that in the
in the case of girl students retiring rooms with necessary
majority of schools owing to limitations of finance and personnel,
conveniences separately; (2) accommodation for teachers with
more than one or other of the diversified forms of instruction
a common room available for them; (3) a reading room and a
may not be possible. But ultimately it is our hope that many
library; (4) a visitors’ room where parent or relations who wish
schools may be able to afford facilities. for two or more diversified
to interview the headmaster may wait; (5) a room for the
courses. Any type design must therefore take note of this
Headmaster and an office room and a room for the Assistant
possibility of expansion as well as of the variety of courses that
Headmaster, should such a person be appointed; (6) laboratories
may be provided. We feel for instance that it should be necessary
and workshops where necessary, such laboratories and
to provide for workshops, for certain laboratories, certain
workshops being constructed on an approved plan and for a
special rooms for drawing, painting or music; etc., and it is
definite number of students.
desirable that any design for a school building should take
these into consideration and so adjust the design that in course, With reference to the library and the reading room, we
of time without much change of the original building, such have stat-ed elsewhere that the school must be a centre of the
additional accommodation may be provided. Even if diversified intellectual activity of the whole, community particularly in
courses are not provided, it is absolutely necessary to maintain rural areas, and for this purpose, the library and reading room
at least a small workshop with the necessary equipment. should be so constructed that, out of the school hours, it way
be possible for the general public also to use the library under
We are of opinion that the present trend in certain schools
certain prescribed conditions. This is one of the ways in which
to multiply the number of sections in each class and to increase
a school can “go to the community” and educate as well as
the total strength in the school should not be encouraged. We
interest the community in its welfare. We also recommend that
regret to say that we, have come across schools where the total
wherever and Whenever it is possible, without interfering with
number of pupils has exceeded 2, 000, each class being divided
the regular programme of school work, the, school premises
into 8 to 10 sections. This excessive number has led to a groat
may be placed at the disposal of the public of the place for any
deal of laxity not only in the teaching, observation and recording
of the general purposes for which there is necessity. The idea
prevalent hitherto that a school building should be utilised only in such important subjects as Physics and Chemistry was given
for school purposes should no longer be entertained in view of in the classroom. It is obvious that to teach Geography without
the larger role the school should play into the general interests a proper supply of maps, Elementary Physics without models
of the local community. This will secure a better appreciation and instruments, Elementary Chemistry without the rudiments
of the role of the, school and a better education of the school of a laboratory would be giving a theoretical instruction without
going population themselves in methods of social Service and utilising the many valuable aids, but this is what is exactly
in various spheres of activity-calculated to benefit the community happening in certain schools.
around. We feel that the more the school benefits the community We understand that in some universities, definite rules
at large, the more the community itself will assist the school, have been framed in this behalf and list of essential equipment
and many healthy activities can be conducted with the full co- needed for each subject and for a certain number of students
operation of the public of the locality. It should. however, be, to be taught in such sub-jects have been drawn up. It is a
clearly understood that the Headmaster is the final authority condition of affiliation that the minimum equipment as set
to decide what activities way be, allowed in the school premises. down should be made available before affi-liation can be granted
There is one other aspect of the design of the school that to the college. We recommend that in the case of school also
we have to refer to, in some parts of the country, owing to for every subject which requires practical instruction in one
climate conditions, it will be necessary to have indoor form or another and for such subjects where audio-visual aids
accommodation for physical education. The boys could then are essential, directions should be given with regard to the
take active part in physical exercises in open halls where equipment that ought to be made available and the exercises
facilities for recreation can be provided. that ought to be provided so as to make the teaching of the
subject more instructive and useful to the pupils concerned. We
Research in Building
feel this would be all the more necessary. In the diversified
One other point which we wish to stress is that both in the courses of study which we are recommending, and unless such
type design of schools as well as in the type design of furniture, a scheme is adopted we are afraid that school may get affiliated
etc. there is considerable scope for research to make, them suit for such diversified courses of instructions. without having the
Indian conditions. This research has not so far been undertaken necessary equipment and appliances and the theore-tical type
and we think it could be carried out at the Central Building of instruction will seriously impair the value of such courses.
Research Institute with the joint efforts of the teacher and the We recommend, therefore, that expert committees should be
architect or engineer concerned. The furniture should suit the appointed to lay down the equipment required for each of these
age group, height, etc. so as to develop proper sitting postures, diversified courses, including the workshop equipment and the
etc. number of pupils that can be conveniently accommodated in
Equipment the workshop.
The equipment of a school is a matter which requires great Audio-Visual Aids

