French Revolution

Reasons:

1. Economic Crisis:
From 2nd half of 18th Century, France became the victim of Economic crisis which turned into
financial bankruptcy during the time of Louis XVI. This crisis and financial bankruptcy were
because of the following reasons:
National Income in disorder: Primary sector specifically agriculture was the victim of
feudalism therefore the agricultural land in France was controlled by a small section of
feudal lords. This led to the poverty of farmers and also the problem of landless
laborers. Along with this the Secondary sector specially industries were having a slow
pace of development because France lacked the resources like coal and iron and was
continuously engaged with Britain in struggle for colonies. The weak primary and
secondary sector led to weak tertiary sector which created the biggest challenge for the
state i.e. underemployment.
National Income in France was already in trouble and in this situation the unpragmatic
policies of French rulers increased the crisis in France.

Louis XIV was an absolute despot who declared I am the state and he fought continuous wars
with his neighbors creating economic crisis in France. He was succeeded by Louis XV who was
a mature and far sighted ruler. Mature because he neglected state affairs on the grounds that
he wont be able to solve problems of France. Farsighted because as he declared after me the
end of my dynasty. He not only neglected state affairs but also maintained aggressive policies
towards neighbors and Britain in which the important incidence was 7 years war. He was
succeeded by Louis XVI and during his time France was in critical condition because National
income disorder, unemployment and state under the debt of 2 billion livers paying 10% interest
on it and in this situation he sends military assistance to Americans in their war of independence
in 1781 which became the cause for financial bankruptcy of France and also the beginning of
trouble for France.

2. Economic Crisis generally leads to Political and Social Crisis:

Under Political Crisis, the main problem was weak administration, absence of law and order
etc. But the biggest problem was social crisis specially the differences between privileged
and non-privileged classes.
The French society was suffering from bit frustration as common people wearing all the
burden of the state were without protection and patronage from the state. This irritation of
common man played a catalytic role in French Revolution.
3. Role of Intellectual Class:
Whenever a nation suffers from economic, social, and political crisis intellectual class will
come forward and provide genuine reason for trouble and also genuine solution.
This class was present in America during the 18th century and the important personalities were:
Thomas Paine who wrote a book Common Sense and in this book, he talks about
exploitative policies of Britain and provided the solution of independence to the people.

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 Benjamin Franklin: established philosophical society of America which has centers in
different parts of the America. The objective of this society was awakening and awareness
among the people.
Henry Patrick played very important role in provoking the people in America as his famous
statement was Give me Death or Independence.

The ground for French Revolution was also prepared by French intellectuals. Example:

Voltaire: says creativity is the biggest force in this world and he appeals to the ruling class to
promote creativity by giving Freedom of Expression to the people.
Montesquieu: was of the opinion that monarchial governments are autocratic governments
and they generally dont bother about the welfare of the people. So, he supports
Parliamentary form of Government in Britain and he makes proposal for the responsible
government for which the important principle is Separation of Power among the various
organs of government.
Rousseau: says that kingship is not a gift of a God to a king. It is basically the outcome of
social contract between the rulers and the ruled. Therefore, rulers should respect the wish of
the people and this can be done by giving liberty, Equality and fraternity to the people.
Diderot: prepared the encyclopedia of French problems and he also provided solutions for
these problems. Example: according to him, religion is a personal affair of an individual and
a religion has no right to interfere in the affairs of the state.
4. Immediate Cause:
Mistakes of Louis XVI and Fall of Bastille.

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Phases:

1. Political Deadlock to Estate General.

2. Estates General to Fall of Bastille.
3. Fall of Bastille to National Assembly.
4. National Assembly to National Convention.
5. National Convention to Rise of Napoleon.

1. Phase I:
Political Deadlock to Estate General:
Sending Military assistance to America was a mistake done by Louis XVI which created big
trouble for him in the form of financial bankruptcy as he tried to impose new taxes on the
people. People stood up with their demand of Political changes in France. Louis XVI aware
about the fate of the king of England refused to listen to the people creating political
deadlock in France. He took two steps to overcome the crisis:
a. Appointed Turgot as his Finance Minister to handle the issue and Turgot made big claims
i.e. no new taxes, no more loans, and no financial bankruptcy.
Turgot paid the price of his dareness and was immediately dismissed.
b. Invitation to Lonto Bill: the organization of Aristocracy but it out rightly refused to help the
king and the state.
In this scenario, Louis XVI adopted the last resort of force among the people which led to
the beginning of riots in different parts of France with people demanding invitation of Estates
General.

