DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS

INTRODUCTION
When a beam with a straight longitudinal axis is loaded by lateral forces, the axis is
deformed into a curve, called the deflection curve of the beam. In Chapter 4 we used the curvature
of the bent beam to determine the normal strains and stresses in the beam. However, we did not
develop a method for finding the deflection curve itself. In this chapter, we will determine the
equation of the deflection curve and also find deflections at specific points along the axis of the
beam.
The calculation of deflections is an important part of structural analysis and design. For
example, finding deflections is an essential ingredient in the analysis of statically indeterminate
structures. Deflections are also important in dynamic analyses, as when investigating the vibrations
of aircraft or the response of buildings to earthquakes.
Deflections are sometimes calculated in order to verify that they are within tolerable limits.
For instance, specifications for the design of buildings usually place upper limits on the
deflections. Large deflections in buildings are unsightly (and even unnerving) and can cause cracks
in ceilings and walls. In the design of machines and aircraft, specifications may limit deflections
in order to prevent undesirable vibrations

5.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE DEFLECTION CURVE

Most procedures for finding beam deflections are based on the differential equations of the
deflection curve and their associated relationships. Consequently, we will begin by deriving the
basic equation for the deflection curve of a beam
For discussion purposes, consider a cantilever beam with a concentrated load acting upward
at the free end (Fig. 5-1a). Under the action of this load, the axis of the beam deforms into a curve,
as shown in Fig. 5-1b. The reference axes have their origin at the fixed end of the beam, with the
x axis directed to the right and the y axis directed upward. The z axis is directed outward from the
figure (toward the viewer).

Figure 5-1 Deflection curve of cantilever beam

As in our previous discussions of beam bending in Chapter 4, we assume that the xy plane is a
plane of symmetry of the beam, and we assume that all loads act in this plane (the plane of
bending).
The deflection v is the displacement in the y direction of any point on the axis of the beam (Fig.
5-1b). Because the y axis is positive upward, the deflections are also positive when upward.*
To obtain the equation of the deflection curve, we must express the deflection v as a function
of the coordinate x. Therefore, let us now consider the deflection curve in more detail. The
deflection v at any point m1 on the deflection curve is shown in Fig. 5-2a. Point m1 is located at

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distance x from the origin (measured along the x axis). A second point m2, located at distance
x + dx from the origin, is also shown. The deflection at this second point is v + dv, where dv is the
increment in deflection as we move along the curve from m1 to m2.

Figure 5-2 Deflection curve of beam

When the beam is bent, there is not only a deflection at each point along the axis but also a rotation.
The angle of rotation of the axis of the beam is the angle between the x axis and the tangent to
the deflection curve, as shown for point m1 in the enlarged view of Fig. 5-2b. For our choice of
axes (x positive to the right and y positive upward), the angle of rotation is positive when
counterclockwise. (Other names for the angle of rotation are angle of inclination and angle of
slope.)
The angle of rotation at point m2 is + , where the increase in angle is as we move from
point m1 to point m2. It follows that if we construct lines normal to the tangents (Figs. 5-2a and b),
the angle between these normals is . Also, as discussed earlier in Section 4.3, the point of
intersection of these normals is the center of curvature O (Fig. 5-2a) and the distance from O
to the curve is the radius of curvature . From Fig. 5-2a we see that

= (a)
in which du is in radians and ds is the distance along the deflection curve between points m1 and
m2. Therefore, the curvature k (equal to the reciprocal of the radius of curvature) is given by the
equation

== (5.1)

The sign convention for curvature is pictured in Fig. 5-3. Note that curvature is positive when the
angle of rotation increases as we move along the beam in the positive x direction.
The slope of the deflection curve is the first derivative dv/dx of the expression for the
deflection v. In geometric terms, the slope is the increment dv in the deflection (as we go from
point m1 to point m2 in Fig. 5-2) divided by the increment dx in the distance along the x axis. Since