care. We regret to say that we have noticed many schools where There are some modern methods of Audio-Visual education
there was hardly equipment, and subjects were taught under used at present in different countries which have yet to be more
conditions where boys were forced to memorise rather than fully utilis-ed in our schools, and we feel that suitable provision
understand what was taught. In some of the schools we visited, must be made for this purpose. Among such equipment may
it was quite clear that the laboratories were hardly ever used, be mentioned film and filmstrip projectors, radios, magic
except as store houses for odds and ends; theoretical instruction lanterns and Epidioscopes etc. Such appliances may be shared
by two or three schools to be used by them in rotation at available. It should be the endeavour of the managements to
different times of the day or on different days. We have referred see that such shops are not encouraged and that in the school
elsewhere to the part that the radio can play in giving general itself a, well run cafeteria providing clean and whole-some food
education to the students of schools and colleges and the close at comparatively cheap rate is available. We recommend also
liaison that should be maintained between the teaching staff that cooperative stores be established in all schools providing
of the school and those connected with All India Radio. We were school requirements at almost the cost price. We feel sure that
very glad to know that in many States such a close liaison is if the teachers take some interest there should be no difficulty
maintained and the headmasters of the schools and other in establishing such cooperative stores. In some States
teachers were consulted as to the type of broadcasts that would cooperation has a strong hold. The school design should naturally
be of interest and benefit to the school-going population. take note of the requirements of cafeteria and cooperative
stores.
Hostels for Residential and Day-Residential Schools
We have recommended both residential schools and day- Quarters for the School Staff
residential schools. Residential schools should provide for It has not often been realised that for efficient service in
accommodation not merely for the pupils but also for some of the school, the teachers concerned should have suitable quarters
the teachers. There should also be enough of open space for as near the school as possible. This is particularly true of
playgrounds for the residential schools. In the design of schools situated in urban areas. We feel that the presence of
residential schools, proper accommodation should be provided the headmaster and some at least of the staff in or near a
for library, for indoor games, dinning halls, dormitories and school, particularly if there are hostels attached or where the
separate accommodation for the care and isolation of the sick. schools are residential will be of the greatest, benefit to the
The care of the sick in residential schools, is a responsibility school-going population. It will attract teachers to the schools
of the management and while efforts may be made to admit and it will be of great benefit to the management itself if,
those who are seriously sick in the neighbouring hospitals for quarters can be assured. We consider that this is particularly
minor ailments, arrangements for temporary isolation should necessary, and not merely desirable, in the case of girls’
be provided. schools for women teachers. We have had occasion to note that
We have already referred to that fact that in the day- for lack of suitable quarters, there has been great difficulty
residential schools children would be expected to come in the in recruiting women teachers to some of the girls’ schools. The
morning and stay there till late in the evening and that through community life of the teaching staff thus encouraged by the
the cafeteria or otherwise, arrangements may be made to provision of quarters in the area would go a long way to promote
provide them with mid-day meals and refreshments at cheap their sustained interest in the school and their united effort for
rates. It is therefore necessary that there should be a dining the better running of the instituion. We recommend also that
room for the purpose and also certain common rooms where quarters should be provided for the teaching staff of boys’
the pupils may take rest. In this connection we wish to stress schools particularly in rural areas where no quarters are
the need for a cafeteria to be opened in all day schools. It is available at present for the majority of the teachers. In urban
unfortunate that the managements have not taken care that areas, the cost of rented buildings is prohibitive and teachers
their school children should have, when necessary, clean food with small emoluments can hardly live in decent quarters. We
and filtered water to drink. We have noticed that several coffee therefore recommend that quarters be also provided as far as
hotels have a brisk trade just by the side of the school, where possible in the urban areas. In doing so, the State should come
there is no guarantee of wholesome food or drinks being to the aid of the schools by starting cooprative housing societies
and by giving loans to the managements of the schools on easy and with this end in view we recommend that a teacher should
terms. If these recommendations are accepted and adopted, we not be given more than 30 periods a week.
feel sure that the whole atmosphere of the school will be
Vacation and Holidays
different, and that efficiency and discipline will improve and
the community itself will beg-in to realise that the school is an No country, perhaps enjoys as many holidays as India and
institution calculated to serve the need not only of the pupils with the innumerable holidays given for various religious
but of the whole community. functions, the work of the school is seriously handicapped.
School work suffers much by interruption and it is far better
HOURS OF WORK AND VACATIONS to give short vacations during the academic year. We recommend
In most States the hours of work in schools are specified that school holidays need not conform to holidays declared by
and a uniform practice is observed which does not take into the government, that two months’ vacations should be given
consideration the varying needs of the locality, the climatic in summer and that there should be two breaks of 10 to 15 days
conditions therein and the manner in which the school pupils at suitable occasions in the year.
may best serve their families.
RECRUITMENT TO PUBLIC SERVICES
We feel considerable latitude, should be, given to schools
to arrange their school hours in such a way that they do not Effect of the Present Method of the Recruitment on
interfere with the life of the community or with the, general Education
conditions Prevailing therein. Provided the total number of We have discussed at considerable length that universities
working days and the number of working hours per day be have had a dominating influence on Secondary education which
fixed it should be possible for schools, with the previous approval only aims at qualifying candidates for entrance to a university.
of the Director to vary the hours of school work, with due, But more than this, the present method of recruitment to
reference to the changes in the season. Particular note may be public services in the country has a deadening influence on
taken of the requirements of rural schools and of the occupations both Secondary education and other grades of education.
of the community. Thus during the agricultural seasons when Complaints are common that the type of education prevalent
the parents have to depend on the help of their children, it for over a hundred years was mainly intended to provide clerks
is good for the children to be associated with such occupations for government service. Whatever may have been the motives
of their parents, whatever may be their future vacation in life. in the past it is obvious that the present and in the future the
Nor do we consider it desirable to have fixed hours common very large number of young men who seek educational
to all schools independently of Seasonal variations. opportunities can never hope to secure employment in
We recommend that the total number of working days in government service, because the number of posts is very limited.
a school should not be less than 200, that the working hours If education is, to lead the indivi-dual to secure employment
per week be at least 35 periods of 45 minutes each inclusive on the basis of his general accomplishment. it seems necessary
of time spent for some, of the co-curricular activities of the that there should be a change not only in the nature of education
school. The school should Work regularly for 6 days in the but also in the policy and in the methods adopted for recruitment
week, one of the days being a half day when the teachers and to public services.
taught may devote special attention to the pur-suit of extra- Present Method of Selection to Services
curricular activities. We have already stated that all teachers
At present the Public Service Commission holds a
should take part in one or other of the extra-curricular activities
competitive test for selecting candidates for different grades of
public services. The maximum age for recruitment to Methods of Recruitment in Other Countries
most of the services irrespective of the nature of the work is We have examined the methods of recruitment in other
25 years. In the case of persons belonging to some of the countries and the principles on which such recruitment is based.
educationally backward communities there is a relaxa-tion of The policy in recruitment to the civil services in general and
the age period. to the administrative posts in particular in the United Kingdom
It is surprising that the competitive tests for even the is based upon certain consi-derations such as:
lowest grade of clerical posts is based upon this maximum age (i) Recruitment at an early age.
period and not on the stage of education completed. Both the
products of school and of the university are allowed to sit for (ii) A close linking of the various methods and stages of
the same competitive test conducted by the Public Service entrance with the educational system of the country.
Commission and it is not clear how the same type of question (iii) The emphasis on a general rather than specific
can hold good for matri-culates as well as graduates. It is also preparation for career as an officer.
difficult to understand how by such a test the achievements of (v) An examination which does not seek unduly to influence
candidates of different grades of education can be evaluated. the general school and university curriculum.
A boy is thus forced to pursue higher courses of study even
(v) Finally as a corollary to the former the desire that
up to the age of 25 in the vain hope that, somehow or other,
candidates who have failed in the civil service tests
at some period of his educational career he may be able to
should not be at a disadvantage in their study for other
secure through a competitive test the coveted post of a lower
professions. A general education which enlarges and
division clerk. Economic wastage involved in this method of
strengthens their understanding is what is required so
recruitment as well as the psychological wastage involved in
that it will precede the special education which must
the unnecessary pursuit of higher academic studies by the
qualify persons to discharge the business of their post.
unsuitable candidates are obvious. The over-crowding of
educational institutions in the higher spheres of education is Suggestions for Improving the Methods of Selection
one of its consequences. We believe that to get the most suitable persons for the
Recruitment in India different grades, the practice that obtains in most of the
Western countries should be followed. Selection should be made
In India the usual practice is to recruit persons who are
at various age periods 16 to 18, 19 to 21 and 22 to 24. If the
below 25 for all grades and classes of employment and later
first recruitment is at the age periods of 16 to 18 and a
to leave it to them, in some manner or other, and without
competitive examination is held the person so selected will
any guidance to pass the special tests which are needed for
have received sufficient education and be sufficiently mature
promotion from one post to a higher post.
for his work and for further training to discharge the particular
There is also another unfortunate trend which has come duties thereof. It should be left to the department concerned
to force in recent years. Promotion to a higher post is based to plan the method of, further training for the type of work
not on his work or the special tests passed by him but on his that is expected. Such training should be given as part of the
qualifying for a degree. This has resulted in a constant pressure routine duties he has to perform. The next category will be
upon universities to permit employees in government service, those who have attained the age of about 19. That bulk of such
to appear for university examinations after private study and candidates are likely to have passed the Higher Secondary
obtain a higher qualification. stage of examination and would know how to prepare for such
a test. Likewise at the next higher age level, the test being to the different levels of education. We also recommend that
of a more advanced nature, it will generally draw candidates for a transitional period the methods of recruitment that we
who have either completed the university degree or who are have suggested based on the age limit should be tried for about
appearing for it. This would also give scope for persons who 50 per cent of posts while the recruitment to the rest be made
have not the resources to go to colleges but may study privately on the present basis. The results of these methods should be
to compete for selection to administrative posts. People who carefully watched before all the posts are treated on a uniform
will be selected for the last grade, between the ages of 22 and basis.
24, will be for highest services like the Indian Administrative
or Foreign Service etc. In practice most of them would have SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
obtained a university degree but this should not be put down 1. The Director of Education should be the officer mainly
as sine qua non for appearing for the competitive test. res-ponsible to advise the Minister and for this purpose,
It may be argued that the number of people who would it is necessary that he should have at least the status
appear for such a test may be so large that it may not be of a Joint Secretary and should have direct access to the
possible for the Public Service Commission to conduct these Minister.
examinations. This is no doubt a difficulty but the method has 2. A Committee should be constituted both at the Centre
certain definite advantages. The students will not pursue a and in each State consisting of the ministers concerned
purposeless education to obtain a degree which would only lead with the various grades and types of education in order
to the over-crowding of colleges by unsuitable candidates and to discuss how best the resources of the department
to increase the number of unemployed graduates. Another could be pooled for the furtherance of education of all
advantage would be that those who have taken to highly types.
specialised courses of instruction would not then be crowding
into government posts for which such training is not needed. 3. There should be Co-ordinating Committee consisting of
It has been rightly pointed out by many leaders of public the departmental heads concerned with the different
opinion that the qualifications prescribed for government service spheres of education in order to consider methods of
in this country have given undue importance to university improvement and expansion in all fields of education.
degrees and this has led to a large number of unfit persons 4. There should be a Board of Secondary Education
flocking to the universities much to the detriment of standards consisting of not more than 25 members with the Director
and the tone of university education. The policy pursued by of Education as its Chairman to deal with all matters
government in this respect is followed by some employers also. of education at the Secondary stage and to Jay down
We therefore recommend that a careful study should be general policies.
made of the conditions of recruitment and that a university 5. A Sub-Committee of the Board should deal with the
degree should be prescribed only for such posts largely conduct of examinations.
professional-where high aca-demic attainments are obviously
6. There should be a Teachers’ Training Board for
necessary.
supervising and laying down the conditions necessary
We recommend that the whole system of recruitment to for the proper training of undergraduates and for
public-service should be examined de novo by a competent suggesting, for the. consideration of the universities,
committee specially appointed to see tow far the methods of improvements that may be needed in the training of
recruitment can be improved and how they could be best applied graduates.
7. The existing Central Advisory Board of Education should Managements and Conditions of Recognition of Schools
continue to function as a coordinating agency to consider 14. Recognition to schools should be given only on clearly
all-India problems concerning education, and State de-fined conditions which will ensure their proper
Advisory Boards should be constituted on similar lines running and the maintenance of proper standards.
in each State to advise the Department of Education on
all matters pertaining to education. 15. The Managing Boards of all schools should be registered
and should consist of a limited number of persons with
Inspection of Schools the headmaster as an ex-officio member.
8. The true role of an Inspector should be to study the 16. No member of the Managing Board should directly or
problems of each school and view them comprehensively in directly interfere with the internal administration of
in the context of educational objectives, to formulate the school.
suggestions for improvement and to help the teachers 17. Every management should be required to draw definite
to carry out his advice and recommendations. rules, of service wherein the conditions pertaining to
9. Special Inspectors or panels of Inspectors should be salary, leave, etc., should be definitely laid down.
appointed to inspect the teaching of special subjects like 18. For proper running of a school every management should
Domestic Science, Art, Music, etc. be required to provide endowment and the income
10. Persons selected as Inspectors should possess high accruing from this should be shown in the receipts of
academic qualifications, adequate teaching experience the year.
or experience as head-masters of High schools for a 19. The scales of fees fixed by the managements of a school
maximum prescribed period. In addition to direct should be subject to approval by the Department of
recruitment, Inspectors should also be drawn from: Education.
(i) teachers of ten years’ experience, 20. A committee should be appointed when necessary by
(ii) headmasters of High schools, and the De-partment of Education to go into the question
of levying uniform scale of tuition fees and other fees
(iii) duly qualified staff of training colleges who may be and all accounts of the school should be subject to audit
allowed to work as such for a period of three to five by the Department.
years.
21. The managements should satisfy the Department that
11. The Inspectors should have a competent staff to help qualified staff is available and will be appointed in
them in the discharge of their administrative duties. accordance with the rules laid down by the Department
12. In order to evaluate the academic side of activities of for affiliation.
a school there should be a panel of experts with the 22. The management should satisfy the Department that
Inspector as Chairman to inspect the schools. adequate accommodation and equipment, etc. have
13. Three persons may be chosen from senior teachers or been provided for the efficient running of the school.
headmasters to visit the school in the company of the 23. The number of sections in each class should be limited
Inspector and to spend two or three days with the staff, and before any increase in the number of sections is
discussing with them and with the school authorities all made, the prior ap-proval of the Department should be
aspects of school life and problems. obtained.
24. In the interest of the general efficiency of schools rules 33. The school constructed in future should provide facilities
should be framed preventing undue competition amongst for the introduction of diversified courses.
neighbouring schools.
34. In the type design of schools as well as the furniture,
25. The teaching staff should not be limited to any particular etc. research should be carried on to improve functional
caste or community but should, as far as possible, be efficiency and to adjust them to Indian conditions.
recruited on a wide basis.
35. Expert Committees should be appointed to lay
26. In view of the importance and urgency of providing down carefully the amount and kind of equipment
diversi-fied courses of instruction, financial, aid and required for various types of diversified courses and
encouragement should be given to the existing schools workshops.
as well as new schools providing diversified courses of
36. Cooperative stores should be established in all schools
study.
where books, stationery and other materials required
27. Managements should obtain prior approval of the by students are made available to them at cost price.
Directors of Education before opening schools and the
approval should not be, given unless the minimum 37. So far as possible, quarters should be provided for
conditions prescribed have been scrupulously fulfilled. teachers in rural areas as well as urban areas to attract
suitable persons to the profession and to facilitate
School Building and Equipment development of a corporate community life in the schools.
28. Secondary schools sould be established in rural areas Hours of Work and Vacations
in central places with sufficient population which are
easily accessible to the surrounding villages. 38. Considerable latitude should be given to schools to
arrange their school hours in such a way as not to
29. Schools in urban areas should, as far as possible, be
interfere with the activities of the community and the
so located that they are free from the noise and
general climatic and occupational conditions prevailing
congestion of the city and necessary transport facilities
in the locality.
should be made available for students.
39. As a rule the total number of working days in a school
30. The open spaces available in cities must be conserved
should not be less than two hundred, the working hours
to be utilised as playground by groups of schools and
the state and central governments should prevent, per week should be at least thirty-five periods of about
through legislation, encroachment on them for industrial forty five minutes each; the school should work regularly
or commercial purposes or by housing societies. for six days in the week, one of the days being a half
day when the teachers and students might meet
31. Normally, in designing buildings for schools, care informally and work together on various extra-curricular
should be taken to see that an area of not less than 10 and social projects.
sq. ft. is provided per student in the classrooms.
40. School holidays need not be identical with public holidays
32. The optimum number or boys to be admitted to any
as declared by the government and normally during the
class should be 30 and the maximum should not in any
year there should be a summer vacation of two months
case exceed 40; the optimum number in the whole school
and two breaks of ten to fifteen days at suitable periods
should be 500 while the maximum should not exceed
during the year.
750.
294 System and Issues in Indian Education Financial Aid to Secondary Education 295
Recruitment to Public Service

