Compressor DKP

TRAINING RELIANCE MODULE NO:
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
TRAINING MODULE
-
ON
CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
CHECKED BY PAGE : 1 OF 95
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
APPROVED BY DATE :25.03.2003
TRAINING MODULE
HARMIT AUTHOR :Deepak Puri
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
TRAINING MODULE OBJECTIVE
Troublefree and smooth operation of centrifugal compressors is vital for process

plants. Interruptions and outage of these machines results in huge production losses as
these machines are mostly unspared.
The module aims to provide knowledge & information about the various aspects of
machines covering constructional details, selection, operation and maintenance etc.
To make the module easy to use, contents are divided into short sections like
Overview of gas compression machinery

Classification of Compressors
Selection criteria
Types of compressors
Constructional features of compressors
Accessory systems
Operation and performance of compressors
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
This Training manual is prepared exclusively for the technical knowledge

enhancement of the personnel of Reliance Group of Industries.
No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

system or otherwise. The document must be returned or when the recipient has no
further use of the same. The document or any part of the document is not allowed to
be taken out of the respective site or to be shared with any person outside Reliance
Group.
Reliance Group of Industries reserves the right to refuse access to the above document
on the grounds of confidentiality.
Authorization for information disclosure is allowed with the written permission of the
respective Site Engineering Head.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Description Page No
1 Overview of gas compression machinery 6-7
2. Classification of compressors 8-11
2.1 Dynamic type compressor

2.2 Positive displacement compressor
3. Fans and Blowers 12-13
3.1 Fans
3.2 Blowers
4. Selection of Compressors 14-17
5. Considerations while specifying CF Compressors 18-21
6. Centrifugal compressors 22-31
6.1 Horizontal Split Centrifugal

6.2 Sidestream Compressors
6.3 Multistage Geared Compressors
6.4 Overhung Compressors
6.5 Vertically Split Compressors
6.6 Compressor Trains
7. Constructional Features 32-44
7.1 Manufacture of Impellers

7.2 Impeller Testing
7.3 Rotor
7.4 Bearings
7.5 Casings
7.6 Stationary components
8 Sealing Elements 45-55
8.1 Labyrinth seals

8.2 Floating ring seal
8.3 Mechanical contact seal
8.4 Mechanical non-contact seals (Gas Seals)
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
9 Auxiliary Equipment 56-66
9.1 Drive component

9.2 Gear units
9.3 Lube oil systems
9.4 Seal liquid system
9.5 Seal gas control system
10 Drivers for compressor 67-69
10.1 Steam Turbines

10.2 Electric motors
10.3 Gas / diesel engines
11 Performance of centrifugal compressors 70-75
11.1 Constants of centrifugal compressor

11.2 Surging / Capacity limitations
12 Capacity Control 76-78
12.1 Speed variation

12.2 Variation of angle of incident
12.3 Throttling
12.4 Discharge pressure control
13 Axial flow compressors 79-85
13.1 Operating characteristics

13.2 Gas velocities
13.3 Stages
13.4 Efficiency
13.5 Parts of axial compressors
14 Geared centrifugal compressors 86-89
14.1 Compressor design

14.2 Compressor scroll casing
14.3 Gear - design
15 Frequently Asked Questions 90-92
16 DOs & DONTs 93-95
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 11
ER
OV
O ER
VE EW
VIIE
RV W
OFF
O
GA
G CO
ASS C RE
MPPR
OM ON
ESSSSIIO MA
NM CH
AC NE
HIIN RY
ER Y
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
1. OVERVIEW OF GAS COMPRESSION MACHINERY:
Compressors are the machines required for transportation / movement of gases

in a system. The purpose of compression is simply to increase the pressure of
a gas from one level to another. Depending on a host of circumstances and
situations, the pressure increase imparted to a gas will be from a fraction of a
bar in laboratory equipment to literally tens of hundred of bars in hyper-
compressors used for the manufacture of polyethylene.
Before we embark on our more thorough consideration of centrifugal

compressors, we should examine gas compression machinery in general. In a
typical process plant, compression services include instrumentation and plant
air, combustion air for burners and furnaces, gas circulation or simple
elevation to pressure conditions that will allow chemical reactions to take
place. Gas volumes will vary from laboratory quantities to flows well in
excess of a 2 million m3/hr.
Not to many years ago, it was common practice to use reciprocating

compressors when high pressures were required. Dynamic compressors were
usually called blowers when air or gas was compressed to about 40 Psig. The
term compressor was applied to any such machine when air or gas was
compressed to a final pressure over 50 Psig. In recent years, this
differentiation has become meaningless. Industry now uses the term
compressor for all types of machines compressing air or gas.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 22
ER
CL
C CA
ASSSSIIFFIIC
LA AT ON
TIIO N
OFF
O
CO
C RE
MPPR
OM OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS:
Two principal methods are used to compress gases. The first method is to trap
a volume of gas and displace it by the positive action of a piston or rotating
member; we call these machines positive-displacement compressors. The
second method uses dynamic compression; it is accomplished by the
mechanical action of contoured blades, which impart velocity and hence
pressure to the following gas.
COMPRESSORS
Positive displacement Dynamic

(compression fluid by reducing (Turbo)
volume of compression chamber)
Reciprocating Rotary type Centrifugal Axial
Mixed Flow
Helical Liquid Ring Straight Lobe Slide Vane
Single Line Geared
2.1 Dynamic type compressors:
Dynamic type compressors are machines in which air or gas is compressed by

the dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and
pressure to the flowing gas. The velocity head is converted into pressure,
partially in the rotating element and partially in the stationary diffusers or
blades. Two general variations, centrifugal and axial compressors are
generally used:
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
2.1.1 Centrifugal Compressors:

The machine in which velocity and pressure are imparted to the air or gas in a
radial direction by one or more impeller diffuser combination.
2.1.2 Axial Compressors:

The machines in which velocity and pressure are imparted to the air or gas in
an axial direction by one or more sets of moving and stationary rows of
blades.
2.1.3 Mixed Flow Compressors:

The dynamic machines with impeller, which combine some characteristics of
both centrifugal and axial type.
2.2 Positive Displacement compressors:
Positive displacement type compressors are machines in which successive

volumes of air or gas are confined within a closed space. The pressure is
increased as the volume of the closed space is decreased. Four general types,
broken down according to the constructional method used to carry out
compression are available:
2.2.1 Reciprocating compressors :
The machines in which the compressing element is a piston following a

reciprocating motion in a cylinder.
2.2.2 Rotary lobe compressors:
The machines in which two mating lobe impellers revolve within a cylinder
and are prevented from making a contact with each other by timing gears
mounted outside the cylinder. The gas is trapped by the lobes, which displace
it from intake to discharge.
2.2.3 Rotary slide-vane compressors :
The machines in which longitudinal vanes slide radially in a rotor mounted

eccentrically in cylinder. Gas gets trapped in the sliding vanes and is
compressed and finally discharged as the rotor moves in the casing having
suitable ports.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
2.2.4 Rotary liquid piston compressors :
The machines in which water or other liquids are used usually in a single
rotating element to compress and to displace the air or gas handled.
Although each of the positive displacement types will vary from the other
somewhat, they can be grouped together as single class of machines for the
purpose of compression with dynamic type compressors.
****************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 33
ER
AN
FFA AN
NSS A DB
ND LO
BL WE
OW RSS
ER
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
3. FANS AND BLOWERS:
While discussing Compressors, it would only be appropriate to briefly cover

fans and blowers.
Though essentially belonging to the same family of machines, fans and

blowers generally differentiate from compressors in their nomenclature. This
is most likely due to the fact that the pressure development is marginal and
does not affect much of volume reduction.
3.1 Fans:
Fans are used for low pressure when generally the delivery pressure is less
than 0.5 lbs/m2. Fans can also be either centrifugal, axial or mixed flow types.
Fans are generally used to handle very large flow rates and low pressure. Main
applications consist of Combustion Air, Draft, Cooling Towers and Fin
Coolers, Drying Units, Ventilation System etc.
While centrifugal fans would have axial entry and radial exit, the axial fans are
of propeller design having axial entry as well as discharge. Unlike centrifugal
fans, axial flow fans would not have ducts.
3.2 Blowers:
Blowers develop little higher pressure in comparison to fans. They are used
for pressure below 1.65 Psi.
The centrifugal blower produces energy in the air stream by the centrifugal
force and a velocity to the gas by the blades. The scroll shaped volute diffuses
the air and creates an increase in the static pressure by reducing the gas
velocity.
The performance of a centrifugal fan varies with change in conditions like

temperature, speed and density of the gas being handled. Corrections must be
applied to manufacturing standards with respect to operating conditions.
*********************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 44
ER
EL
SSE EC
LE ON
TIIO
CT NO CO
OFF C RE
MPPR
OM OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
4. SELECTION OF COMPRESSORS:
Choosing the right type of compressor is a difficult job as the machine

selection would depend on not only capacity and discharge pressure, but also
on pressure ratio, service, gas composition, duty (continuous or intermittent),
criticality of service, different operating cases etc.
The figure 1 shows the basic pressure-capacity constant speed characteristics

of positive displacement, dynamic type and centrifugal compressors. The
centrifugal compressor is essentially a variable capacity constant pressure
machine. The axial compressor and the positive displacement compressors are
essentially constant capacity, variable pressure machines.
Axial
Centrifugal
Positive
Displacement
Figure 1
These basic characteristics however represents only part of the problem of

choosing the type of compressor best suited to a specific application. Equally
important is the capacity range that can be built into a single machine. As a
general rule, positive displacement machines are for smaller capacities.
Centrifugal compressors are for medium capacities and axial compressors are
for large capacities per machines. As in all other general statements, however,
it must be realized that there is considerable overlap of capacity range between
these different types of compressors.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
105
104
103 Reciprocating
Centrifugal
102
Axial
10
Screw
10 102 103 104 105 106