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2. Phase II:
Estates General to Fall of Bastille:
a. What was Estates General?
i. General Assembly of France to discuss essential matters including taxation.
ii. Assembly had 3 sections:
Group of Clergy
Nobles
Common people
iii. The voting pattern of this assembly was Majority of Groups.
b. People were demanding invitation of Estate General and Louis XVI with his hidden agenda
invited Estates General which proved disastrous for Louis XVI and feudal setup in France
because:
The people of 3rd Estate (common man) were hyper enthusiastic to participate in
Estates General so large number of people from different parts of France starting
moving towards Paris.
Common people made the demand of change in voting pattern. They wanted
representation on the basis of population ratio and also the provision of One Person,
One Vote. This irritated the plans of Louis XVI and he again committed the mistake of
closing the door of Assembly Hall.

In reaction to this step of Louis XVI people gathered in the tennis court in front of Assembly
Hall and declared themselves as National Representatives. So the important outcome of
invitation to Estates General was formation of National Assembly in France by itself. This
Assembly aspired to frame the New Constitution for France. Louis XVI took 2 steps which
changed the course of history in France:

Dismissal of Neeker advisor of King and sympathizer of common people because he gave
the idea of change in voting pattern i.e. One Person, One Vote.
He started gathering troops in Paris and both these steps were the message to the common
people that the king is in the mood to suppress the voice of the common people. This led to
the famous incident of Fall of Bastille on 14th July 1789.

3. Phase III
Fall of Bastille to National Assembly:
Note: Bastille was a fort cum prison and people attacked it with 2 Objectives:
o To release political prisoners.
o To gather arms and ammunition to give resistance to the royal troops in case king takes the
step of suppressing people. But Fall of Bastille was not only the Fall of a Fort; it was the
beginning of French Revolution because:
a. Direct Action: the 1st important outcome of Fall of Bastille was direct action in France under
which people got the message of Fall of Bastille, they stood up against the existing feudal
order in different parts of France and their main target was Manors of Feudal Lords.
b. Formation of National Guards: when Louis XVI started gathering the troops in Paris, 7000
men and women in Paris formed Peoples Militia which later turned into National Guards and

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 its commands was given to National Assembly. In this was army came under the command
of National Assembly and it became the power centre in France.
c. Beginning of Modern Administration: during this period, Paris was the centre and shelter for
outsiders from different parts of France and state was in confusion so the people in France
formed Municipal Corporation of Paris to manage the city. This was the beginning of
Modern Administration in France.
d. Victory for Common People: Fall of Bastille proved to be victory for common people against
aristocracy and autocracy. As National Army came under the control of National Assembly
so National Assembly came out with the new Constitution of 1791. The important features of
this Constitution were:
i. Constitutional Monarchy: Under it following developments takes place:
Ring became the Nominal Head of state having right to appoint and transfer his officials
and Ministers.
All the crucial decisions of the state were to be taken by Legislative Assembly which had
745 members.
The members of the Legislative Assembly were elected by indirect elections. In this
indirect election French citizens were divided into 2 parts Active and Passive Citizens. In
this the taxpaying section or the active citizens were to form Electoral College and
Electoral College elected the members of Legislative Assembly.
ii. France moved towards the path of Secularism as under the Law of Clergy religion was
subordinated to the state. Priest were appointed and paid by the state and Pope became the
Nominal Religious Head of Sate.
iii. The most important part of this Constitution was Human and Civil Rights declaration and
Welfare activities of the state. Human and Civil rights provided Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity to the people which included Freedom of Speech, Judicial Rights etc. and under
welfare activities the important step was National Educational Council. This established
state run school and women education was made compulsory.
iv. Under Economic Policy, National Assembly opted for Mixed Economy. They also introduced
new currency in France called Assignats and also the Nationalization of lands which was
snatched away from feudal lords and church. In this way National Assembly by this
Constitution laid the formation of Modern France but thin constitution instead of creating
peace and stability increased crisis in France.