41. The selection for and recruitment to public service should
be made successively at definite age periods i.e., the
age 16 to 18, 19 to 21, 22 to 24.
42. For a transitional period, this method of recruitment
on the basis of age groups should be tried for about 50% 12
of the posts, while the other 50% should be recruited
on the present basis and this pro-portion should be FINANCIAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION
gradully reduced.
43. A careful study should be made of the present conditions
of recruitment with particular reference to the The question has often been asked whether finances will
relationship between the university degree and public be avai-lable to implement the recommendations that the
services and such degree qualification should be Commission may make. It has been pointed out that the
prescribed only for posts that require such high academic recommendations of the previous Commissions have not been
attainments; for this purpose, a committee should be given effect to, largely because the necessary financial resources
appointed to go into the whole system of recruitment could not be made available either by the States or by the
to public service and to consider how far-the methods Centre. While some of the recommendations that we have
of recruitment could be improved and related made may possibly be implemented without undue strain on
intelligently to the different levels of education. the financial resources of the States or the Centre, the most
important of our recommendations do require substantial
financial help if they are to be worked out successfully.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATE

We have been told that under the Constitution, Secondary
edu-cation is a responsibility of the States. We have already
expressed the view that the Centre is not absolved of all
responsibility in regard to Secondary education, particularly
those aspects which have a bearing on the general economic
development of the country and the training for citizenship.
Moreover the fundamental rights guarantee to every citizen
free and compulsory education up to the age of 14; this implies
that responsibility in this behalf is shared both by the States
as well as the Centre. It seems obvious, therefore, that in all
matters connected with the improvement of Secondary education
there should be fullest cooperation between the States and the
Centre both in regard to the lines on which education should
develop as well as the manger in which the recommendations
should be implemented.
In this respect we wish to draw attention to the analogy (1) Payment of stipends to teachers under training;
of the United States where, although education is the (2) Payment of medical officers for medical inspection;
responsibility of indi-vidual States which can carry out their
own experiments in education independently, there is an over- (3) Maintenance In boarding homes of orphans;
all pattern of education for all American youths, which has the (4) Construction and extension of school buildings and
approval and support of the Federal Government. The Federal hostels;
Government has found it necessary to guarantee through (5) Furniture, apparatus, chemicals and books for library;
legislation substantial financial aid for educational development.
The recommendations to which we attach great importance (6) For acquisition of lands for school buildings, hostels or
relate to the implementation of Vocational education as a part playgrounds;
of Secondary education and its expansion to all parts of the (7) For crafts or industrial education;
country as early as possible and the improvement of the status
(8) Maintenance grant.
and conditions of service of the teachers. No progress in
Secondary education is possible unless the teaching profession But grants for all these purposes are not given by all States,
attracts the right type of people and proper conditions of service, and the grant-in-aid code would seem to need revision in the
including salary, are guaranteed at the different levels of light of the new proposals for educational reform.
education.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A.
SOURCES OF REVENUE The way in which Vocational education has been
At present, the sources of revenue for educational purposes implemented in the United States of America and the reasons
at the State level are: (1) State Government grants; (2) Grants which led to its rapid development in that country deserve
made by Municipal and other local bodies directly or through notice.
an educational cess; (3) Private benefactions and grants made In the United States schools are controlled entirely and
by private managements; and (4) School fees. supported to a very large degree by the different States.
An educational cess can be imposed by local bodies under However, the Federal Government has had considerable
permis-sive power given to them by State Governments. It is influence in educational matters and, in recent years, it has
levied on land revenue, or as part of the profession tax or on increased its grant-in-aid to the States for part of their
property tax in urban areas. The rate of cess varies and although educational progress. In 1862, an Act called the Morall Act was
the local bodies can levy the maximum educational cess passed which made a notable change in the educational policy
permissible under the Act in many cases this has not been pursued by the Federal Government. It was laid down that the
done. principal objective of such aid should be, without excluding
either scientific and classical students, to teach branches of
STATE GRANTS learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanical arts
The grants given for education vary from State to State. in such a manner as the legislatures of the State may prescribe,
Educa-tional institutions under private managements are given in order to afford the industrial classes, a liberal and practical
education in their various pursuits. This policy has been steadily
grant-in-aid to assist them in the expansion and improvement
of their educational facilities. These grants given may be for kept in view. A further impetus to Vocational education was
any of the following purposes: given by the passing of the National Vocational Education Act
of 1915 commonly called the Smith Hughes Act (Appendix X).
This Act is intended to provide for the promotion of Vocational understand that-similar Acts have been passed in some other
education, for cooperation with the States in the promotion of countries also, notably in Canada.
education, agriculture, trades and industries and in the We have referred to this Act in some detail, because, if
preparation of teachers of vocational subjects and to appropriate our country is to make any progress in Vocational education
money and regulate its expenditure. The detailed provisions of and help agriculture, industry, trade and commerce, it can
the Act deal with grants to assist the States in paying the only be done by passing an Act of Legislature of similar nature,
salaries of teachers, supervisors and directors of agricultural guaranteeing Central funds for the different States for the
subjects and teachers of trade, industrial and home economics organization and promotion of Vocational education. At the
subjects. Centre, different Departments under several Ministries are
To enable the objectives to be attained, a Federal Board now expending considerable sums of money for special
of Voca-tional Education was created consisting of the educational purposes. So far as Secondary education is
Secretaries of Agricul-ture, Commerce and Labour, the U. S. concerned, the Centre has not given any substantial aid except
Commissioner of Education and three citizens of the United to those institutions for whose maintenance it has a direct
States to be appointed by the President with the advice and responsibility. We, therefore, recommend that a suitable Act
consent of the Senate. The Board was given the power to on somewhat similar basis should be passed which will enable
cooperate with the State Boards in carrying out the provisions the different Ministries concerned to pool their resources in the
of this Act, and it was the duty of the Federal Board to make field of Secondary education and to establish a central
or cause to have made, State investigations and reports dealing Organisation to supervise the development of Vocational
with the establishment of vocational schools and classes and education in the different States. It should be able to assist in
the giving of instruction in Agriculture, Trades and Industries, their proper organization, equipment and maintenance and in
Commerce and Home Economics. The funds made available to providing properly trained teaching personnel who may be paid
the Federal Board. of vocational education could also be utilised adequate salaries. As in the Acts quoted above, the matching
for printing and binding of books of reference and periodicals. of such Central grants with grants from State funds should be
A series of supplementary acts for the same purposes followed, laid down as a condition.
the most significant being the George Barden Act of 1946,
which authorised an additional sum of 28, 500, 000 dollars to THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
be distributed to the States for Vocational education. In order We recommend that a Board should be constituted at the
to receive the federal funds mentioned in the Smith-Hughes Centre to be called the Federal Board of Vocational Education
Act, the various States and territories were required to match The funds for this board should be contributed by the different
from States, territorial or local funds or both, 100% of the Ministries, more particularly the Ministries of Education,
federal money i.e. grants were made on a dollar to dollar basis Railways and Communication, Food and Agriculture,
paid by the Federal and State Government respectively. It was, Industries, Trade and Commerce. The Board should consist
however, found that the States and territories actually exceeded of representatives of the different Ministries men-tioned above,
their share of the contribution. together with representatives of the Ministries of Finance land
As a result of the Smith Hughes Act and later the George Defence. To represent the general public, the President of the
Barden Act, Vocational education received a stimulus which Republic may nominate three distinguished persons to it. The
has resulted in a very large increase of trained personnel and Chairman of the Board should be the Minister of Education at
much greater industrial prosperity in the United States. We the Centre and Secretary of the Ministry of Education shall be
its Secretary. The Board should have power to cooperate with
the State Boards in carrying out the provisions of the Act and industries or concerns such as Railways and Communications,
it should have generally the same functions as the United Posts and Telegraphs a certain percentage of the net revenue
States Federal Board. The funds at the disposal of the Federal from these undertakings might be made available for the
Board shall be distributed to the State concerned taking into promotion of Technical education. They should really take the
consideration the percentage contribution of each State which lead in encouraging Technical education in all fields in order
should be fixed at a definite percentage of the whole grant or to improve the quality of the work turned out in their workshops
with reference to the particular purpose for which the grant or elsewhere.
is given and the size of the school going population of each Public Philanthropy: Public Philanthropy has played a
State. These provisions may be incorporated in the Act to guide nota-ble part in the development of every kind of education in
the Board in its work. our country but in recent years its scope is becoming more and
more limited, so that the extent of the aid expected from this
OUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF FINANCE
source has greatly dimi-nished. We do not want to go into the
Technical Education Cess: We have mentioned in an detailed causes of this change. Many educational institutions
earlier chapter that the spread of Technical education would owed their inception and continued exi-stence to a class that
directly benefit industry trade, commerce, transport, etc., is fast disappearing. It seems to us that certain special incentives
and therefore, it is reasonable to expect that industry to are required to attract philanthropic aid for educational
contribute towards, the training of well qualified technical purposes. Taking note of this, the Central Government has
personnel. The evidence tendered made us feel that industry already passed certain rules under which contributions made
would welcome this cess if it is taken into full confidence and to certain institutions like universities and research institutes
given a, voice in shaping the policy of Technical and Industrial are up to a limit of Rs. 25, 000 for Secondary education and
education. At present. a, special cess is levied on certain up to a limit of Rs. 50, 000 for Technical education may be
industries to promote development and research in them. While exempted from operation of the Income tax Act.
this is of great value. it cannot be denied that the employment
Religious and Charitable Endowments: We believe
of well-trained qualified technicians in all grades of industry
that, in certain States, provision has been made by an Act
will result in much greater improvement and this would depend
of the Legislature for some of the income of religious and
largely on the reorientation of the Secondary education as
charitable institutions being used for educational purposes. We
envisaged by us. Among the industries that will largely benefit
consider that it would be a fair utilisation of these funds, if
from employment of such trained personnel, there are the
after meeting the necessary charges pertaining to the
textile industry, steel, ship building, motor cars, railways
administration of these trusts, diversion of some of the surplus
and transport, mining, machine tools and other engineering
funds is made to education including secondary education. We
industries etc. We therefore recommend that a cess called the
trust that similar provisions will be made in other States where
Industrial Education Cess be levied, the determination of its
such legislation is not already in force.
exact rate and methods of the collection being left to an Expert
Committee to assess with reference to each industry concerned. Estate Duties: We would also recommend that amounts
This cess should be utilised solely for the furtherance of Technical be-queathed to public institutions for general educational
and Vocational education at the Secondary stage taking into purposes in the will of a deceased person should not be subject
consideration the needs of each industry. Representatives of to any duty by the Centre and that the whole of this amount
industry, trade and commerce should be associated with the should be appropriated to the educational purposes for which
programme of Technical education. In regard to nationalised they are meant.
OTHER MEASURES TO RELIEVE THE COST OF reasonably be expected. This scheme of vocational education
SECONDARY EDUCATION and the introduction of vocational subjects in the school as
Exemption from Local Taxes an Educational recommended cannot possibly be implemented in a satisfactory
Buildings: We have been told that certain local bodies levy manner unless central aid is forthcoming.
property tax on educational institutions and on their grounds We have referred to some of the methods of augmenting
which seriously affects their finances and restricts the scope the financial resources needed for Secondary education of
of their improvement. If education is a national responsibility, diversified types. We feel that so far as the Centre is concerned,
it is not desirable that their buildings and grounds should be certain direct responsibilities may be taken in the field of
taxed and we recommend that whether they are situated in Secondary education. The Centre may give financial aid for
urban or rural areas, in Municipalities or in Corporations, such purposes as the following:
they should be exempted from the levy of this tax.
(1) The starting of Secondary schools providing diversified
In many countries this is an accepted principle and instead courses, more particularly in the rural areas.
of levying such charges, Municipalities and Corporations have
(2) The, production of better books for children and teachers.
established educational institutions of all grades out of their
funds. (3) The establishment of institutions for training teachers
The importance of educational institutions having adequate in technical subjects.
playgrounds and open spaces have been stressed by us (4) The establishment of centres for encouraging research
elsewhere. We recommend, therefore, that State Governments in important problems of Secondary education such as:
and the Centre should, wherever possible, allot lands to
(a) Curricula of studies;
schools for playgrounds, buildings, agricultural farms and
other similar purposes, without charging for them. Such (b) Vocational guidance;
allotment is made in the U.S.A. under the land grants scheme. (c) Physical and health education
Exemption of Books and Scientific Apparatus from (d) Methods of teaching
Customs Duty: Till such time as the necessary scientific
apparatus and appliances cannot be manufactured in the (e) Book production research;
country, we recommend that educational institutions which (f) Technique of examination.
have to obtain scientific apparatus and workshop appliances (5) Organisation of refresher courses, seminars and
from abroad should be exempted from customs duty. We realise
conferences of headmasters and teachers.
that this involves some dificulties but, with strict control and
the provision of necessary information by the schools to the (6) Production of suitable educational films and audio-visual
satisfaction of the Department of Education, it should not be aids; and
impossible to implement this proposal. We likewise recommend (7) Encouragement of approved experimental schools.
that books for school libraries may be similarly exempted from We feel that the active cooperation of the Centre with the
duty.
States is essential to promote education in the country, to
CENTRAL AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION improve its quality and to carry on the necessary research in
the different fields of education which may ultimately be
We are of the opinion that in view of the larger interest
incorporated in the educational system.
involved, financial aid from the Centre is necessary and may
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS and books for school library should be exempted from
