Math 113 Homework 2

Solutions

due July 5, 2011

1. Prove that the additive group R+ of real numbers is isomorphic to the

multiplicative group P of positive reals.
Solution: Consider the function : R+ P given by (x) = ex . is
a bijection, as it has an inverse 1 : P R+ given by 1 (x) = ln(x).
Further, for all a, b R we have (a + b) = ea+b = ea eb = (a)(b), so
is a homomorphism. Hence is an isomorphism and R+ = P.
2. Prove that the matrices  
1 1
A :=
1
and  
1
B :=
1 1
are conjugate elements in the group GL2 (R), but that they are not con-
jugate when regarded as elements of SL2 (R).
 
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Solution: Consider the permutation matrix P = . Observe that
1
P AP 1 = B. Further, det(P ) = 1, so P GL2 (R); this shows that A
and B are conjugate as elements of GL2 (R).
 by some element Q SL2 (R), say
Now suppose they were conjugate
a b
QAQ1 = B, where Q = . Then
c d
   
a a+b a b
QA = = BQ =
c c+d a+c b+d

Therefore a = 0 and b = c, so det(Q) = b2 < 0, contradicting Q

SL2 (R). So A and B are not conjugate as elements of SL2 (R).
3. Prove that the set Aut(G) of automorphisms of a group G forms a group,
the law of composition being composition of functions.
Solution: The automorphisms form a subset of the permutations of the
underlying set of G. Function composition is always associative, bijections
are invertible (with inverse map also a bijection), and a composition of
bijections is a bijection, so the permutations of the underlying set of G
form a group. We must show that Aut(G) is a subgroup.

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 The identity map is clearly an automorphism.
If Aut(G), then for all a, b G we have

(1 (ab)) = ab = (1 (a))(1 (b)) = (1 (a)1 (b))

as is a homomorphism; applying 1 to both sides we see that 1 is

likewise a homomorphism, hence an automorphism.
Finally if , Aut(G), then for all a, b G, we have

((ab)) = ((a)(b)) = ((a))((b))

so a composition of automorphisms is an automorphism, and we are done.

4. Determine the group of automorphisms of the following groups.
(a) Z+
Solution: Homomorphisms with cyclic domain are determined by
the image of a generator x, since then (xn ) = (x)n ; if the domain
is Z+ , 1 may go to any element of the codomain, so the set of homo-
morphisms : Z+ Z+ (called the endomorphisms of Z+ ) is just
the collection of maps given by multiplication by an element of Z.
Of these, only 1 and 1 (i.e. the maps (x) = x, (x) = x) are
bijections. Hence the group of automorphisms is {1, 1} = Z/2Z.
More simply, a map of cyclic groups is a surjection iff the image of a
generator is a generator; Z has two generators {1, 1}, which may be
transposed or not.
(b) a cyclic group of order 10
Solution: Again, representing the group operation as addition mod-
ulo 10, endomorphisms of this group are given by multiplication by
some integer modulo 10. The only ones that are bijections are those
taking 1 to a generator, corresponding to multiplication by an integer
relatively prime to 10, namely 1, 3, 7, or 9. Thus |Aut(Z/10Z)| = 4.
Let Aut(Z/10Z) be the map given by multiplication by 3 modulo
10. As 32 = 9 6= 1 modulo 10, has order larger than 2, hence equal
to 4, in Aut(Z/10Z), showing that Aut(Z/10Z) = Z/4Z is generated
by .
(c) S3
Solution: Given any group G, there is a homomorphism G : G
Aut(G) taking an element a G to the automorphism of G given by
conjugation by a. Observe that an element a G is in the kernel of
this homomorphism iff conjugation by a is the identity map, that is,
aga1 = g for every g G, that is, a Z(G). Since Z(S3 ) is trivial,
S3 : S3 Aut(S3 ) is injective. This shows that |Aut(S3 )| 6.
On the other hand, S3 can be generated by the transpositions. Since
an automorphism preserves orders of elements, every automorphism
of S3 must permute the 3 transpositions of S3 . Since a homomorphism
is determined by its restriction to any set generating the domain, this
implies there are at most 3! = 6 automorphisms of S3 . Hence there
are exactly 6 and the above map S3 is an isomorphism, that is,
Aut(S3 )
= S3 .