The Constitution of 1791 was ideal but it was not suitable to the France of 1790s because
France was still weak, backward, traditional and feudal. This Constitution instead of giving
smoothness to revolution increased conflict and confusion in different sections of France.
Example:

The king and Nobility were shocked by the immediate loss of Power.
Subordination of Religion and Pope was disliked by orthodox catholic section of France.
Human Rights declaration was a good step but it remained simply as a declaration and
promotion to welfare activities including women education was the tension for feudal
mentality of France. Therefore, tension increased in France and in this scenario the two
developments gave a new turn to French revolution.

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 Louis XVI tried to escape from France and in this monarchy lost moral status in France and
constitution of 1791 became invalid.

Pillnitz Declaration in which important European countries under the leadership of Austria
declared war against France. The objective was to save Royal Family but the hidden
agenda was to crush National Assembly which had become the threat for existing
Monarchial structure system in Europe. This lead to National Convention to decide the
future of France.

4. Phase IV:
National Assembly to National Convention:

Constitutional Republic: National Convention came out with a new Constitution whose important
features were:

Constitutional Republic in France: Under it Directory came into existence. It had 5 members
each member having tenure of 1 year in office and every member got the time period of 3
months to be in the first council. Along with this 2 houses were formed Upper House and
Lower House. Proposal was to be made in upper house but it can be only passed by lower
house. Adult franchise was introduced in France as people above 21 years of age got the
right to vote.
The new Constitution under National Convention turned France into a secular state as it
declared that religion is the personal affair of the individual. In this case religion lost
complete support of the state.
Human and civil rights plus welfare activities were maintained. The new development was
interference of state in the personal life of the people. Example: dress code for citizens.
In Economic Policy emphasis on Communism which was evident because of the following
steps:
Fixed the wages of labor and prices of goods in France.
Rationing of meat and bread.
Capitalist were declared as criminals.

The Second Constitution increased the atmosphere of tension in France. Constitutional republic
was a good option but directory was not given the ample time to deal with the crisis of France.
Secularism was a noble idea but again irritating for the large catholic population of France.
Interference in personal life also became the cause for frustration and overall condition became
very critical in France. In this situation National Convention got divided into number of groups
like Girondists who were liberal in nature, Jacobins or the hardliners and in this critical situation
power came in the hand of cold blooded Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre who
established Reign of Terror in France (1793-94). The important steps of this leader were:

o Emphasis on Communism
o Abolition of slavery
o Suppression of women rights
o Guillotine i.e. elimination of rivals by sending them to the killing machine called Guillotine.

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The important victims of Robespierre were Jean Paul, Marat, Danton, Oylmpe de Goughas
women right activist. Within a week he killed 5000 people in France. In this way he not only
increased confusion and conflict in France, he also created intellectual void in France. The
outcome of this situation was Napoleon Bonaparte who took the advantage of the situation and
became the Emperor of France in 1804 when entire nation was fighting against Monarchy.

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 Rise and Fall of Napoleon (1799-1815)

Napoleon

2. Reforms of 3. Blunders of
1. Power
Napoleon Napoleon

1. Emergence as a Power in France:

Note: From 1789, France was in crisis and Napoleon took the advantage of it and from army
officer he turned into the Ruler of France. The story of his emergence has three phases:

Phase 1: The phase when he got identity in France.

Phase 2: First Italian Expedition turned him into the Hero of France.

Phase 3: Egyptian Expedition after which he became the Ruler of France.

Napoleon started his career as an Army officer in France. He impressed Directory through
his performance by protecting Tourloene and he was immediately called to Paris to give
protection to the National Assembly and National Council. Here his marriage with Josephine
elevated his status which is clear as he got the command of French Army.

As a Commander of French Army, he got the First assignment of Italian expedition which
turned him into the Hero of France. German and Italian states were the cause of rivalry
between Austria and France and Austria taking the advantage of tension in France
dominated both the areas which were against the interest of France. Napoleon defeated
Austria and compelled it for Treaty of Compoformio. The important provisions of this treaty
were:

Austria accepted Rhineland as the natural frontier of France.

Napoleon was accepted as Guardian of Italian States.

France also got Netherland and Lombardy.

Napoleon gave Venice to Austria.

By this treaty, he gave the areas of resources to his people and he also diverted the attention of
Austria towards Eastern Europe (Russia). But the most important feature was for the first time in

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the history of France the burden of war expenditure was not put on the people but it was taken
from the defeated forces.