1. In matters connected with reorganisation and customs duty.
improvement of Secondary education there should be 11. The Centre should assume a certain amount of direct
close cooperation between the Centre and States. responsibility for the contemplated reorganisation of
2. In order to promote Vocational education a Board of secondary education and give financial aid for the
vocational Education should be constituted at the Centre purpose.
consisting of the representatives of concerned Ministries
THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS WE VISUALIZE IT
and other interests.
In the preceding chapters, we have discussed the various
3. A cess called the Industrial Education Cess be levied,
aspects and issues pertaining to the reconstruction of Secondary
the amount collected to be utilised for the furtherance
education. In this chapter we propose to present a composite
of Technical and Vocational education at the Secondary
picture of the Secondary school as it would emerge if our
stage.
proposals and recommendations are put into effect.
4. A certain percentage of the net revenue from nationalised
industries or concerns such as Railways, Provision of a Proper Environment
Communications, Posts and Telegraphs etc., should be The first concern of the schools should be to provide for its
made available for the promotion of Techni-cal education pupils a rich, pleasant and stimulating environment which will
in certain fields. evoke their manifold interests and make life a matter of joyful
5. Contributions for the development of Secondary experiences. This is not an easy thing to achieve; it demands
education should be exempted from the operation of the a many-sided approach. To begin with, the physical environment
Income-tax Act. of our schools with the exception of a few well-endowed schools,
is generally so drab and depressing that it is not conducive to
6. Surplus funds from the religious and charitable
the building up of an esprit-de-crops or a sense of pride in the
endowments should be diverted to educational purposes.
school. We realise that many schools work under considerable
7. The amount bequeathed to public institutions for general financial difficulties and it is idle to expect that they will be
educational purposes in the will of a deceased person able to put up suitable buildings or provide proper furniture
should not be subject to any duty by the Centre and the and equipment. But, we are not prepared to concede the point
whole of it should be appropriated to the educational that it is impossible for such schools to do anything to improve
purpose. their present material conditions. In fact, our observations
8. All educational institutions and the grounds attached have convinced us that, where the staff and the management
thereto should be exempted from the levy of property have shown some vision and have been able to win the active
taxes. cooperation of the students and the local community, financial
difficulties have not stood in the way of the schools becoming
9. The State Governments and the Centre should,
wherever pos-sible, assign lands to schools for reasonably “streamlined”.
playgrounds, buildings or agricultural farms and other Educational authorities and teachers often fail to realize
necessary purposes without any charge. what tremendous resources they have at their disposal in the
hundreds of eager, lively, constructively disposed youngsters
10. The educational institutions which have to obtain
in their school. If their enthusiasm and practical aptitudes are
necessary scientific apparatus, workshop appliances
properly and tactfully mobilized, they can themselves change learning, whose main concern is to communicate a certain
the general appearance of the school-plant almost beyond prescribed quantum of knowledge, but rather as a living and
recognition and, in this effort, the parents and the local organic community which is primarily interested in training its
community can be of immense help. We have no doubt that, pupils in, what we have called, the gracious “art of living”.
under proper encouragement, students all over India can, if Knowledge and learning are undoubtedly of value but they
necessary, carry out minor repairs, white-wash school rooms, must be acquired as a bye-product of interested activity, because
keep the school garden and compound in good shape, paint and it is only then that they can become a vital part of the students
polish the furniture, decorate the bare walls of their rooms mind and personality and influence his behaviour. What this
with charts, pictures and illustrations and enliven them with implies in terms of educational method we have discussed at
flowers, wherever this loveliest of Nature’s gifts is available. some length in the relevant chapter. All that we need recall
And, if the schools do become, as we have envisaged, an here is that the Secondary school of the future must be
integral part of the life of the community and they begin to transformed into an “activity school”, because activity has an
realize that their welfare is their own concern, the problem irresistible appeal for every normal child and in his natural
of resources will become much easier, for there is no community path to the goal of knowledge and culture.
of persons that is too poor to make some contribution for the But the “art of living” is a much more comprehensive concept
improvement of its own school. We have stressed this question than the acquisition of knowledge, however intelligently
of the decoration of schools at the outset not only because it planned. It includes training in the habits and graces of social
can give the students a new feeling towards their school but life and the capacity for cooperative group work; it calls for
also because it cultivates a love of neatness and beauty and patience, good temper, sincerity, fellow feeling and discipline.
artistic taste which are at present lacking in some of our youth. These can only be cultivated in the context of the social life and
We are anxious that our schools should take the lead in the the many curricular and co-curricular activities that must find
matter of improving their own physical environment. It is, a recognised place in every good school. We have already
however, essential that the students should actively share in discussed their place in the school programme and the many
this crusade for beauty-both in the matter of its creation and educational values that they can serve if they are organized
proper maintenance. If this is given to them ready-made like intelligently and with vision. What we would like the teachers
the furnished residence of a nouveauriche it will not have the to bear in mind is that these have a double function to perform—
same educative effect; for education primarily consists, as we on the one hand, they provide an opportunity for students to
have stressed more than once, in making and creating things develop their individual talents and capacities and self-
of beauty and utility by our own efforts. confidence and, on the other, they lend themselves to being
made the leaders in co-operative work Which trains them in
Promotion of Extra-curricular Activities
the division and integration of functions and in the allied
Given a clean, pleasant and well maintained school building, qualities of discipline and leadership. We would like to see
we would like the school to see if it can provide a richly varied these schools humming with activities in which each student
pattern of activities to cater for the development of their will be able to discover himself.
children’s entire personality. It has to formulate a scheme of
One great advantage of the activity methods, that we have
hobbies, occupations and projects that will appeal to, and draw
advocated for teaching curricular subjects, will be that the
out, the powers of children of varying temperaments and
present rigid line of demarcation between the classroom and
aptitudes. Putting the problem in these words obviously implies
the extra-curricular activities—carried in the leisure hours, on
that we do not visualize this school as merely a place of formal
the playground or in the hobbies room or in the library-will dis- Provision of Craft and Productive Work
appear and all work will partake of the quality of play. We do We expect this school to devote special attention to craft
not visualize that these schools will have dull, routine ridden, and productive work and thus redress the balance between
formal lessons in the class plus a number of independent, theoretical and practical studies which has been upset for many,
unrelated ‘extra-curricular’ activities which have no intrinsic many years. It will have a lively appreciation of the basic truth
relationship With them either in contents or method. that “the education of a mind is essentially a process of
The entire programme of the school will be visualized as revivifying in it the latent values contained in the goods of
a unity and inspired by a psychologically congenial and culture”. In this process, educationally productive work, both
stimulating approach, the so-called “work” being characterized intellectual and practical, plays a very important part; in fact
by the feeling of job and self-expression usually associated with it is the finest and most effective medium of education. It will,
play and hobbies, and these letter having something of the therefore, be reflected both in its curriculum and methods-that
meaningfulness and purpose which are normally considered a is, on the one hand, different practical subjects and craft work
special feature of academic work. will find a place in the curriculum on the same status as the
In the planning of these activities, it is important to so-called “liberal” studies and on the other, the teaching methods
remember that they should be as varied as the resources of the will partake of the nature of activities and stimulate independent
school will permit. Academic activities like debates, discussions, work. Every well established and reasonably well financed
dramas, school magazine, social magazine, social activities, school will have workshops and craft-rooms where students
like the organizing of different functions for the school will learn to handle tools and to fashion different kinds of
community as well as the local community, sports activities, materials into form.
manual and practical activities, social service projects, art They will not be merely “flirting” with some-thing called
projects, must all be woven into a rich and unified pattern, hand-work which often offers little stimulating challenge to
within which every child will be able to find something to suit their practical aptitudes, but will actually be confronted with
tastes and interests. In the actual working out of these various real jobs of work which will genuinely stretch their powers.
activities, academic, social, practical and sporting-the teachers These craft-rooms, workshops (and farms), no doubt, are
will find that there are really no rigid boundary walls, between specially meant for students who offer practical subject like
them. agriculture, engineering, domestic science, etc., but they will
The production of a school magazine, for example, involves also provide suitable practical occupations for all students
a number of activities and processes, which can, coalesce including those who take up sciences or humanities or art
together to form a most valuable experience to train the subjects. Likewise the school laboratory will not be a toy affair,
personality of the pupil. And the impact of a really well work- where a few simple and carefully planned experiments are
out of project, whatever its nature, does not remain confined performed under vigilant eye of the teacher who sees that the
to its own special field but spreads out to irradiate various prescribed routine is followed. It will endeavour to give them
facets of personality. something of the thrill and the joy of discovery and the educative
experience of learning through trial and error. It would be
Thus, by planning a coherent programme of different
wrong to imagine that practical work of this type cannot be
activities, rich in stimuli, the school will not be frittering away
carried out in Secondary schools. It has been done by many
either the time or the energy of the pupils but will be heightening
progressive schools in different countries and one of the finest
their intellectual powers also side by side with training them
and stimulating accounts of what has actually been
in the other fine qualities.
accomplished, in this way will be found in the story of the The School as a Centre of Community
Public Schools at Oundle (England) as it is developed under the Another thing which will distinguissh this school from most
inspiring leadership of its Head Master, Senderson.* of the existing schools is that it will be organized as a community.
School Library Service We have discussed the raison d’etre of this transformation at
some length we have stated that the starting point of educational
This school of ours will also endeavour to build both a living
reform must be the re-linking of the school to life and restoring
library and an efficient library service. We have already stressed
of the intimate relationship between them which has broken
the importance of school libraries and given a few practical
down with the development of the formal tradition of education.
suggestions which can help to quicken the present dormant
How can that best be done ? We would like this school to
and depressing libraries into life. The library will be the hub
become a centre of actual social life and social activities where
and the centre of the intellectual and literary life of the
the same kind of motives and methods are em-ployed as operate
reorganized school and play the same part vis-a-vis all the
in the life of any normal and decent human group. It will not
other subjects as the laboratory plays for science subjects or
confine itself to book learning and the teaching of prescribed
the workshop for technical subjects. In fact, even in the case
knowledge and skills but it will give full room for the expression
of scientific and technical subjects it will have a very important
of the pupils’ social impulses. It will. train them, through
role.
practical experience in co-operation, in subordinating personal
An intelligent teacher and an interested class will raise, or interests to group purposes, in working in a disciplined manner
find themselves confronted with, many issues and problems and in fitting means to ends. Discipline in the school will not
in the course of their work-in history, geography, science, be a matter of arbitrary rules and regulations enforced through
literature etc. No text book could possibly provide the solution the authority of the teachers helped by the lure of rewards or
to all these problems or offer the information necessary for the the fear of punishment.
purpose and no intelligent teacher will commit the folly of
The students will be given full freedom to organize functions,
trying to do all the thinking, or discovering all the material,
to conduct many of the school activities through their own
for his pupils.
committees and even to deal with certain types of disciplinary
They will, therefore, naturally have recourse to the library cases. In this way, discipline will be maintained through the
as the source of the desired knowledge and the trained and influence of the social group and it will gradually lead to the
understanding librarian will meet them half-way, direct them development of self-discipline. Above all discipline will be
to the books and reference sources, provide comfortable facilities ensured by providing for the students psychologically congenial
for them to read and take down notes and cooperatively draw types (and methods) of work which will fully capture their
up their plans of work. Thus they will be trained in the art or interest and thus impose their, own inherent discipline on
purposeful reading and making their own way in the world of them. Many teachers must have seen how, when a group of
ideas. In addition to this purely utilitarian function, the library students is working on a really inte-resting project like staging
win also provide facilities for developing their taste in the a drama or arranging a prize distribution function, there is
reading for plea-sure which is a most valuable and meaningful usually no problem of discipline. The sincere and spontaneous
hobby. We feel that, if the teachers and the pupils are keen desire to do the work as satisfactorily as possible ensures
about it, they can certainly do a great deal to improve the discipline automatically and, if some members of the group
physical environment of the library resources and to ensure its interfere in any way with its smooth working, the group
proper use even within limited finance. opinion asserts itself and puts them right. It is this kind of
discipline that we should like to see built up in the school. The formal relationship which means inviting the parents to the
school will, no doubt, be a community but it will be a small school once or twice a year on the occasion of the Prize
community within a large community and its success and vitality Distribution or the Parents’ Day but continuous contact and
will depend on the constant interplay of healthy influences exchange of ideas which will help them to understand each
between it and the large community outside. other’s point of view. They will thus learn to coope-rate in the
What we would like to see is a two-way traffic so that the common task of giving a better, more rational and more
problems that arise in the home and community life and the sympathetic deal to the children.
realistic experiences gained there should be brought into school One of the dominant aims of the school in the provision of
so that education may be based on them and be intimately all these social and practical activities and in organizing class-
connected with real life, and on the other hand the new work on a new basis will be to educate the character and
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values acquired in the school inculcate the right kind of ideals and value in the students. It
be carried into the home life to solve its problems, to raise its will be earnestly interested in the problem of moral and social
standards and link up the teachers, parents and children in training but will not hug the fond illusion that this training
one compact and naturally helpful group. can be provided through lessons in morality or civics or
This principle will have other implications too. It will mean exhortations by the teachers or headmasters on important
that students will take an active part in various forms of social occasions.
