Estimating Methods for Determining End-

Use Water Consumption

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Home Facilities Water Efficiency Estimating Methods for Determining End-Use Water
Consumption

The Federal Building Metering Guidance specifies buildings with water using processes and
whole building water consumption that exceeds 1,000 gallons per day must have a water meter
installed. Below are methods for estimating daily water use for typical end-uses that drive
building-level, end-use water consumption.

Plumbing Fixtures

Most buildings have restrooms with plumbing fixtures. Daily water used by plumbing fixture is
dependent on the number of occupants in the building. As a reasonable rule of thumb for a
typical nine-hour work day, people use between eight and 12 gallons per day in restrooms. The
low-end estimate is typical for buildings with water-efficient fixtures. The high-end estimate is
more appropriate for buildings with higher water consuming fixtures.

The following calculations can be used to estimate the range of water used based on the typical
occupancy of your building.

Low Estimated Daily Use

Daily Use (gal/day) = Average Number Daily of Occupants 8 (gal/person)

High Estimated Daily Use

Daily Use (gal/day) = Average Number Daily of Occupants 12 (gal/person)

Batch Processes/Manufacturing

You may have batch processes/manufacturing that use water. To estimate the water use from
these applications you need the following:

The approximate number of units daily washed, processed, or manufactured

The estimated amount of water needed per unit
The percentage of water recycled or reused.

The following calculations can be used to estimate the average daily water use for batch
processes/manufacturing applications.
Daily Use (gal/day) = (N W) (1 - R)

(Where N = Number of daily units washed, processed, or manufactured; W = Gallons consumed

per unit; R = Percentage recycled or reused, expressed as a decimal, i.e., 40% is expressed as 0.4
in the equation)

Vehicle Wash Systems

Depending on the type of vehicle wash station and reclaim used, estimated daily water use can
be calculated the from the following tables by multiplying the number of vehicles washed daily
by the factor provided in the table.

Vehicle Wash Daily Water Use Estimate without a Reuse System (Gallons per Vehicle)

Car Wash Type Low Average High

Self Service 12.0 x N 15.0 x N 18.0 x N
In-Bay Automatic 16.9 x N 42.9 x N 68.9 x N
Conveyor 19.0 x N 34.0 x N 49.0 x N

(Where N = number of vehicles washed daily)

Vehicle Wash Daily Water Use Estimate with a Reuse System (Gallons per Vehicle)

Car Wash Type Low Average High

Self Service 3.5 x N 7.5 x N 12.7 x N
In-Bay Automatic 4.9 x N 21.3 x N 48.5 x N
Conveyor 5.5 x N 16.9 x N 34.5 x N

(Where N = number of vehicles washed daily)

Evaporative Cooling Systems

Open-recirculating cooling tower systems use large volumes of water through the process of
evaporation to provide process or comfort cooling. In addition to evaporative losses, cooling
towers also lose water to blowdown, system leaks, and drift (water droplets that escape the
cooling tower structure as a result of system air flow and wind-effect air flow).

To estimate daily water use for a cooling tower, you'll need:

Chiller tonnage (nameplate)

Cooling tower cycles of concentration.

The table below provides total daily water usage for a system that operates a full load 24 hours
per day, based on chiller tonnage and cooling tower cycles of concentration.
Daily Cooling Tower Water Use at Full Load (Gallons per Day)

Cycles Of Concentration
Chiller Tonnage (Nameplate) 3 4 5 6 7 8
100 5,480 4,930 4,660 4,380 4,380 4,110
200 10,960 9,860 9,320 8,770 8,490 8,490
400 21,920 19,730 18,360 17,530 17,260 16,710
500 27,400 24,380 23,010 21,920 21,370 21,100
600 33,150 29,320 27,400 26,580 25,750 25,210
800 44,110 39,180 36,710 35,340 34,250 33,700
1000 55,070 49,040 46,030 44,110 42,740 41,920
1500 82,740 73,420 68,770 66,030 64,380 63,010
2000 110,140 97,810 91,780 88,220 85,480 83,840
2500 137,810 122,470 114,790 110,140 107,120 104,930
3000 165,210 146,850 137,810 132,330 128,490 126,030
3500 192,880 171,510 160,550 154,250 149,860 146,850
4000 220,270 195,890 183,560 176,160 171,510 167,950
5000 275,340 245,480 229,590 220,270 214,250 209,860

The usage levels presented in the table are for 24-hour operations. Most systems do not operate
24 hours per day. To make this daily water use more accurate, you will need to incorporate the
number of hours the system operates. This can be done prorating the full load value in the table.
Divide the typical daily operating hours by 24 and multiply this number by the full load value in
the table.