(CFM)
Ranges for application of reciprocating, centrifugal,

screw and axial compressors
Figure 2
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Although flow limits for compressors are dictated somewhat by the specific
conditions involved and design philosophy of different manufacturers, general
range of compressor selection goes as below.
1. Positive displacement machines below 3000 m3/hr

2. Axial compressors above 30,000 m3/hr
3. Flow region between 3000-12,000 m3/hr can be considered over-lapping
between positive displacement and centrifugal compressors.
4. Flow region between 30,000-1,20,000 m3/hr can be considered as over-
lapped between centrifugal and axial compressors.
******************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 55
ER
CO
C ON DE
NIISSD RA
ER AT ON
TIIO WH
NSS W LE
HIIL EC
E SSPPE CIIFFY NG
YIIN G
CE
C NT
EN UG
RIIFFU
TR AL
GA CO
LC OM RE
MPPR OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
5. CONSIDERATIONS WHILE SPECIFYING CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSORS:
For proper and reliable performance of compressor, the vendor should be

provided with accurate and realistic design data. In past, it is observed that
many serious problems, which caused lot of anxiety during commissioning
and subsequent operation, could be avoided by considering some of the minor
but vital points during contract stage. Effort is made here to discuss some
aspects which need more emphasis during selection / design of the equipment
and which need to be explicitly specified in the inquiry.
1) Basic Data:
It is needless to mention that adequate basic data for carrying out
proper selection and design of compressors must be furnished. The
data includes mass flow, inlet and outlet pressures, inlet temperature,
type of gas, its analysis, and related information like availability of
utilities etc.
Specifying special process requirements and presence of certain

constituents in gas that are dangerous to machine or process will
ensure proper selection of materials and sizing of various equipment.
Presence of potential dangerous impurities like dust, H2S, HCL,
H2SO4, hydroxides, oil vapor etc. even in PPM levels must be
specified.
2) Moisture Separators:
No compressor specification is complete without mentioning the need
of moisture separators following intercoolers or at the inlet of
compressor when liquids may be present in the gas stream.
If separators are not present or inadequately sized, it may lead to

ingress of liquid particles inside compressor causing high rotor
vibrations, pitting and corrosion / erosion of impellers and seals, gas
passages etc. Deposits of solids inside compressor tend to restrict the
flow and causes unbalance in rotor.
Degree of filtration and type of filter, particle size and analysis of dust
should be duly considered to ensure machine safety and process
compatibility.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
3) Excess Capability:
Due to peculiar drooping characteristic curve of centrifugal compressor

at any speed, virtually no possibility exists for increasing the discharge
pressure for additional volume of gas over designed value. In view of
this, the compressor must be built with excess capability for achieving
higher plant loads beyond rated one. This implies that the driver also
must be suitably sized over and above the ten percent reserve specified
in API standards.
4) Operation at off design Point:
Sometimes, compressor is required to operate at conditions, which are

entirely different from those specified. This may involve operation at
different suction and discharge conditions and / or with different type
of gas resulting in lower compressor efficiency and higher operational
cost. Many a times the compressor may not meet a particular operating
case. So it is absolutely must that all the operating conditions including
Start Of Run, End Of Run, Regen Case, Start Up case etc should be
properly envisaged and specified before equipment selection.
5) Parallel Operation:
In some cases additional compressors envisaged for augmenting

existing capacity. These compressors are required to operate in parallel
with existing machines. Since no two compressors can have identical
characteristics, it is quite likely that these machines will operate at
different loads. In extreme case, the desired plant load augmentation
can not be achieved due to the operating point of one of the machines
shifting towards surge limit. Hence, following points need careful
consideration, while deciding parallel operation of compressor:
a) System Resistance:
As the machine designers are not fully aware of variation in system

resistance with plant load. It is therefore extremely important that all
aspects of system resistance shall be thoroughly discussed before
recommending parallel operation.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
b) Characteristics of Existing Machines:
The actual characteristics of existing machines under all

operating conditions should be furnished to enable selection of
a compressor with optimum matching characteristics.
c) Control System:
Generally, system resistance curve does not follow compressor

characteristics. This implies that the selection of proper control
system is necessary for successful parallel operation.
6) Noise Control:
In order to reduce total noise, the various contributions must be

identified and evaluated. The ideal method for reducing noise is to
prevent generation of noise by better design as
- use of acoustic abatement in compressor hall

- proper dimensioning of compressor hall to eliminate noise due
to resonance
- Better ventilation in compressor hall with preferably sides open
at least upto working level.
- Use of special low noise valves
- Isolation of background plant noise
- Proper location of high noise auxiliary equipment
But this may involve higher cost. Practical approach would be to try to
reduce noise level after the compressor and auxiliary equipment are
installed by use of acoustic abatement.
7) Instrumentation & Control:
The objective of any compressor is to achieve smooth capacity

regulation and to prevent the compressor from surging, even the
process flow reduces below the surge limit of compressor. In order to
achieve this objective effectively, it is advisable to include compressor
control in the scope of machine manufacturer, who has better
knowledge about the performance characteristic of machine and
provide correct type of instruments necessary for the service.
************************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 66
ER
CE
C NT
EN UG
RIIFFU
TR AL
GA CO
LC OM RE
MPPR OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
6. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS:
Centrifugal compressors are employed in numerous fields, chemical and

petrochemical industries, refineries, fertilizer plants, nuclear reactors and air
separation plants, iron and steel plants, production of liquefied natural gas
(LNG) and substitute natural gas (SNG), cryogenic and refrigeration plants,
mining, transportation and storage of gas, on-shore and off-shore installations.
The range of application can be expanded still further by combining these
centrifugal compressors with other compressor type such as axial flow or
reciprocating compressors.
The wide range of processes in which centrifugal compressors are employed

makes varying demands on these machines. Compressor demand is dependent
on such factors as fluid handled, pressure ratio, the volume flow, the number
of inter stage coolers, injection and extraction of the medium, and the type of
shaft sealing.
Taking all this factors into consideration, the major compressor manufacturers
have developed series of centrifugal compressors offering optimum
engineering solution implemented by the use of standard components. These
series include the two basic types, distinguished by horizontally or vertically
split casing, compressors with two or three pairs of main nozzles, and
compressors with additional side stream nozzles.
Horizontally split casing permits simple removal of rotor and facilitates the
checking of labyrinth clearances and o-rings. As pressure level rise and gas
molecular becomes smaller, vertical split casings are employed.
6.1 Horizontal Split Centrifugal:
Centrifugal compressors with horizontally split casing typically permit internal

pressures of 70 bar and volume flow rates of upto 3,00,000 m3/hr at low
pressures. Drive ratings of 30 MW for single casing machines have already
been implemented.
Figure 3 shows a cross section of a six-stage horizontally split centrifugal

compressor. Standardized components ensure high availability and easy
fitting. The two halves of casing are sealed and bolted together.
The rigid structure is supported at the centerline, thus preventing vertical

shifting of the compressor shaft as result of thermal expansion. For erection
and dismantling purposes, the top half of the casing, complete with the
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
associated stationary components, can be handled as a single unit. All types of

drives can be employed, for example, gas turbines, steam turbines, and electric
motors.
Many processes require compression of a fluid in one process stage only, i.e.
continuous compression from the first to the final stage with constant mass
flow rate.
Most major centrifugal compressor manufacturers build machines for the field
of application with up to nine or as many as twelve compression stages.
Aerodynamic matching of the individual compression stages is by means of
diaphragms with diffuser channels and vaned return passages. Following the
final stage, the compressed gas enters a collecting chamber in the form of a
volute before it reaches the discharge nozzle. The shaft is supported in
bearings out side the compression space. Shaft sealing is means of tried and
proven systems such as labyrinth ring, mechanical contact or non-contact
seals.
The wide range of possible variations in the materials used and in the selection
of the sealing system render compressors of this series suitable for virtually all
fields of application in industry, chemical and petrochemical and processes,
and for almost all gases and mixtures of gases.
Figure 3
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 4
Figure 5
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
6.2 Sidestream Compressors
In multistage refrigeration processes, different mass flows pass through the