2
dv and dx are infinitesimally small, the slope dv/dx is equal to the tangent of the angle of rotation
(Fig. 5-2b). Thus,

(5-2a, b)
In a similar manner, we also obtain the following relationships

(5-3a, b)
Note that when the x and y axes have the directions shown in Fig. 5-2a, the slope dv/dx is positive
when the tangent to the curve slopes upward to the right.
Equations (5-1) through (5-3) are based only upon geometric considerations, and therefore
they are valid for beams of any material. Furthermore, there are no restrictions on the magnitudes
of the slopes and deflections

Beams with Small Angles of Rotation

The structures encountered in everyday life, such as buildings, automobiles, aircraft, and ships,
undergo relatively small changes in shape while in service. The changes are so small as to be
unnoticed by a casual observer. Consequently, the deflection curves of most beams and columns
have very small angles of rotation, very small deflections, and very small curvatures. Under these
conditions we can make some mathematical approximations that greatly simplify beam analysis.
Consider, for instance, the deflection curve shown in Fig. 5-2. If the angle of rotation is a
very small quantity (and hence the deflection curve is nearly horizontal), we see immediately that
the distance ds along the deflection curve is practically the same as the increment dx along the x
axis. This same conclusion can be obtained directly from
Eq. (5-3a). Since cos 1 when the angle is very small, Eq. (5-3a) gives

(b)

With this approximation, the curvature becomes (see Eq. 5-1)

== (5-4)

Also, since tan = when is very small, we can make the following approximation to
Eq. (5-2a)

(c)

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Thus, if the rotations of a beam are small, we can assume that the angle of rotation and the slope
dv/dx are equal. (Note that the angle of rotation must be measured in radians.)
Taking the derivative of with respect to x in Eq. (c), we get

(d)

Combining this equation with Eq. (9-4), we obtain a relation between the curvature of a beam
and its deflection

(5-5)

This equation is valid for a beam of any material, provided the rotations are small quantities.
If the material of a beam is linearly elastic and follows Hookes law, the curvature (from Eq. 4-
10, Chapter 4) is

(5-6)
in which M is the bending moment and EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam. Equation (5-6) shows
that a positive bending moment produces positive curvature and a negative bending moment
produces negative curvature, as shown earlier in Fig. 4-9.

Combining Eq. (5-5) with Eq. (5-6) yields the basic differential equation of the deflection curve
of a beam

(5-7)
This equation can be integrated in each particular case to find the deflection v, provided the
bending moment M and flexural rigidity EI are known as functions of x.
As a reminder, the sign conventions to be used with the preceding equations are repeated here:
(1) The x and y axes are positive to the right and upward, respectively; (2) the deflection v is
positive upward; (3) the slope dv/dx and angle of rotation u are positive when counterclockwise
with respect to the positive x axis; (4) the curvature k is positive when the beam is bent concave
upward; and (5) the bending moment M is positive when it produces compression in the upper part
of the beam.
Additional equations can be obtained from the relations between bending moment M, shear
force V, and intensity q of distributed load. In Chapter 3 we derived the following equations
between M, V, and q.
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 (5-8a, b)
The sign conventions for these quantities are shown in Fig. 9-4. By differentiating Eq. (5-7) with
respect to x and then substituting the preceding equations for shear force and load, we can obtain
the additional equations. In so doing, we will consider two cases, non-prismatic beams and
prismatic beams.

Figure 5-4 sign convention for bending moment M, shear force V and intensity q of distribution
load u.d.l

Non-prismatic Beams
In the case of a non-prismatic beam, the flexural rigidity EI is variable, and therefore we write Eq.
(5-7) in the form

(5-9)

Where the subscript x is inserted as a reminder that the flexural rigidity may vary with x.
differentiating both sides of this equation and using Eqs. (5-8a) and (5-8b), we obtain

(5-10a, b)

The deflection of a non-prismatic beam can be found by solving (either analytically or numerically)
any one of the three preceding differential equations. The choice usually depends upon which
equation provides the most efficient solution.