service for the good of the community and the school will not It will utilize fully the only two media through which
only inculcate the ideals and a desire for social service but also character and personality can be really formed-the living force
provide opportunities and the necessary material facilities. of, personal example and the organization of every single item
If the village or the town or the particular area of the city of school work in such a way that it will have the desired impact
in which the school is located is unclean or happens to be on the personality of the pupils.
infested with mosquitoes and flies carrying disease or is The teachers will realise that they cannot train character
compelled to use water that is impure, it will be the duty of or inculcate discipline in the students unless they set before
the students to rouse the conscience of the local community to them an effective example of personal integrity, social sense
those evils and handicaps through effective forms of educative and discipline.
propaganda and also to do whatever they can to improve this But their example will only point the direction and the
state of affairs and to win the enlightened cooperation of the goal; the actual process of training will consist in the students’
public in this task. discharging all other duties in such a way that it will irresistibly
Likewise, interested members of the community, engaged build up the requisite ideals and gualities of character. These
in various useful vocations and profession will be invited to the will not remain “pinned to the wall” but will find hour-to-hour
school from time to time to talk about their particular work, practical expression in that way they carry on their studies,
to show its place and significance in the life of the community, Play their games, organize their social activities and perform
to discuss its difficulties as well as its rewards. all their talks in and out of school.
In this way, outside life will flow into the school and lower, It is only when this supreme purpose inspires their hearts
if not knock down, the walls which at present isolate it from and minds and enters into every day activities that character
the currents of life operating outside. There will also be a close can be built on enduring foundations and stand the strain and
parentteachers association in the school-not the usual kind of stress of later life. The teachers should, therefore, constantly
think of how the academic and other activities of school life are reorganised school will endeavour to win the love and confidence
reacting on the students’ character and should frequently discuss of these children and establish his prestige on sincerity,
this problem amongst themselves and formulate concerted plans integrity, hard work and a sympathetic handling of their
of action. problems.
Reorientation of Teachers The school will also considerably modify its methods and
system of examination. As present, as we have pointed out,
Teachers must develop a new orientation towards their
teaching is en-tirely dominated by examinations. Students are
work. They will not look upon their work as an unpalatable
educated not so much to acquire knowledge and understanding
means of earning a scantly living but as an avenue through
or the right attitudes as to pass examinations. In this school
which they are rendering significant social service as well as
the emphasis will shift from examination to education; teachers
finding some measures of self-fulfilment and self-expression.
and children will concentrate on the real purpose of the school
They will work as a team engaged in a high endeavour with and will take examination in their stride.
the headmaster as a valued and more experienced member-and
It is true that the pattern of the final Secondary school
as new problems and difficulties arise, they will be constantly
examination is beyond their control and it may take some time
conferring amongst themselves and using their collective wisdom
before that is appreciably modified. But there is no reason why,
and experience to find their solutions.
for the lower classes, there should not be more rational and
They will not be dominated by routine but, will keep an intelligent examination technique, as it is the headmaster and
open mind-receptive and experimental-and look upon their the staff who largely decide the matter at the stage.
work as a great social and intellec-tual adventure. This would
Much greater credit can be given to the actual work done
naturally imply an eagerness on their part to continue their
by the stu-dent from day to day, of which careful and complete
study of psychology, of educational literature, and new
records should be maintained. Moreover, in assessing his
educational ideas.
progress and his position, factors other than academic
Their relations with the students will be free and friendly; achievements, should be given due weight —his social sense,
they will try to study their psychology and their individual initiative, discipline, cooperation, leadership, etc. Even in
differences with sympathy and help them in their difficulties academic achievements, they should not use one rigid yardstick
with tact. No school can develop into an educative community, but judge them with reference to the individual capacity and
capable of releasing the students’ creative capacities, if the intelligence of each student.
teachers maintain a stiff, forbidding attitude, towards their
We are confident that, when the teachers’ whole outlook
pupils and try to maintain their authority through various
on education is changed and they learn to appreciate the real
kinds of punishment whilst the pupils, on their part, stand
purpose of the school, they will be able to make necessary
in awe of them and are not prepared to share their problems
adjustments in the methods of examination and make it an
and difficulties with them.
ally, rather than a hindrance, in the process of education.
That is an unnatural relationship which brings out the
worst in both parties. It is not only a false but dangerous Freedom of School
conception of prestige which builds up a, wall between teachers Above all, this school will enjoy a much greater degree of
and students. It is usually the weak and the diffident or the free-dom than is vouchsafed to the schools at present. We have
temperamentally handicapped teacher who takes refuge behind pointed out in our Report that there is a general complaint
that kind of artificial prestige. The good teacher, in our from headmasters that they are unduly fettered by the rules
and regulations of the De-partment and axe not able to put any into social communities where the healthy, normal motives
new and creative ideas or sugges-tions into practice. and methods of group work are in operation and children have
The teachers have, similarly complained that they have an opportunity of learning by doing, of gaining meaningful
not enough freedom to work out their ideas and, in their case, social experiences, and, thereby being trained in the supreme
it is stated that often it is the headmasters who stand in a way. “art of living”.
We trust that the Education Departments and their Inspecting All the changes in the methods of teaching, in discipline
Officers will see their way to giving greater freedom to schools and examination, all the improvements in the physical
in the matter of organizing the syllabus, selecting text books environment of the schools and its general atmosphere are
and adopting teaching methods. meant to assist in this basic transformation. We repeat that it
But in addition to that——or even before this is done-there is a difficult, but not an impossible task and, if faith and
are certain elements of school work which the teachers And enthusiasm are kindled in the teachers they can move whole
headmasters are really free to effect improvements in. We have mountains of difficulties.
already referred in this connection to class examinations. They For the teachers there can be no greater or deeper joy than
have certainly to follow the general pattern of the curriculum providing for their students an educative environment in which
but there is no reason why they should not, for example, they can lead a rich, joyous and meaningful life and not only
enrich it by encouraging greater use of the library and the acquire knowledge and skill but also find a release for their
reading of significant books of general interest. creative capacities.
They can adopt methods of work in the classroom which
will allow students to work more freely and progress at their CONCLUSION
own pace. They will be given full freedom in organizing their We have in previous chapters reviewed the present position
various activities and extra-curricular projects. of Secondary education and have suggested the improvements
This freedom, which will embrace within its scope both and changes that may be necessary if the education imparted
staff and students, is a very exacting responsibility and all will to the youth of the country is to serve the needs of the individuals
have to be gradually trained to bear it worthily. But there is and meet the growing demands of the nation.
no other way of doing so than giving them the chance to work At the outset one may express the doubt whether it would
under conditions of freedom and to accept the risks that may be possible to implement the recommendations made by the
be involved in. the initial stages. Commission in view of the present financial position of the
This is the picture of the reorganised Secondary school as country.
we visualise it. We realise that all schools may not be able to Experience of the past, where similar recommendations
work up to it immediately. have not received due consideration, may be quoted in support
But it is not an impossible or unduly idealized picture and of such a pessimistic view. It will serve no useful purpose at
it does point the correct direction of advance. If the educational this stage to ponder over the possible developments that might
authorities and the teachers accent this conception of the school, have resulted had the recommendations of the previous
we are of the opinion that, in spite of the many difficulties and Commissions and Committees, so frequently reiterated since
handicaps that exist, it will be possible to bring about many 1882, been implemented.
welcome improve-ments in our schools. For, after all, what But there is no doubt that India was in no worse position
we have advocated is in brief, a transformation of the schools than several other countries in the eighties of the last century
and the phenomenal developments and improvements other spheres of intellectual activity, whether in Science,
that have taken place in these countries during the last sixty Humanities, Art or Culture, rapid progress is being made and
or seventy years must be an object lessons to this country to new discoveries are being ushered in quick succession.
avoid, in future, lost opportunities and vacillating policies of These call for a general level of educational attainment
the past. which would make it possible for our people to absorb and
But whatever the reasons for failure to implement such utilise these discoveries and enable them to contribute their
recommendations in the past, the country cannot afford, after share to the furtherance of such knowledge.
the attainment of Independence, to neglect or ignore the great The attainment of political independence involves
and pressing problems of educational reconstruction or fail to
and implies the attainment of intellectual independence in
take immediate steps to tackle them in a manner conducive to
several fields, and inter-dependence in fields, where fruitful
the promotion of the welfare of its citizens and safeguarding
cooperation is desirable and necessary for the furtherance of
its future as a forceful and progressive Democratic Republic in
human welfare.
the comity of nations.
We realise that today, the States and the Centre are faced
We have, in the course of our review of the present
with a gigantic task in the field of education. In every sphere
state of education in the country, taken note of such factors
there is a great leeway to be made up.
as have had a deterrent effect on a sound development of
education and have referred to two particular factors in this In the sphere of Basic education, Secondary education,
connection. Technical and Professional education, and in the higher spheres
of scientific and humanistic studies the needs are so great and
The dominating influence of university requirements on
the demands so pressing that appreciation of urgent needs of
the one hand, and the undue emphasis attached to the needs
the country and the standards that should be achieved may not
of public services and the present methods of recruitment on
be prominently kept in view.
the other, have had an adverse effect not only on healthy
development of Secondary education but on the whole field of We have noted the great increase that has taken place
education in the country. during the last five years both in the number of schools and
the total number of pupils studying in the States. Our pleasure
If, in future, such unhealthy trends are to be avoided and
educa-tion is to be directed on right lines, a comprehensive in noting such rapid progress has, however, been diminished
view of education will have to be taken which will serve the by the fact, so prominently brought to our notice, that this
needs of the individual, and of society and develop the resources increase has largely been possible at the sacrifice, in some
of the country. In every field of national activity there is a great cases the serious sacrifice, of efficiency.
demand for a larger and better trained personnel to meet its If such deterioration is allowed to continue, the general
growing requirements. level of students’ attainment at all stages of education will be
The world of today is different from what it was fifty or considerably lowered. Quality should not be sacrificed to
sixty years ago. International competition in, all spheres of quantity. We trust that in the spread of education, the
activity is becoming keener and keener. Industry, trade and educational authorities concerned would take note of
commerce can best be promoted only if, in the field of Technical these dangers and would adopt all possible measures to ensure
education, standards are maintained at all levels, which are that efficiency is not sacrificed in meeting the demands of
comparable to standards in other progressive countries. In all expansion.
The importance of attaching the right type of individuals to ensure efficiency and economy. We trust that this suggestion
to the teaching profession has been repeatedly emphasised by will receive serious consideration at the hands of the
us. If such in-dividuals are to be drawn into the profession, it governments.
should be made sufficiently attractive, so that those who take No scheme of educational reconstruction can be implemented
it up as a noble form of national service may not be required with success without-the active cooperation of the teaching
to make too great a sacrifice of their material comforts and the profession and the sustained interest the teachers may take in
anxieties and worries of the family life may not distract them such a task. We, therefore, appeal to them to give their
from their professional duties. unstinted cooperation and support to the scheme of educational
We realise that every scheme of development involves a reconstruction that may be final-ly adopted by the States
large financial liability which the State has to take due note concerned taking due note of the recommenda-tions that we
of. Sometimes this financial liability is examined from the point have made. We are fully aware of the great difficulties and the
of view of quick returns, and hesitation creeps in because the serious handicaps under which the profession is now working,
returns can only be expected on a long-term basis. and it is our sincere hope that in the light of our
recommendations the authorities concerned will take early
A study of the steps taken by some other countries in
steps to improve the status and emoluments of the teaching
making large financial provisions; for education of diverse type
profession.
should enable such persons and authorities to overcome their
diffidence. This will serve to create in the teaching profession a sense
of satisfaction and a desire for whole-hearted cooperation. In
Just as the large Hydro-Electric and Irrigation schemes
a new experimental venture such as this we feel that the
now launched are likely to result in considerable development
teaching profession should be given scope for initiative and
of the agricultural and other material resources of the country,
freedom in their task.
so will be the fertilising of the field of the mind—only its results
will be more outstanding and permanent in their beneficial To the managements of educational institutions and to the
effects. general public we would like specially to address ourselves. On
them depends largely the possibility of implementation of many
We are, therefore, of the opinion that a very high priority
of our recommenda-tions and we hope and trust that with the
should be given to educational reform both by the States and
same spirit in which they have encouraged all-round educational
the Central government and that they should make every effort
effort they will come forward to implement the suggestions
to find the necessary funds to implement these
made in respect of the bifurcated courses of study and the
recommendations, and adopt a planned and coordinated policy
introduction of various subjects including the crafts.
for this purpose.
The task that has been entrusted to us was not an easy one
There is one other aspect of the problem to which attention
and if we have been able to make some useful recommendations,
has been drawn in the report. Education cannot be dealt with
it is due to the sincere cooperation extended to us by officials
in water-tight compartments, nor can the responsibility for
and non-officials, by educationists and leaders of public opinion.
such education be assigned to different Ministries or
Departments without reference to one another. It is our hope that these suggestions will be considered in
the light of the special needs and circumstances of each State.
It is imperative that the different Ministries and
But while we do not encourage a dead level of uniformity all
Departments, at the Centre or in the States, should cooperate
over the vast sub-continent, we hope and trust that in essential
in educational planning and co-ordinate their activities so as
and in basic matters of policy there win be a reasonable degree
322 System and Issues in Indian Education Bibliography 323
of unanimity conducive to the maintenance of pro-gress in all