various refrigeration stages. Sidestreams therefore have to or extracted from
the main flow in the compressor at process-dependent pressures and
temperatures. Injection or extraction is by means of additional nozzles.
Incase of gas injection, the side stream is mixed with the main stream in the
return channel. Mixing takes place over the entire periphery. When a stream is
extracted, a separating volute removes part of the main stream. The
compressor stages are designed to correspond to the stages of the refrigeration
process. The working media for the refrigeration process are primarily
ethylene, propylene, ethane and propane. Refrigeration process usually form a
closed cycle, rather less frequently a semi-open cycle.
In centrifugal compressor with two main nozzles pairs, the two process stages
can be arranged back to back, i.e., flow in the two process stages is in the
opposite directions, or they can be arranged in series. In the double flow
version, the compression process of both stages terminates in a common
discharge nozzle.
Figure 6 BACK TO BACK ARRANGEMENT
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Back to back arrangement of the first and third stages or series arrangement of
the stages is also possible. Typical back to back arrangement is shown in the
figure 6.
Tried and proven labyrinth seals separate the individual process stages. The
choice of the seal system is dictated by the service. Whereas casings with two
main nozzle pairs are widely employed for a variety of media and processes,
casing with three process stages are mainly employed for air, oxygen and
nitrogen. The medium is normally cooled outside the compressor. Interstage
cooling produces an almost isothermal compression process. This requires
least compression work. Intercooling also becomes necessary when the
temperature produced by compression has to be limited.
In most compression systems, the coolers are mounted separately, permitting a
high degree of freedom in design and layout. However, compressors with
internally arranged coolers are available from some manufacturers and may
merit consideration when the ultimate in compactness must be achieved.
Figure 7 THREE STAGE INTEGRAL GEARED COMPRESSOR
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
6.3 OVERHUNG COMPRESSORS:
Depending upon the flow and differential pressure requirements. Single stage
centrifugal compressors are also built in overhung design. This design is very
similar to overhung (End suction) pumps in which the suction takes place in
axial direction and the discharge takes in the radial direction into the scroll
casing. Seals of different designs can be used at the back of impeller to
prevent leakage to atmosphere. The bearings are mostly sleeve / tilting pad
suitably designed to take care of radial and axial loads.
Figure 8 OVERHUNG COMPRESSOR
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
6.4 Vertically Split Compressors
Vertically split (barrel type) centrifugal compressors are the preferred, and
sometimes are mandatory design for high pressure or for compressing gases
rich in hydrogen. The cylindrical casing ensures good stress distribution and
extremely good gas tightness. Unlike the casing, the stationary internal
components of the compressors, with the exception of the seal components,
are horizontally split. During the assembly of the compressor they are
mounted together with the rotor and are inserted axially into the casing. The
end covers are retained by the shear ring segments. Some designs have bolted
end covers. A cross-section view is shown in the figure 10.
The inlet and the discharge nozzles are welded to the cylindrical casing or,
where heavy wall thickness is involved, are integral with the casing; the pipe
work is bolted to these nozzles. These compressors are built for two process
stages; in this case they feature two main nozzle pairs.
The main fields of application for barrel type are in handling gases rich in
hydrogen; hydro cracking; synthesis of ammonia urea, and methanol; gas lift
and reinjection; and transportation of gas in pipelines.
A compressor with one stage is often adequate for compression applications

involving low head. For such applications, the user may choose from
compressor types that may be vertically or horizontally split. As mentioned
earlier, the vertically split version is particularly suitable for high pressure and
for compressing gases of low molecular weight.
Depending on the operating conditions involved the tried and proven systems
employing labyrinth, mechanical contact, or floating ring seals are used for
shaft sealing. Non-contact seals (Dry gas seals) has acquired large acceptance
due to high reliability, compactness and simpler control systems.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 9
Figure 10 CROSS SECTION OF VERTICALLY

SPLIT COMPRESSOR
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
6.5 COMPRESSOR TRAINS:
Large pressure ratios cannot be handled by one single casing alone. Similarly
it is not possible to split the compression cycle into more than two or three
stages within one casing. The major compressor manufacturers therefore build
compressor trains that may consist of up to four separate casings. These
separate compressors, which need not be of same type, are interconnected by
couplings; they can be powered by a common driver. When additional timing
gearing are used, the compressors casings may also be run at different speeds.
The train is designed so that a minimum of dismantling is necessary for
maintenance, i.e., when a vertically split casing is used, it is located at the
opposite end of the driver.
**************************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 77
ER
CO
C TR
NSST
ON UC
RU ON
TIIO
CT AL
NA EA
L FFE TU
AT RE
UR ESS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
7. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Each application requires its own casing configuration. In spite of this, the
internal design and construction of a centrifugal compressor is often
essentially the same. This allows the use of standard components.
The components that are important for the compression function are the rotor
and the energy converting parts.
The rotor consists of the shaft and the impellers. The number of impellers is
determined by the aerodynamic operating conditions, but is limited by the
mechanical and dynamic behavior of the rotor. The shaft is carried in a
pressure lubricated tilting pad / sleeve bearings; one of these is a purely a
radial bearing, while other is either or a combined radial and thrust bearing.
The shaft is generally provided with a balance piston to reduce axial thrust.
Figure 11 CROSS SECTION OF A VERTICALLY SPLIT COMPRESSOR
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Shaft seals separate the gas spaces from the oil-lubricated bearings and the
atmosphere. Simple labyrinth seals, multi-ported labyrinths with buffer gas,
mechanical contact, floating ring seals or dry gas seals may be employed, the
choice being dictated by the process involved and the fluid handled.
The materials for the rotor, internals, and casing are selected on the basis of
their mechanical properties and compatibility with the fluid to be compressed.
A lube oil system and a seal liquid system supply the bearings and the liquid
seals with the required volume of oil and seal liquid.
Figure 12
The fluid to be compressed passes through the inlet nozzle and
aerodynamically designed inlet channel into the first impeller. An adjustable
inlet guide vane unit may precede the first impeller. Impellers and diffusers
following them are designed so as to provide optimum low-loss compression
cycle. After the diffuser channel, the gas enters the return bend, which guides
it to the vaned return channel and then it reaches the impeller of the next stage
with the correct angle of incidence.
Figure 13 VERTICAL SPLIT (BARREL) COMPRESSOR

SHEAR RING DESIGN
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Immediately following the final stage or an intermediate stage, after which the
compressed gas leaves the compressor, the diffuser opens out into a volute that
widens gradually in the direction of flow to match the increase in volume.
Figure 14 COMPRESSOR HAVING

EXTERNAL INJECTION
The standard impeller in many centrifugal compressors is the type with

backward-leaning blades and cover. This type of impeller may feature blades
curved in two or three dimensions. Impellers with three-dimensional blading
have high capacity limits, due to the large eye diameter relative to the outside
diameter and a large outlet width.
7.1 Manufacture of Impellers:
Five typical manufacturing methods are available for the efficient production
of impellers: milling and riveting, milling and brazing, milling and welding,
welding and welding, and casting.
Impellers fabricated by milling and riveting have gas passages milled from the
solid impeller disc. The cover is riveted in place. This long-established method
combines great mechanical strength and reliability with high aerodynamic
quality, i.e., dimensional accuracy (particularly important for narrow gas
passages) and good surface finish.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Milled and brazed impellers are used when thin blades and narrow gas
passages with good aerodynamic properties are necessary. As in the case of
riveted impellers, the gas passages are milled from the solid impeller disc, the
cover is then brazed into place with a gold-nickel brazing alloy, using a high
temperature, high vacuum process. The strength of brazed joint is equal to that
of the parent metal, it is totally immune to Sulfide stress corrosion cracking.
When access to the gas passages is good, i.e., when the passages are wide, the
impellers are of milled and welded construction. The blades are milled from
the solid impeller disc or welded to it. In both instances the cover is welded to
the blades by a continuous weld.
Figure 15 OPEN IMPELLER
If a number of identical impellers are required, casting is the most economical

method of manufacturing them. Large impellers are cast in sand moulds.
Precision casting processes that ensure, usually good quality of the product are
being used to an increasing extent for small impellers.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 16 CLOSED IMPELLER
7.1 Impeller Testing:
Tests are carried out on material specimens, prior to and after manufacturing,
to prove the required properties. On the completion of manufacture, the
dimensions of the impeller are checked, after which the impeller is tested for
cracks, using dye penetration or magnetic particle methods. The impeller is
then initially balanced and run at over speed.
Spinning test is performed on all impellers at 115 % of Maximum Continuous

Speed in the vacuum chamber. After overspeeding, the impeller is once again
checked for dimensional accuracy and tested for cracks. On successful
completion of these tests, the impeller is rebalanced.
7.2 ROTOR
The shaft carries the impellers and balance piston. It is supported in tilting
pad, plain or modified (contoured) sleeve bearings. The impellers and the
balance piston are shrunk onto the shaft. Multi-part rings or similar
components locate the impellers in the direction of the axial thrust. The shrink
fit offers the advantage of uniform stress distribution over the whole
circumference and a constant self-centering effect. This shrink fit is designed
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
so that after the bore has expanded due to centrifugal force at maximum speed,
sufficient shrinkage effect still exists to transmit the torque and the axial
thrust. At the same time, the impellers can be removed when ever necessary
without damage.
The balance piston balances the axial thrust produced by pressure differential
across the impellers. Part of axial thrust is automatically balanced with a back
to back layout. All component parts such as shaft, impellers, balance piston,
and couplings are separately balanced, after which the complete rotor is
assembled. Each time another component is added, concentricity of running is
checked. The stress produced by the shaft by the shrink fit method of
mounting the impellers and balancing piston are relieved by running the
complete rotor upto operating speed.
Figure 17
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
7.3 BEARINGS:
Tilting pad bearings support and locate the compressor rotor. They employ the
hydrodynamic principle and are designed in the light of the most recent
scientific and engineering knowledge in this field. The running surfaces of the
bearings are divided into segments and inserted into the horizontally split
bearing bracket. This bearing bracket is positioned in the bottom half of the
bearing housing and is typically secured in place by bolted bearing retainer.
Properly designed compressor bearings can be inserted without the
compressor casing having to be opened.
All bearings except magnetic bearings have pressurized oil lubrication. A

lubricating oil system supplies them with a flow of oil sufficient to form an oil
film on the running surfaces and to dissipate the heat produced by friction. Oil
is piped centrally to the bearings. Retaining rings fitted at both sides' control
the rate of discharge of oil from the bearing via the gap set.
7.4.1 Radial Bearing:
The radial bearing, often specially developed by compressor manufactures, is

a multipad bearing with four or five pads arranged so that stationary shaft rests
on one of them or, in some designs, between pads. In a multipad bearing, the
reaction forces act over the entire circumference and therefore stabilize the
position of the shaft. In addition the tilting pads adjust automatically to suit the
operating condition; optimum load distribution is therefore achieved at all
times. With exception of certain exception special designs, these pads are
symmetrically supported and therefore are unaffected by the sense of rotation.
Figure 18
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 19 TILTING PAD JOURNAL BEARING
7.3.2 Thrust Bearing
At the non-drive end of the compressor, the radial bearing is combined with a
thrust bearing, also frequently specially developed by the compressor
manufacturer. This bearing employs the principle of a double adjustable pad
thrust bearings and absorbs the residual rotor thrust resulting from the
unbalanced gas forces acting on the impellers and balance piston.
Figure 20 THRUST BEARING
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
The tilting pads are sometimes asymmetrically supported. The axial thrust is
determined with the most modern methods available, taking into consideration
all the aerodynamic effects that arise. A certain amount of residual thrust has a
stabilizing effect, since the rotor is then in contact with a specific side of the
bearing. The design chosen and the load-bearing capacity of the thrust bearing
must ensure the operational readiness of the compressor even if thrust
reversals and sudden loads occur during the widely varying operational phases
the compressor may experience. Figure illustrates a combination radial / thrust
tilting-pad bearing.
Figure 21 THRUST BEARING WORKING PRINCIPLE

HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
THRUST BEARINGS ARRANGEMENT
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
7.4 CASINGS
The two halves of horizontally split compressors are joined together by

hydraulically pretensioned bolts. The joint is sealed by a suitable sealant. The
vertically split casings are provided with end covers retained by shear rings.
Many barrel machines have Bolted End Cover design. O-rings joints between
inner casing and barrel casing provide proper sealing of the gas zone from the
atmosphere.
Casings are supported at the centerline. The pedestal supports at the drive end
are fixed points, so that axial thermal expansion is in the direction of the free
end of the shaft. Lateral alignment is provided by guide lugs in the vertical
center plane of the compressor. Thermal expansion of shaft and casing is
compensated by the rotor being located by the thrust bearing at the free end of
the casing.
Positioning of the suction and discharge nozzles can be arranged to suit

requirements. Compressor casings are hydraulically tested at 1.5 times the
maximum operating pressure.
Barrel Type
Compressor
Horizontal split
compressor
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
7.5 STATIONARY COMPONENTS:
The term Stationary components refers to the inner channel, the diffuser and
the return channel.
Impellers achieve optimum efficiency and operating characteristics only if the

inlet flow is free of disturbances i.e. unswirled, and exhibits a uniform velocity
profile. Factors such as these are extremely important for impellers of high
suction capacity.
Single shaft process compressors have radial intakes, and the flow therefore
has to be deflected through 900 prior to entry into the first impeller. High
quality compressors are manufactured with inlet channel designs that meet the
above requirements. These incorporate standard stationary blades, which,
distributed over the periphery, exhibit defined angular settings. Similarly,
these centrifugal compressors would have as a standard vaneless annular
diffusers that have parallel walls or profiled cross sections. This feature
ensures a wide range of regulation with almost constant optimum efficiency.
Leading manufacturers have developed special cross-sectional profiles that

produce wider ranges of regulation and better efficiencies than parallel wall
diffusersespecially with high capacity impellers. As the gas passages
become smaller in cross-sectional area, the surface finish of the diffuser has a
decisive effect on the stage efficiency. In special cases, the surfaces are
therefore coated. Particular importance is attached to smooth inflow into the
following impeller in the design of the return channels, the blading of which is
generally profiled. Like the impellers, they are normally milled from the solid
material to ensure a superior surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 88
ER
EA
SSE AL NG
LIIN EL
GE EM
LE EN
ME TSS
NT
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
8. SEALING ELEMENTS:
The long term reliable operation of centrifugal compressors must be ensured

by thoroughly well proven sealing elements.
Labyrinth seals minimize the flow around the impellers and hence also
minimize leakage losses. These labyrinths are located over the rim of the
impeller eye on the inlet side and close to the shaft over the hub at the back of
the impeller on the discharge side. Centrifugal compressors with several
nozzle pairs employ labyrinth seals to separate the individual process stages.
Labyrinth seals that prevent lube oil and oil mist from escaping from the
bearing chambers are also used to seal the bearing housings. Thoroughly
proven seal systems seal the shaft exits. Depending on specific requirements,
multiported labyrinth, floating ring, or mechanical contact systems are
employed for this purpose.
Multiported labyrinth seals with buffer gas injection are used when buffer gas
can be allowed to mix with the process gas. Provision for ejection can be made
in order to avoid excessive leakage of process gas. In all other instances,
floating ring or mechanical non-contact or contact seals are used.
8.1 LABYRINTH SEALS:
The labyrinth seal is a noncontacting seal. It consists of a number of sealing

strips in an insert in the stationary part of the compressor. This insert is
horizontally split and easily replaced. Sealing strips are also sometimes fitted
to the shaft. Straight or stepped labyrinth may be employed, depending on
the specific need.
The labyrinth seal forms a series of throttling points, at each of which the
pressure differential is decreased. The smaller the clearance, the distance
between the labyrinth strips and the surface of the shaft, the more the leakage
reduces. The turbulence zones between the strips enhance the throttling effect.
The pressure difference involved dictates the number of labyrinth strips. If
absolutely reliable separation of the oil and process gas spaces is necessary, a
multiported labyrinth seal with injection of buffer gas under controlled
pressure is used. Part of this gas flows outward and prevents atmospheric air
from entering, while the remainder passes into port at lower pressure and
connected to a leak-off line.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
The multiported labyrinth system is very adaptable. For instance, a seal

employing buffer gas only and with a smaller flow of buffer gas into the
compressor, is just as feasible as a seal without buffer gas from which a
mixture of atmospheric air and the compressed medium are evacuated.
All interstage seals meant to present recirculation and bypassing of diffusers

and return channels are also of labyrinth design. So are the end seals used for
the purpose of equalizing or reduction of pressures on both ends of the
compressors.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 22 CARBON BUSHING
Figure 23 LABYRINTH SEALING
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 24 FLOATING RING SEAL
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
8.2 FLOATING RING SEAL
In conjunction with a seal liquid introduction under pressure, the floating ring
seal illustrated in Fig 24 & 25 prevents process gas from escaping at even the
highest of operating pressures. It operates without mechanical contact and
therefore without wear. This type of seal consist of the inner ring between the
process gas space and the seal liquid space, and the outer ring that permits
enough seal liquid to escape outward to ensure adequate cooling of the seal.
The form of the intermediate ring leads to intensive heat dissipation away
from the inner ring. Sealing is maintained by the controlled seal liquid
pressure being above the process gas pressure at all times. Clearance between
the inner ring and the shaft is such that only very little seal liquid passes
through the gas side. Since this clearance is smaller than the bearing clearance
and also because of rotor dynamics considerations, the sealing rings are
designed to float, i.e. they can follow any radial shaft deflections without
acting like bearing supports.
The seal liquid enters the seal via supply pipe. Most of it is discharged
outward through the radial gap formed by the outer ring. A small volume
flows drain via the radial gap formed by the inner ring. Seal liquid is
prevented from entering the compressor by a constant flow of buffer gas from
the supply pipe to drain port via labyrinths. The mixture of seal oil and buffer
gas is led to an automatic separator, which separates the sour oil. Sour oil in
the term generally used when oil comes in contact with process gas, which
may affect oil properties upon mixing with oil. Use of buffer gas avoids this
problem.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 25 FLOATING RING SEAL
8.3 MECHANICAL CONTACT SEAL:
The mechanical contact seals shown in Fig 26 employs a stationary carbon

ring in sliding contact with a rotating ring manufactured from high quality
material with a special finish. A seal liquid is employed. This type of seal is
also effective when the compressor is at standstill and the oil pumps have been
shut down.
The main components are the carbon ring and the rotating ring for inward
sealing. In the outboard direction, a floating ring controls the flow of the seal
liquid that cools the seal.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
The sealing liquid enters the seal via the supply pipe and flushes the seal ring
components via the holes in the distributor ring. The pressure of the liquid is
higher than that of the gas, so that the carbon ring, under constant spring
pressure, is always kept in sliding contact with the rotating ring. Some of the
liquid wets the sliding surface and reduces the wear. Only a very small
proportion of this liquid passes to the gas side. A controlled flow of buffer /
process gas flowing through a labyrinth to drain port entrains this leakage
liquid and leads it to the separator. O-rings fitted externally and within the seal
reliably separate the buffer gas and seal liquid spaces.
Clean oil in
Contaminated
oil out
Inlet Gas
Pressure
Atmosphere
Stationary
face Rotating face
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
8.4 MECHANICAL NON-CONTACT SEALS (GAS SEALS):
These novel seals are very similar in function and geometry to mechanical
contact seals. Instead of a sealing liquid, they use a small quantity of a clean
sealing gas. The seal faces operate without actually making contact. The
escaping seal gas separates the seal faces by a fraction of a thousandth of a
millimeter.
8.4.1 Principle of Operation:
Simply explained, the seal typically comprises of an O ring sealed carbon