Prismatic Beams
In the case of a prismatic beam (constant EI), the differential equations Become

(5-11a, b, c)

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To simplify the writing of these and other equations, primes are often used to denote
differentiation
(5-12)

Using this notation, we can express the differential equations for a prismatic beam in the following
forms
(5-13a, b, c)

We will refer to these equations as the bending-moment equation, the shear-force equation, and
the load equation, respectively.
In the next two sections we will use the preceding equations to find deflections of beams.
The general procedure consists of integrating the equations and then evaluating the constants of
integration from boundary and other conditions pertaining to the beam.
When deriving the differential equations (Eqs. 5-9, 5-11, and 5-13), we assumed that the
material followed Hookes law and that the slopes of the deflection curve were very small. We
also assumed that any shear deformations were negligible; consequently, we considered only the
deformations due to pure bending. All of these assumptions are satisfied by most beams in common
use.

DEFLECTIONS BY INTEGRATION OF THE BENDING-MOMENT EQUATION

We are now ready to solve the differential equations of the deflection -curve and obtain deflections
of beams. The first equation we will use is the bending-moment equation (Eq. 5-13a). Since this
equation is of second order, two integrations are required. The first integration produces the slope
v= dv/dx, and the second produces the deflection v.
We begin the analysis by writing the equation (or equations) for the bending moments in the
beam. Since only statically determinate beams are considered in this chapter, we can obtain the
bending moments from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium, using the procedures
described in Chapter 3. In some cases a single bending-moment expression holds for the entire
length of the beam, as illustrated in Examples 5-1 and 5-2. In other cases the bending moment
changes abruptly at one or more points along the axis of the beam. Then we must write separate
bending-moment expressions for each region of the beam between points where changes occur.
Regardless of the number of bending-moment expressions, the general procedure for
solving the differential equations is as follows. For each region of the beam, we substitute the
expression for M into the differential equation and integrate to obtain the slope v. Each such
integration produces one constant of integration. Next, we integrate each slope equation to obtain
the corresponding deflection v. Again, each integration produces a new constant. Thus, there are
two constants of integration for each region of the beam. These constants are evaluated from
known conditions pertaining to the slopes and deflections. The conditions fall into three categories:
(1) boundary conditions, (2) continuity conditions, and (3) symmetry conditions.

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Figure 5-5 boundary condition for different support condition

Boundary conditions relate to the deflections and slopes at the supports of a beam. For
example, at a simple support (either a pin or a roller) the deflection is zero, and at a fixed support
both the deflection and the slope are zero. Each such boundary condition supplies one equation
that can be used to evaluate the constants of integration.
Continuity conditions occur at points where the regions of integration meet, such as at point
C in the beam of Fig5-5. The deflection curve of this beam is physically continuous at point C,
and therefore the deflection at point C as determined for the left-hand part of the beam must be
equal to the deflection at point C as determined for the right hand part. Similarly, the slopes found
for each part of the beam must be equal at point C. Each of these continuity conditions supplies an
equation for evaluating the constants of integration.
Symmetry conditions may also be available. For instance, if a simple beam supports a
uniform load throughout its length, we know in advance that the slope of the deflection curve at
the midpoint must be zero. This condition supplies an additional equation.
Each boundary, continuity, and symmetry condition leads to an equation containing one or
more of the constants of integration. Since the number of independent conditions always matches
the number of constants of integration, we can always solve these equations for the constants. (The
boundary and continuity conditions alone are always sufficient to determine the constants. Any
symmetry conditions provide additional equations, but they are not independent of the other
equations. The choice of which conditions to use is a matter of convenience.)
Once the constants are evaluated, they can be substituted back into the expressions for slopes
and deflections, thus yielding the final equations of the deflection curve. These equations can then
be used to obtain the deflections and angles of rotation at particular points along the axis of the
beam.
The preceding method for finding deflections is sometimes called the method of successive
integrations.