spheres of education.
We are aware that, in some States, reports have already
been presented by committees appointed to review different
stages of education, including Secondary education. We have
perused these reports with profit and interest. We express the B IBLIOGRAPHY
hope that the report presented by us and its recommendations
will be taken into due consideration before final decisions are
arrived at by the States concerned. We have also expressed the Elliott, J. : Action Research for Educational Change, Milton
considered opinion that. in the interests of an all-round Keynes, Open University, 1991.
development of the country and the improvement of its economic Galbraith, M.W.: Education Through Community Organizations,
position, the central government should take an active part, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1990.
both financially and otherwise, in the reconstruction of Giroux, H. : Critical Theory and Educational Practice, Geelong,
Secondary education and cooperate with the States with the Australia, Deakin University, 1983.
object of increasing the tempo of educational reform.
Gordon, A. : Cultivating Leadership in Schools, New York,
College Press, 2001.
Grace, G. : School Leadership: Beyond Educational Management,
London, Falmer, 1995.
Hilbert, D.R. : Color and Color Perception: A Study in
Anthropocentric Realism, Stanford, CSLI, 1987.
Holland, D. and Millican, J. : Adult Literacy, A Handbook for
Development Workers, Oxford, Oxfam, 1995.
Kemmis, S. : Becoming Critical: Education, Knowledge and
Action Research, London, Falmer, 1986.
Kirkwood, C. : Living Adult Education, Freire in Scotland,
Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1989.
Kruger, A. : Community Education in the Western World,
London, Routledge, 1990.
Lakomski, G. : Knowing Educational Administration, Oxford,
Pergamon, 1991.
Lee, Jeong-kyu : Historic Factors Influencing Korean Higher
Education, Seoul, Jimoondang, 2000.
Michael, J. : Education Fever: Society, Politics, and the Pursuit
of Schooling in South Korea, Honolulu, University of Hawai
Press, 2002.
324 System and Issues in Indian Education Index 325
Miller, N. : Working with Experience: Animating Learning,