FACE, located in a stainless steel retainer, spring loaded against a rotating
carbide SEAT, fixed to the shaft, as seen in figure.
Figure 27 DRY GAS SEAL
Sealing of the fluid is achieved at the radial interface of the rotating and
stationary rings by a unique and ingenious method. The sealing surfaces are
lapped to a high degree of flatness, but the rotating carbide ring has a series of
logarithmic spiral grooves machined into its running face. The profile of these
grooves is shown in figure, which also shows the nomenclature associated
with the design of the seat.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 28
With rotation, fluid is drawn inwards towards the root of the groove, called the
sealing dam. The sealing dam provides resistance to flow. Increasing the
pressure . The generated pressure lifts the carbon ring surface out of contact
with the tungsten carbide ring by a precise amount, typically 3 microns. The
gap between the radial faces is set when the opening forces due to hydrostatic
pressure and spring load equate to the integral of the pressure distribution
within the sealed gas film.
Figure 29
The sealing gap should remain constant for optimum performance; a small gap
is desirable for low leakage, but contact of the sealing faces must not occur.
These conditions are achieved in spite of axial movements and angular
deflections of the sealing faces, which may be due to pressure and thermal
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
distortions. Figure illustrates the changes in opening force due to the change in
gap resulting from axial movements.
If the movements tend to increase the sealing gap, the pressure generated by
the spiral grooves (opening force) is decreased. As the closing force remains
constant a resultant restoring force is created. Similarly, if shaft movements
tend to decrease the gap, the opening force is increased and equilibrium
running restored.
Figure 30
******************************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 99
ER
AU
A UX AR
LIIA
XIIL YE
RY QU
EQ ME
UIIPPM NT
EN T
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
9. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT:
The driver, suitable gearing, and the couplings have to be matched, with the
compressor to the specific application requirements of the plant and to the
conditions on the site. It is only then that the maximum of operational
reliability is ensured.
One of the requirements for smooth and economical compressor operation is

control and regulation to match operational needs plus inherent functional
reliability of the coolers and lubrication and seal liquid systems.
Monitoring of the bearings via the oil temperature, for example and
measurements of shaft vibrations and shaft position ensure that potential
trouble during compressor operation is recognized at an early stage. The
monitoring equipment, together with the alarm systems and controls, is
accommodated in control panels.
9.1 Drive Components:
Couplings interconnect the various units of a compressor train. Dry coupling

like disc-pack, diaphragm or curved tooth gear couplings are employed as a
rule. Couplings of these types allow angular deflection and axial deflection,
but they are nevertheless torsionally stiff. Dry couplings i.e. metal disc-pack /
diaphragm couplings these days are preferred and have almost replaced
lubricated gear coupling.
9.2 Gear Units:
The compressor units, which are driven by electrical motor usually, would
have gear increases to enable running compressors at operating speeds. The
gear units are accordingly built to ensure high reliability of the compressor
train.
9.3 Lube Oil System:
The lube oil system supplies oil to the compressor and driver bearings and to
the gears and couplings. Fig 31 illustrates a typical type of lube oil system.
The lube oil starts off in the reservoir from where it is drawn by the pumps and
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
fed under pressure through coolers and filters to the bearings. On leaving the
bearings, the oil drains back to the reservoir.
Figure 31 A TYPICAL LUBE OIL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
The reservoir is designed to permit circulation of its entire contents between

eight and twelve times per hour. Oil level and temperature are constantly
monitored. The oil can be preheated electrically or indirectly by steam for
starting up at low temperatures. A thermostat with surface temperature limiter
prevents overheating of the oil. The reservoir is vented or purged with
nitrogen.
Oil is normally circulated by the main oil pump. An auxiliary pump serves as
a standby. These two pumps generally have different types of drive. When
both are driven electrically, they are connected to separate electric supply
networks. Relief valves protect both pumps from the effect of excessively high
pressures. Non return valves prevent reverse flow of oil through the stationary
pumps.
Heat generated by friction in the bearings is transferred to the cooling medium

in the oil coolers. The return temperature is monitored by a temperature
switch. Air cooled oil coolers may be employed as an alternative to water as
coolant. The formers have long been used in regions where water is in short
supply. Twin coolers with provision for changeover have filling and venting
connections so that the standby cooler can be filled with oil prior to changing
over. This eliminates the possibility of disturbances and damage due to air
bubbles in the pipework system. Twin oil filters with provision for changeover
has the same facility.
A pressure-regulating valve is controlled via the pressure downstream of the

filters and maintains constant oil pressure by regulating the quantity of
bypassed oil. The auxiliary oil pump is switched on by a pressure switch if the
oil pressure falls. A second pressure switch shuts down the compressor plant if
the pressure still continues to fall.
The filters clean the lube oil before it reaches the lubrication point. A
differential pressure gauge monitors the degree of fouling of the filters.
An overhead tank can be provided to ensure a supply of lubricant to the

bearings in the event of faults while the compressor coasts down. A
continuous flow of oil through an orifice maintains the header oil constantly at
operating temperature. Should be pressure in the lube oil system fall, the non-
return valve beneath the tank opens to provide a flow of oil.
The flow of oil to each bearing is regulated individually by orifices,

particularly important for lubrication points requiring different pressures. Lube
oil for the driver and other users is taken from branch lines.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Temperatures and pressures are measured at all important locations in the

system, the readings can be taken locally or transmitted to a monitoring station
Except for a few components, the lube oil system is a conveniently installed
packaged unit supplied complete and ready for installation. Oil pumps, coolers
and filters are grouped around the oil reservoir on a common base plate.
Design and construction of the lube oil system must take into account the
relevant regulations and any special requirements. On such requirements
might be blanketing with inert gas, another might be the on-stream purification
of lube oil by modern vacuum dehydrator units.
As the standby pump is always on AUTO, the smooth changeover in the event
of main pump stopping must be checked. It is a good practice to install
suitably sized lube oil accumulator in the lube oil system.
9.4 Seal Liquid System:
The seal liquid system supplies the mechanical contact and floating ring seals
with an adequate flow of seal liquid at all times, thus ensuring that they
function correctly. An effective seal is provided at the settling-out pressure
when the compressor is not running.
Starting in the main oil reservoir the medium passes to the seals via the
pumps, the twin oil coolers, and the twin filters.
Instruments for monitoring the oil level and temperature are mounted on the
reservoir. If necessary, the seal oil is heated, a thermostat with surface
temperature limiter protects against excessively high temperatures.
Every system has a main oil pump and an auxiliary oil pump with independent
drives. They are designed for higher capacity delivery rate than is actually
needed by the seals. To protect the pumps and downstream equipment, safety
valves are fitted. Non return valves after each pump prevent seal oil from
flowing back to the reservoir through the stationary pumps.
The coolers dissipate the heat transferred to the seal oil. A temperature switch
monitors the permissible temperature range.
The filters retain all impurities, the pressure drop across them being checked
by a differential pressure indicator.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
The floating ring seals are supplied with seal oil at a defined differential
pressure above the reference gas pressure (pressure within the inner seal
drain).
FIGURE 32
The flow of seal oil is regulated by a differential pressure regulating valve,

which if there are changes in the reference gas pressure, regulates the pressure
of the seal oil, or as shown by a level control valve that maintains a constant
level in the overhead tank. The oil in the overhead tank is in contact with the
reference gas pressure via a separate line. The static head provides the
required pressure differential. In addition, the oil in the overhead tank
compensates for pressure fluctuation s and serves as a run-down supply if
pressure is lost. If the level in tank falls excessively, a level switch shuts down
the compressor plant. There is a constant flow of oil through the overhead
tank, and this heats the oil at all times.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
To prevent oil from gaining ingress to the compressor, the space between the
oil drain and compression space is sealed by a flow of gas. The pressure of this
sealing gas or buffer gas is above the pressure of the reference gas. A
differential pressure indicator monitors the pressure differential.
The flow of seal oil divides in the compressor seals. Most of the flow returns
under gravity to the reservoir. A small quantity passes through the inner seal
ring to the inner drain, where it is exposed to the gas pressure. This oil, mixed
with the buffer gas is led to the separator system. On each side this consist of a
separator and a trap. The separated gas is led either to the flare stack or to the
suction side of the compressor. The oil flows into a tank for degassing.
If the oil becomes unusable, it is led away for separate treatment.
The quantities of oil passing through the inner drain in well-designed

centrifugal compressors are very small.
Temperature and pressure measuring points with local or remote reading are
provided at all major points of the seal liquid system.
The seal oil system may be combined with the lube oil system if the gas does
not adversely affect the lubricating qualities of the oil or provided the oil made
unserviceable by the gas does not return into the oil system.
There are two methods of combining lube oil and seal oil systems. In the first
of these, the oil pressure can be raised to the pressure required for lubrication
purposes and part of it then raised further to the pressure needed for sealing
(booster system). Alternatively, all the oil is initially raised to the seal oil
pressure and flow of oil required for lubrication is then reduced in pressure
(combined system).
9.5 SEAL GAS MONITORING & CONTROL SYSTEM:
The basic principle of gas seals has been described in earlier sections. To
assure a safe and continuous operation of gas seals, control and monitoring
systems are necessary, which have to comply with the seal arrangement and
application.
Control and monitoring system has been described for a typical tandem seal in
the following sections.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
9.5.1 TANDEM SEAL CHARACTERISTICS
The tandem seal is essentially consisting of two pairs of mechanical seals,

which are installed one after the other. Usually the primary seal, which means
the seal on the process side, seals from process pressure to flare pressure. The
secondary seal seals from flare pressure to atmosphere. The process gas
leakage is discharged to the flare. The advantage of a tandem seal is its safety.
If there is a failure of the primary seal the secondary seal takes the task of the
primary seal and works like a single seal.
Contain the tandem seal with Intermediate Labyrinth, then Nitrogen is

buffered between the secondary seal and the labyrinth, which prevents, that
process gas vent appears as secondary leakage to the atmosphere. In this case,
the process gas leakage is routed together with the nitrogen to the flare.
For a long-lasting successful operation of the gas seals, clean gas with
particles bigger than 5 micron should not get in front of the seal. This is
required for to avoid deposits, which may prevent the dynamic O-ring and
therefore the face from free movement. For to clean the buffer gas a filter
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
system is applied. The cleaned buffer gas is routed into the sealing cavity in
front of the gas seal.
The primary leakage is controlled by the leakage control system before it is

routed to vent or flare.
9.5.2 THE FILTER GAS SYSTEM
The filter gas supply is assured by a filter gas system. The main components
are the filter block, which includes the filters and several valves, and a
distribution unit, which routes the filtered gas to each seal.
The uncleaned process gas passes a double filter system, in which only one
filter is in operation. The spare filter is only used in case that the filter in
operation is contaminated and needs to be changed or cleaned.
The filtered gas is passing a distribution unit, which includes hand control
valves and flow indicators. The adjusted filter gas is then routed into the cavity
in front of the seal.
During start up, as there is relatively low differential pressure between