Below is an example of a cooling tower operating at three cycles of concentration rejecting heat
from a 400-ton chiller that operates typically six hours per day. The full load daily water use
from the table is 21,920 gallons per day.

Daily Use (gal/day) = Full Load Water Use 21,920(gal/day) 6 hours / 24 hours

Daily Use (gal/day) = 5,4 80

Steam Heating Systems

Steam generating boilers use water to offset losses from the system from boiler blowdown and
leaks or losses in the steam distribution system and condensate return. If the makeup water to the
boiler is not metered, the quantity can be estimated by knowing either softener performance or
steam generation rate.

Softener Performance
If your steam boiler system has a water softener you can estimate the amount of water provided
to the boiler using the volume of water provided by the softener between regenerations and the
frequency the softener system is regenerated. The softener system will be programmed to
provide a certain volume of conditioned water. This volume may be recorded in the manual or
provided by the softener supplier.

This value is the expected volume of water per regeneration cycle based on site specific water
hardness. The frequency of regeneration is also required to estimate daily water use. The
frequency of regeneration is a calculated value that represents the amount of softening needed
over a given period of time to remove the hardness from the water. The typical frequency of
regeneration can be requested from the softener supplier. Using these two items the daily water
use for the steam boiler system can be estimated using the following equation:

Daily Use (gal/day) = Regeneration Volume (gal/regen) Typical Regeneration Frequency

(regeneration/week) 7 (days/week)

If you don't have a softener system or cannot reasonably estimate the water passing through the
softeners, the next methodology can be used as an alternative.

Steam Generation Rate

Most large steam generating systems track steam production on per hour or per day basis. The
following steps provide a methodology to determine the average daily water use of a steam
boiler system.

Step 1: Convert Steam Generation Rate into Gallons

Your steam generation rate is likely tracked in terms of pounds per unit of time (hours or
days ). Therefore, you'll need to convert this into gallons using the following formula:

Steam Generation Rate (gal/day) = Steam Rate (pounds/day) 8.314 (pounds/gal)

Step 2: Estimate Feed Water Rate using the Steam Generation Rate and Cycles of
Concentration

The feed water supplied to the boiler is equal to the sum of the steam leaving the boiler
and the blowdown discharged from the boiler. The feed water rate can be estimated using
the following equation:

Feed Water Rate (gal/day) = Steam Generation Rate (gal/day) [1 (1 Cycles of

Concentration)]

Step 3: Estimate Boiler System Makeup using the Feed Water Rate and Estimated
Percent of Condensate Returned
 Now that you have the feed water rate, you need to determine the amount of condensate
return coming back from your heating or process steam system. This will be a fraction of
the steam generation rate. Use the following formula to estimate the boiler system
makeup, which is the daily use:

Daily Use (gal/day) = Feed Water Rate (gal/day) [Steam Generation Rate (gal/day) %
steam returned]

Explore FEMP's Water Efficiency Pages

Guidance on Meeting Executive Order 13693 Water Provisions

Developing a Water Management Plan
Net Zero Water Building Strategies
Water-Efficient Technology Opportunities
Best Management Practices for Water Efficiency
Alternative Water Sources Maps

FEMP Contacts

Saralyn Bunch
U.S. Department of Energy
202-586-3267

Kate McMordie Stoughton

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
509-371-7258

Publications

Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components of Cooling Towers and How to Improve
Water Efficiency
Federal Building Metering Guidance
Guidelines for Estimating Unmetered Industrial Water Use
Guidelines for Estimating Unmetered Landscaping Water Use

Best Management Practice #10: Cooling

Tower Management
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Home Facilities Water Efficiency Best Management Practice #10: Cooling Tower Management

Cooling towers dissipate heat from recirculating water used to cool chillers, air conditioners, or
other process equipment to the ambient air. Heat is rejected to the environment from cooling
towers through the process of evaporation. Therefore, by design, cooling towers use significant
amounts of water.