London, Routledge, 1997.
Nias, J. : Seeing anew: Teachers’ Theories of Action, Australia,
Deakin University, 1987.
Nuna, S.C. : Education and Development, NIEPA, New Delhi,
1987. I NDEX
Premi, M.K. : Educational Planning in India, New Delhi,
Sterling, 1972.
A 211, 214, 220, 234, 241,
Reimer, E. : School is Dead, An Essay on Alternatives in 243, 247, 249, 265, 275,
Adaptation, 125, 128, 129,
Education, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1971. 276, 279, 280, 281, 282,
164.
Rogers, A. : Adults Learning for Development, London, Cassell, Administration, 13, 17, 19, 20, 283, 286, 287, 297, 305,
1992. 24, 33, 35, 38, 43, 44, 309, 318, 319, 322.
Conference, 29, 110, 111, 112,
Santosh, A. : Three Language Formula: An Educational Problem, 56, 75, 232, 242, 243,
244, 247, 254, 269, 291, 113, 117, 199.
New Delhi, Sian, 1991.
301. Conservation, 52.
Scott, C. : Social Education, Boston, Ginn and Co., 1908. Counselling, 42, 195, 196.
Agreement, 114, 268, 270.
Simkins, T. : Non-formal Education and Development , Appointment, 23, 26, 35, 44, Crafts, 38, 52, 82, 89, 133,
Manchester, Manchester University, 1977. 61, 68, 75, 226, 228, 140, 141, 297, 321.
233, 251, 269, 270, 272. Cultivation, 48, 85, 129.
Smith, M. : Using Informal Education, Milton Keynes, Open
University Press, 1990. Association, 124, 182, 232,
D
258, 312.
Stephens, S. : Children and the Politics of Culture, Princeton, Department, 19, 24, 28, 63,
Princeton University Press, 1995. C 64, 129, 174, 176, 191,
Stewart, J. : Management for the Public Domain, New York, Career Conference, 199. 192, 227, 231, 233, 234,
Caste, 8, 9, 46, 53, 54, 130, 237, 238, 240, 244, 249,
St, Martin’s Press, 1994.
273, 292. 254, 255, 256, 257, 259,
Thomas, A. : Educating Children at Home, London, Cassell, 261, 262, 267, 270, 271,
Commission, 21, 22, 23, 24,
1998. 272, 287, 289, 290, 291,
28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
Wa tkins, K.E. : Informal and Incidental Learning in the 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 302.
Workplace, London, Routledge, 1991. 44, 45, 53, 56, 57, 58, Development, 2, 5, 7, 16, 17,
59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 21, 28, 31, 32, 37, 39,
William, C. : A Tradition of Teachers: Sankara and the 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46,
Jagadgurus Today, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1983. 66, 68, 69, 73, 74, 75,
76, 79, 80, 92, 96, 100, 49, 51, 52, 59, 66, 67,
William, C. : Working Toward Sustainable Development: The 105, 112, 116, 126, 127, 72, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86,
Narmada Dam Project, Armonk, New York, 1994. 151, 154, 188, 190, 227, 87, 89, 90, 93, 99, 100,
Zvelebil, Kamil V. : Companion Studies to the History of Tamil 230, 264, 285, 286, 288, 107, 116, 120, 122, 125,
295, 317. 126, 128, 131, 134, 153,
Literature, Leiden, Brill, 1992.
Conditions, 8, 17, 23, 24, 33, 159, 171, 175, 190, 191,
41, 46, 53, 55, 61, 62, 198, 202, 207, 212, 214,
63, 74, 80, 85, 86, 93, 217, 225, 239, 254, 258,
103, 108, 127, 157, 203, 293, 295, 296, 297, 299,
326 System and Issues in Indian Education Index 327
300, 301, 304, 306, 311, Guidance, 7, 25, 42, 68, 123, Languages, 13, 18, 19, 20, 27, 147, 159, 183, 191, 197,
318, 320, 322. 136, 160, 165, 171, 173, 38, 42, 56, 67, 100, 198, 199, 200, 216, 221,
Discipline, 5, 8, 11, 34, 37, 179, 191, 192, 195, 196, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 233, 242, 255, 285, 286,
43, 57, 80, 83, 87, 88, 197, 198, 199, 200, 207, 107, 108, 109, 110, 115, 288, 299, 308, 309.
158, 166, 175, 183, 184, 260, 286, 303. 116, 118, 119, 132, 133, Nutrition, 51, 59, 138, 206,
185, 186, 187, 188, 193, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 208.
250, 279, 284, 307, 311, H 144, 148, 150, 152, 153,
312, 313, 315, 317. Health Education, 42, 201, 202, 154, 155, 162, 172, 229. O
Distribution, 311, 313. 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, Laws, 31. Organisations, 20, 192, 241,
210, 303. Library, 18, 97, 128, 149, 265, 266.
E 162, 166, 167, 168, 169,
Educational System, 2, 14, 32, I 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, P
79, 84, 85, 108, 134, Implementation, 29, 31, 49, 176, 178, 241, 242, 264, Performance, 8, 54, 223.
141, 175, 177, 258, 287, 69, 173, 296, 321. 279, 282, 297, 305, 308, Philosophy, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8,
303. Inauguration, 63. 310, 316. 10, 12, 15, 30, 36, 54,
Evolution, 2, 22, 128. Industry, 127, 198, 255, 256, Literature, 5, 11, 13, 15, 16, 55, 89.
Examination System, 15, 33, 262, 299, 300, 318. 18, 19, 55, 71, 89, 107, Physical Education, 38, 42, 48,
49, 58, 213. Institute, 12, 49, 62, 280. 114, 118, 119, 130, 143, 131, 132, 142, 153, 201,
Institutions, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 144, 172, 173, 179, 184, 202, 203, 206, 207, 208,
F 17, 20, 22, 25, 28, 34, 310, 314. 209, 210, 241, 243, 245,
Federal Board, 298, 299, 300. 35, 36, 41, 46, 48, 50, 262, 274, 277, 280.
Financial Aid, 273, 295, 296, 53, 57, 65, 75, 76, 78, M Political Movements, 185.
302, 303, 305. 88, 97, 99, 105, 111, Management, 21, 49, 52, 74, Powers, 23, 37, 128, 183, 260,
Freedom, 13, 22, 23, 24, 28, 112, 114, 115, 116, 124, 94, 97, 105, 138, 170, 265, 306, 308, 309.
67, 84, 127, 136, 140, 127, 134, 135, 150, 174, 198, 206, 235, 236, 238, Primary Education, 21, 22, 25,
141, 162, 165, 174, 175, 175, 186, 197, 199, 200, 240, 242, 247, 274, 275, 27, 49, 56, 57, 59, 68,
222, 311, 315, 316, 321. 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 276, 278, 279, 280, 282, 73, 92, 110.
227, 231, 233, 235, 238, 283, 293, 294, 302, 303, Production, 38, 40, 59, 67,
G 239, 240, 244, 245, 247, 315. 145, 148, 149, 150, 172,
Government, 19, 20, 21, 23, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, Members, 21, 23, 24, 26, 45, 173, 255, 303, 308.
24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35, 253, 254, 256, 257, 260, 63, 64, 65, 69, 90, 100, Project, 87, 162, 164, 169,
36, 38, 39, 40, 44, 47, 261, 265, 266, 267, 268, 149, 151, 182, 188, 250, 177, 182, 308, 311.
57, 59, 61, 62, 66, 67, 270, 272, 273, 286, 296, 258, 259, 260, 265, 266, Protection, 52.
68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 299, 301, 302, 303, 304, 289, 311, 312.
75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 321. Membership, 90, 151. R
92, 103, 110, 112, 147, Investment, 45. Methodology, 157. Radhakrishnan Commission, 61,
149, 150, 151, 152, 154, Morality, 189, 313. 68.
176, 185, 191, 193, 194, J Museums, 175, 176. Religion, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14,
198, 201, 227, 229, 230, Justice, 24, 44, 54, 86, 88. 55, 89, 105, 188, 189,
231, 232, 233, 235, 256, N 266.
258, 259, 261, 277, 285, L Nature, 10, 35, 52, 53, 61, Research, 3, 33, 34, 42, 43,
286, 288, 293, 296, 297, Laboratory, 97, 123, 128, 264, 70, 78, 84, 97, 118, 44, 46, 48, 58, 124,
298, 301, 320, 322. 281, 309, 310. 121, 123, 139, 141, 142, 125, 142, 143, 145, 152,
328 System and Issues in Indian Education System and Issues in Indian Education 329
161, 197, 200, 219, 244, 164, 165, 168, 170, 173,
245, 247, 248, 250, 253, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179,
280, 293, 300, 301, 303. 181, 187, 188, 191, 192,
208, 210, 213, 215, 218,
S 219, 225, 228, 229, 231,
Secondary Education, 21, 24, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236,
25, 31, 36, 37, 39, 40, 237, 238, 239, 241, 242,
C ONTENTS
47, 49, 56, 57, 58, 59, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251,
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 253, 258, 259, 261, 262,
67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 263, 265, 268, 271, 273, Preface
74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 83, 278, 281, 282, 283, 290,
85, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 292, 296, 299, 303, 307, 1. Introduction 1
96, 100, 110, 111, 121, 309, 311, 315, 316, 317,
126, 127, 152, 167, 173, 320, 321. 2. Education in Post-independent and Emerging India 33
225, 258, 259, 285, 260, Technology, 34, 46, 50, 53,
3. Radhakrishnan Commission on Education 61
289, 295, 296, 299, 300, 59, 60, 135, 175.
301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 4. New Organisational Pattern of
317, 318, 319, 322. U
Secondary Education 91
Secondary Schools, 22, 31, 38, University, 12, 19, 23, 24, 25,
44, 50, 62, 73, 74, 76, 28, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 5. Curriculum in Secondary Schools 120
78, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 37, 44, 48, 50, 57, 58,
98, 99, 103, 106, 109, 61, 62, 64, 68, 69, 73, 6. Dynamic Methods of Teaching 156
110, 111, 113, 116, 117, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80,
7. The Education of Character 180
120, 126, 129, 134, 135, 92, 95, 96, 98, 110,
136, 142, 146, 167, 178, 112, 114, 115, 116, 121, 8. Guidance and Counselling in Secondary Schools 195
195, 208, 222, 227, 228, 122, 163, 212, 223, 229,
229, 251, 255, 259, 262, 240, 242, 243, 260, 264, 9. A New Approach to Examination and Evaluation 211
267, 292, 303, 309. 285, 286, 287, 288, 294,
Security, 225, 230, 231, 271. 318. 10. Improvement of the Teaching Personnel 225
T V 11. Problems of Administration 254