discharge and sealing pressure, it is not ensured that the gas seals will be
supplied with a sufficient amount of filtered gas. To eliminate these, start up
Nitrogen is flushed into the filter gas system without any adjustment required
in the filter gas valves.
Flow meters are installed in the filter gas lines that indicate the filter gas flow
to each seal installed on a machine. In case the flow rate to each seal keeps
dropping for any reason, it is no longer assured that only filtered process gas is
reaching the seal. This may further cause contaminated process gas go into the
seal and may cause damage to seal. To prevent this, a low alarm will be
released if flow drops below a preset value.
9.5.3 THE LEAKAGE GAS SYSTEM:
Each seal is equipped with a leakage gas system that discharges the leakage
gas, and in case of an inner labyrinth, also nitrogen to flare through orifice.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Pressure switch and transmitters are installed upstream the orifice that monitor
the pressure in the line. If the secondary seal fails or if the buffer nitrogen gas
flow setting is too low, the pressure sensed by the switches shall be very low
and an alarm will be generated. If primary seal leaks, there will be high
pressure sensed by the transmitters and reaching on a preset value, alarm and
trip signals shall be generated.
A differential pressure switch is installed between filter gas and leakage gas to
prevent back flow from the flare header into the seal.
There are flow meters installed in the, flare line which monitor gas flow to
flare. This is a combined leakage of buffer gas and primary seal leakage. If
primary seal fails, this flow will increase and at a preset value, high alarm
shall be released. If flow drops too low, it indicates that there is no sufficient
nitrogen flow or a secondary seal is failed. This generates a low flow alarm.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
9.5.4 BUFFER GAS SYSTEM
The buffer gas is supplied between the cavity of the secondary seal and the
interspace labyrinth that takes the leakage from the primary seal into the flare
line. A pressure control valve reduced the nitrogen supply pressure to the
needed buffer gas pressure. The uncleaned buffer gas passes through the filter
and through the distribution unit to the seal.
Pressure switches and flow meters are installed in the line to assure
predetermined buffer gas flow and pressure to the seal.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1100
ER
DR
D VE
RIIV ER OR
RSS FFO CO
RC RE
MPPR
OM OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
10 DRIVERS FOR COMPRESSOR:
A compressor may be driven by means of an electric motor, a steAm turbine

or a gas turbine. The choice is always dictated by an economic balance
between initial installation cost and operating cost for the depreciation period
of the plant. Selection of driver vastly depends upon steam and power balance
of the plant. Other factors, which influence the selection, include variation
requirement (operating envelope), capital and operating cost.
10.5 Steam Turbines:
Selection of steam turbines as driver is generally dictated by steam availability

and speed variation required. The process plants having exothermic chemical
reactions i.e. in plant steam generators, which increase the steam availability,
also favor the selection of steam turbine as driver.
From the point of view of compression group, steam turbine drivers have three
advantages:
1) Possibility of direct drive, which avoids the introduction of gear box,

which is always a critical item and available only upto a certain power
and within certain gear ratios.
2) Regulating facilities, the governor of the turbine can be interlocked to a

process signal (intake pressure, intake or delivery capacity) so by
simply varying the turbine speed the operating level can be maintained
at the point desired.
3) Startup facility: After the turbine has been warmed up, the train can be
started gradually. The rpm can be increased gradually, without rapid
acceleration that is, without high inertia torque.
In conclusion, the turbine is an ideal driver for the centrifugal compressor. The
substantial disadvantage is that the cost of the initial investment is notably
higher than that necessary for an electric motor. However, it is employed in
those cases where the cost of steam is low.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
10.6 Electric Motors:
Electric motor drivers present the following advantages:
1) Low initial investment cost
2) The compression train always operates at the same speed, which

reduces notably, the risk of mechanical stability problems, naturally it
is easier to determine a stable condition for a single speed than for a
wide operating speed range.
3) Extreme reliability, the electric motor is one of the oldest and most
tried amongst modern machines, electrical or mechanical problems are
highly unlikely, and there is little doubt that it is a very safe machine.
The disadvantages of motor drivers are:
Regulation Having to work with fixed speed, the compressor must be

designed for a latest operating point, that is for a point which, in the case of
variable speed drive, would require the highest speed.
If the plant is required to operate at two points, two systems can be used:
The first requires the introduction of variable pre-rotation blades able to

lower the operating curve of the compressor.
The second involves partially closing a valve on the intake piping.
10.3 Gas / Diesel Engines:
Certain location may warrant for these drives. Generally location of

compression or occasionally the availability of abundant fuel would favor in
this drives.
**************************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1111
ER
ER
PPE OR
RFFO MA
RM NC
AN CE
E
OFF
O
CE
C NT
EN UG
RIIFFU
TR AL
GA CO
LC OM RE
MPPR OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
11 PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS:-
The performance of centrifugal compressor follows Affinity rule at the design

speed. But, as the speed deviated from the design speed, the error increases.
Q N
H N2
W N3
With variable speed, a centrifugal compressor can deliver a constant capacity

at variable pressure, variable capacity at constant pressure or a combination of
variable capacity and variable pressure. By varying speed, the centrifugal
compressor will meet any load and pressure condition demanded by the
process within the operating limits of the compressor and driver. It normally
accomplishes this as efficiency as possible, since only that head required by
the process is developed by the compressor. This compares to the essentially
constant head developed by the constant speed compressor.
11.1 CONSTANTS OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR: -
The following types of controls are generally used.
Constant pressure control

Constant pressure control parallel operation
Constant weight flow control
Constant weight control series operation
Anti surge control
With steam turbine driven compressors a process signal is used to raise or

lower the speed of the turbine. By varying the speed the capacity of the
compressor can be varied but while decreasing it may lead to surge which has
to be avoided.
Constant speed machines are usually equipped with either variable guide
vanes or a suction throttle. When the guide vanes are closed they reduce mass
flow, when the suction valve is throttled, the suction pressure reduces and
density of gas decreases thus reducing the total mass flow of gas. Reducing
mass flow by throttling may either reduce or increase the actual volume. A
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
flow meter can be installed at the discharge end of the compressor to give
signal for constant weight flow control.
Figure 34
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
11.2 SURGING / CAPACITY LIMITATIONS:
There are definite limitations of the ability of a centrifugal compressor.

Limiting the minimum capacity of a given centrifugal compressor is the
phenomenon called SURGE which normally occurs at about 50-55 % of the
design inlet capacity at design speed. This extremely complex phenomenon is
probably still one of the most difficult problems in the field of fluid dynamics.
Maximum head developed by a compressor depends only on the speed of the

compressor and its impeller design. When the head in the system increases
beyond the head developed, the compressor will no longer be able to deliver
the gases to the system. At this stage, gas will try to flow back into the
impellers whereas the impellers try to blow the gases out. This causes an
unsteady condition called surging.
Figure 35 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR
By examining the characteristic curves of a centrifugal compressor, it can be

observed as the capacity or the flow through the compressor decreases, its
discharge pressure increases. But beyond a point when the flow further
reduces, the discharge pressure falls sharply thus giving rise to surging. All
this condition, system back pressure exceeds that of the compressor delivery,
causing a momentary back flow condition. At this time, however, the back
pressure can be lowered enabling the unit to be again capable of delivering the
flow at which the surge began. If the obstruction to flow downstream of the
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
compressor is unchanged then the operation flow back along the head
characteristic curve until the peak head delivery is reached again giving rise to
surge.
When the compressor is operated under prolonged / repeated surge conditions,

the pressure force can damage the internals of the machine due to excessive
vibrations. During operation under surge condition power requirement goes up
by about 10 % and is largely converted into heat. This causes excessive
temperature build up inside the compressor and in a matter of seconds, if the
conditions are severe enough, could melt shaft labyrinth seals, which controls
the internal leakage. Excessive temperature can damage the balance piston
labyrinth also. This will affect the rotor balancing and also overload the thrust
bearings. If the thrust bearing fails, the rotor will shift axially and the
impellers will rule against the stationary parts of the casing causing severe
damage.
Hence a centrifugal compressor unit can operate stable to the right of the surge
limit. The greater is the load demand on compressors, the greater the fall of
in delivered pressure. The upper limit of capacity is determined by the
phenomenon of stone wall. Stone wall occurs when the velocity of the gas
approaches its sonic velocity somewhere in the compressor (sonic barrier is
generally reached at the eye of first impeller) Shock waves result which
restrict the flow, cause a choking effect rapid fall of in the discharge
pressure for a slight increase in volume through put. Stone wall is usually not
a problem when compressing the air and lighter gases. However, in
compressing gases heavier than air, the problem becomes more prevalent as
the molecular weight increases.
17.1 ANTISURGE CONTROL:
In order to protect the machines from excessively high mechanical loading due
to unstable operating conditions (surging) which primarily stress the bearings,
compressors need to be equipped with antisurge control. One such control is
depicted in Fig.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
If the delivery required is below the minimum delivery volume of the

compressor, the surplus is led away as a sidestream via a valve. Depending on
the nature of the gas, the surplus is either discharged to the atmosphere or it is
cooled and returned to the suction side. In the example shown, the valve is
operated by a controller that uses the volume flow rate and the discharge
pressure as input parameters. The blow-off or recycle limit in the compressor
curve envelope is normally an approximate simulation of the surge limit.
Pneumatic, hydraulic, electropneumatic, or electrohydraulic control systems
may be employed. Depending on the cross-sectional area of the discharge,
control valves or flaps are employed as regulating units.
*********************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1122
ER
CA
C AC
APPA TY
CIIT CO
YC NT
ON RO
TR OL
L
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
12 CAPACITY CONTROL:
Centrifugal compressors always match the process requirements. They form