Treaty of Compoformio turned him into the Hero of France and then he went onto Egyptian
expedition with his hidden objectives. He defeated the local ruler in the Battle of Abu Bakar
and later on was defeated by British Admiral Nelson. Inspite of his defeat when he returns
back the people of France had only one word with them and that was Napoleon. He
organized Sainku Convention and with the wish of the majority he became the First Council
of France for 10 years in 1799.

2. Rise of Napoleon:

Peace with Europe: For past 10 years (1789-99) France was in economic and political crisis
and Napoleon was clear that peace is the immediate requirement to give stability and to
promote growth and development. He writes to the rulers of Europe like George III of
England and Leopold of Austria that what is the utility of war in this era of growth and
development. This led to the Treaty of Ameins between England and France. By this Treaty,
England accepted the authority of Napoleon in France and also returned back French
Colonies in South America and Asia. This trend was followed by other European Powers.

Economic Reforms: Napoleon followed superficial approach in Economic reforms which was
clear by his steps:

Emphasis on the improvement of fertility of Soil.

Steps to turn barren lands into productive lands.

Promotion to public works like roadways, waterways etc.

Established Bank of France.

Note: In agricultural reforms his motive was to improve the production in agriculture to solve the
crisis in bread and revenue to the state. Public works were promoted to facilitate the movement
of army and Bank of France was basically established to protect the wealth of France and his
family.

He neglected basic reforms like Land reforms, industrialization etc. In this way with the
beginning of his rule French economy showed the signs of improvement but it was still weak
and backward.

3. Political Reforms:

Napoleon after coming to power organized Plebiscite in France in which he got 30lakh votes
in support and while 1562 in opposition. On this ground respecting the wish of the people,
he revived Monarchy in France and became the Emperor of France in 1804.

Unique voting pattern based on 10% law: The system of 10% law was a technical process in
which the people of 30 years of age were given the right to vote. These people elected 10%

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 population from district called as district list. The members of this list elected 10% of the
people from themselves which was called as Department list at Provincial level. The
department list elected 10% of people for Central list and from Central list Napoleon
appointed the members of Legislature.

He created Four Houses: Council of State, Tribunate, Senate and Legislative Assembly. The
duties and functions of these houses were not clear and were the cause of confusion for the
members. So on every issue the final decision was of the Emperor.

Revived Bureaucracy in France and Bureaucrats were called as Prefects and they were
appointed and transferred by Napoleon and were only answerable to Napoleon.

In this way, the political reforms of Napoleon presented the democratic picture but from inside it
were an Autocratic Government in which all the powers were in the hands of Napoleon.

4. Educational Reforms:

Education was basically the monopoly of Religion. But this monopoly was broken by
National Assembly when they formed National Educational Council. Before National
Assembly would take any step it became the victim of internal crisis. Napoleon played a
great role in it when he established Modern Institutions of Education from primary to higher
level.

Although, he made good contribution in modern education but then he created certain
problems.

In primary schools, apart from discipline and military training Napoleonism was the
syllabus for the children.

He established normal schools to train the teachers of higher education so that they
should preach devotion to the state and Napoleon. This step was to control the
intellectual class of France.

Napoleon was against Women education.

5. Cultural Reforms:

Emphasis on construction of palaces.

He started an award Legion of Honor which was basically to satisfy the sentiments of his
supporters.

Concord Agreement 1801 with the Pope and by this agreement he declared Catholic
Religion as the religion of majority in France and Pope as the nominal religious head of the
Nation.

Note: He failed to clear the status of Pope and Religion in France and then humiliation to Pope
at Nostradam annoyed the Christian population of Europe.

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6. Napoleon Code:

The most important work of Napoleon is his Napoleon Code. Modern World is indebted to him
as he started codifying laws on Modern parameters like Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC),
Code of Civil Procedure, Commercial Code etc. Napoleon used to say that people will not
remember him for 40 wars but he will be remembered for his contribution in Modern Legal
System.

Conclusion:

Napoleon was the savior of France. He also gave stability, peace to suffering France in 1799.
His reforms had some positive elements like education, legal system etc. But the defect was
instead of promoting Nation and Nationalism. He emphasized on Napoleon and Napoleonism.
This disappointed the progressive sections in France as France remained weak and in this way
he created internal enemies for himself. In this scenario, he committed certain blunders which
led to the downfall of Napoleon in 1850.