Overview

The thermal efficiency and longevity of the cooling tower and equipment depend on the proper
management of recirculated water. Water leaves a cooling tower system in one of four ways.

1. Evaporation: The primary function of the tower and the method that transfers heat from
the cooling tower system to the environment.
2. Drift: A small quantity of water may be carried from the tower as mist or small droplets.
Drift loss is small compared to evaporation and blowdown and is controlled with baffles
and drift eliminators.
3. Blowdown: When water evaporates from the tower, dissolved solids (such as calcium,
magnesium, chloride, and silica) remain in the recirculating water. As more water
evaporates, the concentration of dissolved solids increases. If the concentration gets too
high, the solids can cause scale to form within the system. The dissolved solids can also
lead to corrosion problems. The concentration of dissolved solids is controlled by
removing a portion of the highly concentrated water and replacing it with fresh make-up
water. Carefully monitoring and controlling the quantity of blowdown provides the most
significant opportunity to conserve water in cooling tower operations.
4. Basin leaks or overflows: Properly operated towers should not have leaks or overflows.
Check float control equipment to ensure the basin level is being maintained properly, and
check system valves to make sure there are no unaccounted for losses.

The sum of water that is lost from the tower must be replaced by make-up water:

Make-Up = Evaporation + Blowdown + Drift

A key parameter used to evaluate cooling tower operation is "cycle of concentration" (sometimes
referred to as cycle or concentration ratio). This is determined by calculating the ratio of the
concentration of dissolved solids in the blowdown water compared to the make-up water.
Because dissolved solids enter the system in the make-up water and exit the system in the
blowdown water, the cycles of concentration are also approximately equal to the ratio of volume
of make-up to blowdown water.

From a water efficiency standpoint, you want to maximize cycles of concentration. This will
minimize blowdown water quantity and reduce make-up water demand. However, this can only
be done within the constraints of your make-up water and cooling tower water chemistry.
Dissolved solids increase as cycles of concentration increase, which can cause scale and
corrosion problems unless carefully controlled.

In addition to carefully controlling blowdown, other water efficiency opportunities arise from
using alternate sources of make-up water. Water from other facility equipment can sometimes be
recycled and reused for cooling tower make-up with little or no pre-treatment, including:
 Air handler condensate (water that collects when warm, moist air passes over the cooling
coils in air handler units). This reuse is particularly appropriate because the condensate
has a low mineral content and is typically generated in greatest quantities when cooling
tower loads are the highest
Water used once through a cooling system
Pretreated effluent from other processes provided that any chemicals used are compatible
with the cooling tower system
High-quality municipal wastewater effluent or recycled water (where available).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) WaterSense at Work cooling towers best
management practice.

Operation and Maintenance

To maintain water efficiency in operations and maintenance, federal agencies should:

Calculate and understand "cycles of concentration." Check the ratio of conductivity of