an integral part of the process plant, the operating characteristics of which are
a function of volume flow and pressure.
Centrifugal compressors can be controlled so that they maintain constant

pressure at the intake or at a preceding process point, or at a discharge nozzle
or following that point. When process control is staged, intermediate pressure
can also be maintained. Requirements for constant volume flow can also be
met.
If these requirements are to be met, the operating characteristics of the

compressor have to be controlled. This can be done either by varying impeller
speeds, by varying the angle of incidence of the gas, or by throttling.
12.1 SPEED VARIATION:
When speed variation is used, all velocity components are equally affected.
This requires a speed-controllable driver and the principal advantage of speed
regulation is that only as much energy is required as is needed for the process.
12.2 VARIATION OF ANGLE OF INCIDENT:
The compressor characteristics for constant speed can be directly influenced

by using an inlet guide vane unit to vary the angle of incidence. Apart from
providing economical operation under partial load, this also allows an
extension of the characteristic above normal. With constant conditions at the
impeller outlet, the changed angle of incidence causes the specific work to be
influenced by the relative and absolute velocities at the inlet. With a positive
guide vane setting, the total energy is reduced because of the lower relative
speed at the inlet.
12.3 THROTTLING:
With throttling, the compressor characteristic remains unchanged. When

throttling is performed on the suction side, a throttle valve reduces the
compressor inlet pressure when the volume flow rate is increased.
Downstream of the compressor, a lower discharge pressure is produced, which
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
corresponds to the pressure ratio associated with the point on the compressor
characteristic or compressor performance curve. In relation to the useful
compression work, throttling requires maximum specific energy.
12.4 DISCHARGE PRESSURE CONTROL:
The need for constant compressor discharge pressure can be met, irrespective
of the delivery volume, by using a guide vane unit. The signal for the actual
value is taken from the discharge line and fed to a PI controller. After
comparing this reading with the set value, the controller adjusts the setting of
the guide vanes via a servo-cylinder.
********************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1133
ER
AX
A AL
XIIA LO
L FFL WC
OW OM
CO RE
MPPR OR
ESSSSO RSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
13 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS:
In axial flow compressor, a massive rotor with several rows of blades rotating
in a casing containing rows of stationary blades. Gas is drawn into an intake
nozzle and passed in an axial direction through a series of moving and
stationary rows of blades and is fully discharged through a discharge nozzle.
Axial compressors are generally driven by electric motors, steam and gas
turbines.
Axial compressors are large volume compressors that are characterized by the
axial direction of the flow passing through the machine. The energy from the
rotor is transferred to the gas by blades. One common arrangement has the
energy transfer arranged to provide 50 % of the pressure rise in the rotating
row and the other 50 % of the pressure rise in the stationary rows. This type of
design is referred to as 50 % reaction.
Figure 37 AXIAL COMPRESSOR
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 38
Axial compressors are most suited for higher capacity and comparatively low-
pressure applications. These offer higher efficiency, smaller foundation
requirements in weight and space and more efficient drive selection because of
its higher speed and lower power requirements. The axial compressor is
usually a single inlet, uncooled machine consisting essentially of blades
mounted on the horizontally split casing. The stationary blades can be either
fixed or movable. The movable allows for better control of and increased
flexibility in operations. Most units have inlet guide vanes for at least the first
rows of blades and have exit vanes also. The general size of these machines is
often much larger than centrifugal compressors, although this is not necessary
a firm condition. The casing require extremely precision casting to obtain the
shapes usually associated with the arrangement of these machines. The sealing
systems for the shaft are quite similar to those for the centrifugal; however
internal shaft seals are not necessary between stages. The material of
construction is similar to those for centrifugal compressors.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
13.1 Operating Characteristics:
Because of relatively steep head-capacity characteristic curve, the surge or

pumping point may be within 10 % of design flow.
Figure 39 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR
The operation of axial compressors accomplishes one half its pressure rise as
the gas passes through the stationary blades and the other half as it goes
through the rotating blades. The static pressure and kinetic pressure increases
as the gas goes through the machine.
13.2 Gas Velocities:
General guidelines for good design practice indicate an axial velocity for air of
100-150 m/sec. For other gases, the axial velocity range is in direct proportion
to the speed of sound of the gas compared to air. The internal shape of the
machine is usually arranged to give constant gas velocity as the gas travel
through.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
13.3 Stages:
As a general rule of thumb, the axial compressor will require about twice as
many stages for a given requirement as the centrifugal. The maximum number
of axial stages is approximately 17. The temperature rise limitation as well as
structural problem also limits the maximum stages for a given application.
13.4 Efficiency:
The efficiency of axial compressor is about 8-10 % higher than the

comparable centrifugal compressor. Thus the driver power requirements are
lower for this type of unit.
The axial compressors can not handle dirty fluids and fluids having moisture.
Normally suspended solids are separated by dry type filters before the gas is
allowed to enter in the compressor. This results in higher pressure drop at the
inlet. Once the dirt enters into the compressor, it sticks to the blade surfaces
changing its profile, which will affect the efficiency of the compressor
adversely. This also results in imbalance in the rotor-giving rise to higher
vibrations.
13.5 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
13.5.1 Casing:
Casing can be fabricated or cast. Normally fabricated casings are made of steel
and cast casing are from cast iron or cast steel. In some designs the casing is
an outer shell containing an inner shell which acts as a stator vane carrier. In
other design the stator are directly carries on the casing. With this design, the
casing is made up of three distinct parts bolted at two vertical joints. The parts
are the inlet section, the central body with stators and the discharge section.
The three sections are also split horizontally for maintenance. With the three
pieces bolted construction, a mixture of fabrication and casting may be used.
The compressors, which have integral stator section or single case approach,
have somewhat of a cost advantage.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
13.5.2 Stator:
Stator can be carried in a separate inner casing or may be carried by outer,

center section of the main casing. When movable stator vanes are used, the
vanes pass through the wall of carrier. The outer side of the casing exposes the
shank ends, which are used as shafts to connect to the linkage at the mounting
bushings in the stator liner or carrier, the single case unit has some sealing
problems which are inherently taken care of in the double case construction.
The single case construction uses a lagging over the linkage, which can act as
a collector. Sometimes vanes in the diaphragm are fixed similar to the steam
turbine or fixing the vanes to the stator casing by dove tailing. The stator
vanes are usually not shrouded. Most of the fixed vanes are also mixed with
some shrouded and some unshrouded. When a separator stator inner case is
used, it is normally of cast iron.
13.5.3 Rotor:
Blades are attached to the outer surface of the rotor. The rotors are of either
disc type or drum type. When the disc construction method is used the blades
are attached by dovetail using a root design similar to that used on steam
turbine blading. The slots are broached into the rotor and blade roots filled into
the slots and keyed in place.
When the discs are of shrunk on design, they are made up individually and
stacked onto the shaft by first heating the disc to dilate the bore. They are then
allowed to cool thus attach themselves to the shaft. Keys are normally not
used. When the discs are of the stacked design the discs are equipped with
robbet fit to radically lock the discs to maintain concentricity of assembly. The
through bolts are usually tensioned by stretching hydraulically to a precise
value to ensure the mechanical integrity.
The drum construction is somewhat different from the disc. The rotor body is
of cylindrical construction. For smaller compressors, where as speed is
relatively high and space is limited, a solid rotor construction is used. This is
similar to the disc type of construction, except that the discs are an integral
part of the rotor. Blade attachments are cut into rotor, similar to the slots cut in
to the disc. Normal material of construction of rotor is low alloy steel with an
appropriate heat treatment to match the stress imposed by the blades and rotor
weight. The rotor is generally manufactured by forging from chrome
molybdenum alloy.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Few designs deploy on impeller known as rotating diffuser to divert the

discharge in radial direction thus achieving a smaller size. Such design being
rugged and robust in construction also makes the last stage less prone to
failure on account of choke phenomenon.
13.5.4 Blading:
Axial compressor blades are usually forged and milled. Precession casting has
been used on occasion. The most common material used is a 12 chrome steel
in AISI- 400 series and is also known as 400 series stainless steel. While the
stator blades are occasionally shrouded, the rotor blades are free standing.
Lashing wires have been used on rotor blades.
******************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1144
ER
GE
G AR
EA ED
RE CE
DC NT
EN TR UG
RIIFFU AL
GA CO
LC OM RE
MPPR OR
ESSSSO R
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
14 GEARED CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS:
A multistage, multishaft integral gear compressor consists of individual scroll

casings flanged to the gearbox and connected by piping. This compressor type
needs fewer stages for a given pressure ratio than a multistage, single shaft
turbo compressors. The reduced number of stages, i.e. the increased stage
pressure ratio, results from the open-type impeller design which can be used
here as well as from the higher speeds which are achieved with this design.
The resulting compact manner of construction, which involves considerable

savings in terms of weight and space required, is an interesting aspect for
investment planning.
Not only are the investment costs reduced in comparison to single shaft
compressor, the operating costs are lower as well, since all stages can be
operated in their optimum efficiency range by selecting the appropriate pinion
shaft speed.
Further plus points of gear compressors:
- The medium can be cooled following each stage
- Intermediate sidestreams and extraction are possible following each stage