Teaching, 7, 8, 10, 15, 20, Vocational Education, 20, 24, 12. Financial Aid to Secondary Education 295
21, 23, 28, 34, 36, 39, 26, 31, 34, 41, 44, 47,
42, 43, 48, 49, 52, 57, 57, 78, 98, 258, 260, Bibliography 323
58, 60, 71, 75, 76, 77, 261, 296, 297, 298, 299,
80, 81, 82, 83, 90, 103, 300, 303, 304. Index 325
109, 111, 113, 114, 115,
116, 123, 125, 130, 133, W
135, 139, 141, 142, 144, Welfare, 24, 50, 68, 81, 186,
145, 146, 156, 157, 158, 201, 202, 209, 243, 276,
159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 279, 306, 318, 319.

SYSTEM AND ISSUES IN
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Introduction 1

In order to understand the history of education of a country,

OBJECTIVES To motivate learners to undertake research on any aspect

satisfactory. The ray of hope in educational development was

It is also a nuclear giant. It has advanced in the space technology.

4. MRS. HANSA MEHTA INAUGURATION OF THE COMMISSION

Dr. S. M. S. Chari, Education Officer, ITINERARY

the teaching of social studies-and the students should learn the

A Three-Year Degree Course recommendations that we have made elsewhere to reconstruct

in the case of many-perhaps a majority of the children, practical Groups of Languages

Union, as the language of inter-State intercourse of all The Conference recommended:

is that it Is narrowly conceived, mainly in terms of the admission

OBJECTIVES OF RIGHT METHODS

impinge purposefully on the. character of their students but it

Religious and Moral Instruction

SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AND THE COMMUNITY The Role of Teachers

and thus make them a lively part of the school

EXAMINATIONS, INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

time for such fundamental changes to be assimilated before

Liasion Between Training Institutions and Other Recruitment to Training Colleges

Joint Secretary and should have direct access to the Minister.

11 Need for Co-ordination

With regard to the conduct of examinations, we recommend (4) A principal of a Polytechnic.

The equipment of a school is a matter which requires great Audio-Visual Aids

Recruitment to Public Service

RESPONSIBILITIES OF CENTRE AND STATE

of unanimity conducive to the maintenance of pro-gress in all

Miller, N. : Working with Experience: Animating Learning,

T V 11. Problems of Administration 254

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