Blunders:

1. War with Europe:

The superficial economic reforms of Napoleon failed to satisfy the needs of the people for longer
time and as trouble once again started in France, War became the only option for Napoleon to
engage the French population and distract the mind of the people. He started the policy of
aggression and he fought approximately 40 wars in which the important battles were:

Battle of Austerlitz in which he defeated the combined armies of Austria and Prussia.

Battle of Iaana in which he defeated Prussia and destroyed Holy Roman Empire which
became the background for the unification of Germany and Italy.

Battle of Iaalo in which he defeated the armies of Russia and Austria and after this war
by the Treaty of Tilsit Russia became the friend of Napoleon.

In this way the policy of aggression proved solution for the troubles of the Napoleon for a time
being as it served three purposes:

o Provided employment to the people.

o Increased prosperity.

o Increased the glory of France and Napoleon.

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But in the Long run this aggressive policy proved to be blunder because it promoted philosophy
of Nationalism among European Nations and it also led to the birth of United Front of European
Nations against Napoleon.

2. Spanish Trouble:

Spain was an ally and friend of Napoleon but his unpractical moves turned Spain into the enemy
of Napoleon and to such a level that Spain proved to be the cancer for Napoleon. The
unpractical moves of Napoleon were:

Regular violation of Sovereignty of Spain: Whenever Napoleon was on an expedition to

Portugal he entered into Spanish territory without the permission of the Spanish King. This
was the violation of Spanish Sovereignty which was also the humiliation for the people of
Spain.

Ferdinand Episode: King Charles of Spain was facing mass protest against him so leaves
the throne in the favor of his son Ferdinand. Napoleon replaced Ferdinand by his brother
Joseph and in this way Napoleon in France appeared as a Conqueror of Spain.

Land Reforms done by Joseph: Joseph started land reforms and under it he took away the
land from feudal lords and distributed it to landless labourers. It was a good step for
common people in Spain but then it backfired upon Joseph and Napoleon as the feudal
lords of Spain united and raised the slogan of Spanish Nationalism. Napoleon committed the
blunder of fighting with the people of Spain which was a setback to his status and drain for
French resources as he was not able to take war compensation from Spain. Therefore as
Deccan proved to be the Cancer for Aurangzeb, Spain played the same role in the carrier of
Napoleon.

3. Continental Policy:

Humiliating defeat at Trafalgar became the background to fight the indirect war called as
Continental Policy.

What was Continental War?

Commercial war in which France and his allies Russia, Spain, Austria etc closed their doors for
British goods.

Outcome of this: It proved to be setback for Britain. But Britain recovered because of India. But
it created economic and political crisis for Napoleon in which the important example was
beginning of enmity between Russia and France on this issue.

4. War with Russia:

By the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia and Napoleon were friends and differences between both the
powers started when Czar Alexander rejected the marriage proposal of Napoleon. This
difference increased when Russia left Napoleon on the issue of Continental Policy. In such
circumstances, Napoleon established Grand Darbar in Warsaw (Capital of Poland) which was

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the interference of France in the areas of influence of Russia. It increased the tension between
the two powers and Napoleon took the initiative by declaring war against Russia. During this
war, Siberia proved to be the graveyard of Napoleons army and this became the opportunity for
Europe to take action against Napoleon. The United Front of European Nations defeated
Napoleon in The Battle of Leipzig 1813 and with all privileges he was taken to Saint Elba.

Napoleon returns from Elba and rules France for 100 days and he started pleading to European
Powers for Peace. The European Powers once again united and defeated him in the Battle of
Waterloo in 1815. After this he was imprisoned at Saint Helena without privileges where he died
in 1821 and this was the end of Napoleon in France and Europe but French Revolution and
Napoleon have a very important place in the history of Europe.

Evaluation:

French Revolution promoted:

Promotion to Democratic Principles like liberty, equality, fraternity etc.

Concept of Secularism. Example: Law of Clergy and Religion of Region.

Emphasis on Democratic Political Structure. Like Republic, Legislature, Manmade

Constitution etc.

Acted as a Ideal for Modern World.

Napoleon:

Acted as a carrier of French ideals to different parts of Europe.

Contribution to education and law.

Promotion to Nationalism. Example Spanish Nationalism.

Unification of Germany and Italy.

French Revolution and Napoleon gave momentum to the new order which became the cause of
tension to the old order. With the defeat and elimination of Napoleon the old order united and
organized Khap Panchayat in Europe called Vienna Congress of 1815.

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