blowdown and make-up water. Work with your cooling tower water treatment specialist
to maximize the cycles of concentration. Many systems operate at two to four cycles of
concentration, while six cycles or more may be possible. Increasing cycles from three to
six reduces cooling tower make-up water by 20% and cooling tower blowdown by 50%.
The actual number of cycles of concentration the cooling tower system can handle
depends on the make-up water quality and cooling tower water treatment regimen.
Typical treatment programs include corrosion and scaling inhibitors along with biological
fouling inhibitors.
Install a conductivity controller to automatically control blowdown. Work with a water
treatment specialist to determine the maximum cycles of concentration the cooling tower
system can safely achieve and the resulting conductivity (typically measured as micro
Siemens per centimeter, S/cm). A conductivity controller can continuously measure the
conductivity of the cooling tower water and discharge water only when the conductivity
set point is exceeded.
Install flow meters on make-up and blowdown lines. Check the ratio of make-up flow to
blowdown flow. Then check the ratio of conductivity of blowdown water and the make-
up water (handheld conductivity meters can be used to determine the relative mineral
concentration of the recirculating and make-up water). These ratios should match the
target cycles of concentration. If both ratios are not about the same, check the tower for
leaks or other unauthorized draw-off. If the system is not operating at, or near, the target
cycles of concentration, check system components including conductivity controller,
make-up water fill valve, and blowdown valve.
Read conductivity and flow meters regularly to quickly identify problems. Keep a log of
make-up and blowdown quantities, conductivity, and cycles of concentration. Monitor
trends to spot deterioration in performance.
Consider using acid treatment such as sulfuric, hydrochloric, or ascorbic acid where
appropriate. When added to recirculating water, acid can reduce the scale buildup
potential from mineral deposits and allow the system to run at higher cycles of
concentration. Acid treatment lowers the pH of the water and is effective in converting a
 portion of the alkalinity (bicarbonate and carbonate), a primary constituent of scale
formation, into more readily soluble forms. Make sure workers are fully trained in the
proper handling of acids. Also note that acid overdoses can severely damage a cooling
system. The use of a timer or continuous pH monitoring via instrumentation should be
employed. It is important to add acid at a point where the flow of water promotes rapid
mixing and distribution.
Select a water treatment vendor with care. Tell vendors that water efficiency is a high
priority and ask them to estimate the quantities and costs of treatment chemicals, volumes
of blowdown water, and the expected cycles of concentration ratio. Keep in mind that
some vendors may be reluctant to improve water efficiency because it means the facility
will purchase fewer chemicals. In some cases, saving on chemicals can outweigh the
savings on water costs. Vendors should be selected based on "cost to treat 1,000 gallons
of make-up water" and highest recommended system water cycle of concentration."
Treatment programs should include routine checks of cooling system chemistry
accompanied by regular service reports that provide insight into the systems
performance.
Ask the water utility if it provides sewer credits for evaporative losses, which can be
calculated as the difference between metered make-up water minus metered blowdown
water.
Implement a comprehensive air handler coil maintenance program. As coils become dirty
or fouled, there is increased load on the chilled water system to maintain conditioned air
set point temperatures. Increased load on the chilled water system not only has an
associated increase in electrical consumption, it also increases the load on the evaporative
cooling process, which uses more water.

Retrofit Options

The following retrofit options help federal agencies maintain water efficiency across facilities:

Consider installing a side-stream filtration system. These systems filter silt and suspended
solids and return the filtered water to the recirculating water. This limits the fouling
potential for the tower system, which is particularly helpful if the cooling tower is
located in a dusty environment.
Install a make-up water or side-stream softening system when hardness (calcium and
magnesium) is the limiting factor on cycles of concentration. Water softening removes
hardness using an ion exchange resin and can allow you to operate at higher cycles of
concentration.
Install covers on open distribution decks on top of the tower. Reducing the amount of
sunlight on tower surfaces can significantly reduce biological growth such as algae.
Consider alternative water treatment options, such as ozonation or ionization and
chemical use. Be careful to consider the life cycle cost impact of such systems.
Install automated chemical feed systems on large cooling tower systems (more than 100
tons). The automated feed system should control chemical feed based on make-up water
flow or real-time chemical monitoring. These systems minimize chemical use while
optimizing control against scale, corrosion, and biological growth.
Replacement Options

The following replacement options help federal agencies maintain water efficiency across
facilities.

Get expert advice to help determine if a cooling tower replacement is appropriate. New
cooling tower designs and improved materials can significantly reduce water and energy
requirements for cooling. Replacing a cooling tower involves significant capital costs, so
be sure to investigate every retrofit and operations and maintenance option available, and
compare the costs and benefits to a new tower.
For specifics, consult with experts in the field. The first resource should be local or
headquarters engineers, but do not overlook input from experienced contractors or other
government agencies.

Publications

Side Stream Filtration for Cooling Towers

Technical Evaluation of Side Stream Filtration for Cooling Towers
Cooling Towers: Understanding Key Components of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water
Efficiency

Related Links

Cooling Technology Institute

EPA WaterSense at Work Best Management Practice: Cooling Towers
General Services Administration Water Management Guide