(multi service operation)
- Can be easily adapted to modified operating conditions by means of a time-

saving exchange of impellers.
- Each stage can easily be equipped with inlet guide vane control and adjustable
diffuser vane control, thus enabling the control elements to become effective
for the entire compressor.
14.1 COMPRESSOR DESIGN
The multistage, multi shaft integral gear compressor consists of individual

scroll casings flange-connected to the gear casing. The im1pellers in the scroll
casings are mounted on the extended pinion shafts (overhung design) . Each
compressor stage has an axial suction nozzle, thus making it possible to
arrange an inlet guide vane in front of each stage. In each compressor stage
sealing thus takes place only at the rear wall.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
14.2 Compressor Scroll Casing:
Each scroll casing consists of two castings, there in adjustable diffuser vane
are installed. The entire frame consists of the scroll casing with the rear wall
and the inlet diaphragm as well as the diffuser front wall. These castings are
centered radially and bolted together. Rear wall and diffuser vane control, a
vaned diffuser in which a part of the kinetic energy (velocity energy) of the
gas is transformed into potential energy (pressure increase). The
transformation of the residual kinetic energy takes place in the conical
discharge nozzle of the scroll.
14.3 Gear Design:
The gear is a compact, multi shaft spur-type single helical design. The central
gear wheel and two pinion shafts, which run at different speeds, are located in
the plane of the horizontal joint. After the top half of gearbox is removed, the
central gear wheel and the pinion shafts with their bearings and seals are freely
accessible for maintenance and inspection.
The central gear wheel is driven via a coupling. Plain journal bearings are used
for the low-speed shaft. One is a radial bearing, the other a combined journal
and thrust bearing. The bearings of the pinion shafts are tilting pad bearings
with floating-ring seal and five tilting pads per bearing. The design feature
increases operating safety and minimizes undesired mechanical losses. The
tilting pad bearings give the turbo compressor, which runs in supercritical
ranges, a very high degree of operating stability and minimize rotor vibrations.
The axial thrust generated by the stages is transferred to the central gear shaft
via thrust collars of the pinion shafts and the residual thrust is absorbed by the
thrust bearing.
A mechanically driven pump is integrated into the gear; it guarantees the lube
oil supply in normal operation and in case of power failures supplies enough
oil for coast-down.
The gear is open at the bottom; the lube oil can run freely into the amply sized
dimensioned oil tank below.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Figure 40 SINGLE STAGE GEARED CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
*******************************
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1155
ER
RE
FFR QU
EQ EN
UE TL
NT YA
LY KE
ASSK DQ
ED UE
QU ESST ON
TIIO NSS
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
15 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Q: Where does the head gets developed in a centrifugal compressors?

A: Head is developed in the compressors partially in the impeller itself and partly in
the diffuser / volute.
Q: What is pressure ratio of a compressor:

A: Ration of discharge pressure to suction pressure is known as pressure ratio.
Q: What sort of bearings are used for high speed compressors?

A: Hydrodynamic type bearing like sleeve or tilting pad bearings are generally used
for compressors.
Q: In what services centrifugal compressors are used?

A: For medium high volumes, moderate pressure ratios and for medium to high
absolute discharge pressures.
Q: How reliable are centrifugal compressors?

A: Designed to API standards, these machines offer probably the best reliability
among all the machines.
Q: In what services barrel compressors are used?

A: Barrel compressors are radial split compressors. These are used for very high
pressures. These machines are used in very light and highly flammable gases.
Q: What are side-stream compressors?

A: In certain machines, a stream is taken out or given in the middle of compressors.
These machines are called side-stream machines.
Q: How the compressors are sealed?

A: Dry gas seal or wet-seals are used at compressor ends to prevent leakage of
process gases to the atmosphere.
Q: What type of seals are used for air compressor?

A: Labyrinth seals or carbon bushings are generally used for air compressors.
Q: Whether online cleaning is used for compressors?

A: Online cleaning is used in certain services. However such requirements are
envisaged in advance & built in at the time of manufacture.
Q: Can centrifugal compressors tolerate high molecular weight fluctuations?
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
A: Centrifugal compressors are designed for specific molecular weight for a

particular duty. These are quite sensitive to mol weight changes and these
changes affect the compressor performance significantly. Fluctuations if any
need to be envisaged before the purchase of equipment as at a later date it can
pose problem of some sort.
Q: What is surging?
A: Flow reversal in the compressor is termed as surging and the phenomenon
occurs below a certain capacity.
Q: How is surging harmful?

A: Depending upon the extent & duration of surging, it can cause minor to major
damages. Severe surging can damage bearings, seals & rotor itself. The system
must be designed to prevent surging in no conditions.
Q: What type of seals are more reliable in hazardous services?

A: Non-contact type seals (Dry gas seals) are more reliable than wet seals or oil
ring type of seals.
Q: What should be the seal configurations in hydrocarbon services?

A: Generally tandem seals, which deploys aback up seal, are used. At times double
seals are also used.
Q: How does on identify seal leakage?

A: Seal health can be monitored by seal gas flow at inlet and outlet and also the
outlet pressures.
Q: What are compressor protections?

A: Alarm and trips are given on certain parameters like vibrations, axial position,
lube-oil pressure, bearing metal temperatures, etc. Operation of machine beyond
permitted values can cause serious damages, hence need to be avoided.
Q: Are liquids in the process detrimental to compressors?

A: Substantial amounts of liquid can cause bearing and seal failures.
Q: What is turndown?
A: Minimum capacity at which thy compressor can be operated is called turndown.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
CH
C HA TE
APPT R 1166
ER
DO
D &D
Oss & ON
DO Tss
NT
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
16 DOs & DONTs
16.1 DOs
Always ensure all start-up permissives like lube oil pressure /

temperature, process gas suction pressure / temperature, suction
/discharge valve opening etc. are fulfilled before start up.
Ensure all operating parameters are within operating window as specified

in the data sheet.
Ensure functioning of all the protective devices for safe operation of

machine.
Ensure proper Standard Operating Procedures are followed during

operations.
Monitor regularly lube oil pressure and temperature.
Monitor regularly lube oil level in the sump and top up if required.
Always ensure proper grade of oil is being topped up as recommended by

OEM.
Ensure proper guards are mounted on the machine that no rotating parts
are directly exposed.
Ensure draining and purging of the machine before taking it into

maintenance.
Ensure machine is positively isolated mechanically and electrically before

taking it into maintenance.
Use proper PPE when working on the machine.
Use proper certified tools & tackles while working on machine.
Always tighten fasteners to specified torque values using proper torque

wrenches.
Do maintain correct distance between the coupling hubs as recommended

by coupling vendor.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH
MODULE RG-CM-R-004
Maintain cold Misalignment values as specified by vendor. This is for

proper alignment of the machines when they get heated.
Always use standard spares for replacement, if any.
16.2 DONts
Do not start the machine without understanding the control, protective

and monitoring system.
Do not allow cooling water to cool bearing oil sump temperature to below
recommended oil temperature.
Do not start dismantling the machine without understanding dismantling

procedure.
Do not disable or bypass any protection for the machine without

understanding the consequences and concerning the experts.
Do not change any alarm or trip value setting without concerning the
experts.
Do not use used lubrication oil for topping up or for fresh charge.
Do not start maintenance work if the machine is not properly isolated.
Do not leave anything like spanners / bolts / cotton waste etc. inside the
machine or piping when machine is boxed up.
HARMIT REV :00
SINGH ISSUE :01
TRAINING MODULE
SINGH

Compressor DKP

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compressor DKP

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compressor DKP

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TRAINING RELIANCE MODULE NO:

TRAINING MODULE OBJECTIVE

Troublefree and smooth operation of centrifugal compressors is vital for process

Overview of gas compression machinery

This Training manual is prepared exclusively for the technical knowledge

No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

Sr. No. Description Page No

1 Overview of gas compression machinery 6-7

2. Classification of compressors 8-11

2.1 Dynamic type compressor

3. Fans and Blowers 12-13

4. Selection of Compressors 14-17

5. Considerations while specifying CF Compressors 18-21

6. Centrifugal compressors 22-31

6.1 Horizontal Split Centrifugal

7. Constructional Features 32-44

7.1 Manufacture of Impellers

8 Sealing Elements 45-55

8.1 Labyrinth seals

9 Auxiliary Equipment 56-66

9.1 Drive component

10 Drivers for compressor 67-69

10.1 Steam Turbines

11 Performance of centrifugal compressors 70-75

11.1 Constants of centrifugal compressor

12 Capacity Control 76-78

12.1 Speed variation

13 Axial flow compressors 79-85

13.1 Operating characteristics

14 Geared centrifugal compressors 86-89

14.1 Compressor design

15 Frequently Asked Questions 90-92

16 DOs & DONTs 93-95

1. OVERVIEW OF GAS COMPRESSION MACHINERY:

Compressors are the machines required for transportation / movement of gases

Before we embark on our more thorough consideration of centrifugal

Not to many years ago, it was common practice to use reciprocating

Positive displacement Dynamic

Reciprocating Rotary type Centrifugal Axial

Helical Liquid Ring Straight Lobe Slide Vane

Single Line Geared

2.1 Dynamic type compressors:

Dynamic type compressors are machines in which air or gas is compressed by

2.1.1 Centrifugal Compressors:

2.1.2 Axial Compressors:

2.1.3 Mixed Flow Compressors:

2.2 Positive Displacement compressors:

Positive displacement type compressors are machines in which successive

2.2.1 Reciprocating compressors :

The machines in which the compressing element is a piston following a

2.2.2 Rotary lobe compressors:

2.2.3 Rotary slide-vane compressors :

The machines in which longitudinal vanes slide radially in a rotor mounted

2.2.4 Rotary liquid piston compressors :

3. FANS AND BLOWERS:

While discussing Compressors, it would only be appropriate to briefly cover

Though essentially belonging to the same family of machines, fans and

The performance of a centrifugal fan varies with change in conditions like

Choosing the right type of compressor is a difficult job as the machine