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5. Prove that the kernel and image of a homomorphism are subgroups.
Solution: Let : G H be a group homomorphism.

(1) = (1 1) = (1)(1)

so (1) = 1. This shows both that 1 ker() and that 1 im().

Further, for all a in G we have that 1 = (1) = (aa1 ) = (a)(a1 );
multiplying on the left by (a)1 we obtain (a1 ) = (a)1 . This shows
that if a ker() then a1 ker(), and that if a im() then a1
im().
Finally, if a, b ker() then (ab) = (a)(b) = 1, so ker() is closed and
hence a subgroup of G. Likewise, for any (a), (b) im(), (a)(b) =
(ab) shows that im() is closed and hence a subgroup of H.
6. Describe all homomorphisms : Z+ Z+ , and determine which are
injective, which are surjective, and which are isomorphisms.
Solution: As described in (4a), such a map is determined by the image
of 1, since it must be that (n) = n(1), and all of these are distinct. So
the maps are just multiplication by n for each n Z. These are injective
unless n = 0, but only surjective in the cases n = 1 or n = 1, which are
thus also the bijective cases.
7. (a) Let H be a subgroup of G, and let g G. The conjugate subgroup
gHg 1 is defined to be the set of all conjugates ghg 1 , where h H.
Prove that gHg 1 is a subgroup of G.
Solution: Let ghg 1 gHg 1 , where h H; then (ghg 1 )1 =
gh1 g 1 is a conjugate of h1 H by g 1 , and so is also in gHg 1 .
Also if gh1 g 1 and gh2 g 1 are any two elements of gHg 1 , then
gh1 g 1 gh2 g 1 = g(h1 h2 )g 1 gHg 1 . Finally, 1 = g1g 1 gHg 1 ,
so gHg 1 is nonempty and thus a subgroup.
(b) Prove that a subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only if gHg 1 =
H for all g G.
Solution: If this equation holds, then for any h H, g G we
have ghg 1 gHg 1 = H, so H is normal in G. Conversely, if H is
normal, then for any g G, if x gHg 1 , there exists h H such
that x = ghg 1 = h, so in fact gHg 1 = H.
8. Prove that the center of a group is a normal subgroup.
Solution: If G is a group, then for all a Z(G), g G we have

gag 1 = agg 1 = a Z(G)

Therefore Z(G) is normal in G.

9. Prove that if a group contains exactly one element of order 2, then that
element is in the center of the group.
Solution: Let a be the unique element of order 2 in a group G. Then
as conjugation preserves order (by the last homework), for every g G
ag = gag 1 also has order 2, and hence ag = a. This means that ga = ag
for every g G, i.e. that a Z(G).

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10. Let : G G0 be a surjective homomorphism, and let N be a normal
subgroup of G. Prove that (N ) is a normal subgroup of G0 .
Solution: Let n0 (N ) and g G0 . There exist n N and g G such
that (n) = n0 and (g) = g 0 . Then

g 0 n0 (g 0 )1 = (g)(n)(n)1 = (gng 1 ) (N )

since gng 1 N by normality of N . Thus (N ) is a normal subgroup of

G0 .
11. Let G be a group. Prove that the inversion function : G G given by
(x) = x1 is a homomorphism iff G is abelian.
Solution: Observe that for all a, b G, we have (ab) = (b)(a). Now,
if is a homomorphism, then for every a, b G we have

ab = (a1 )(b1 ) = (a1 b1 ) = ((ba)1 ) = ba

and therefore G is abelian. Conversely, if G is abelian, for every a, b G

we have
(ab) = (ab)1 = b1 a1 = a1 b1 = (a)(b)
so is a homomorphism.
12. Prove that the nonempty fibres of a map form a partition of the domain.
Solution: Let f : A B be a function. For each a A, a f 1 [f (a)],
so every element of the domain is in some nonempty fibre of f . Further,
if a f 1 (b), then b = f (a), so each element of the domain is in a unique
nonempty fibre of f . Hence the nonempty fibres of f form a partition of
A as desired.
13. (a) Prove that the relation x conjugate to y in a group G is an equivalence
relation on G.
Solution: Reflexivity: for every x G, x = x1 , so x x.
Symmetry: if x y there exists some g G such that xg = y, but
then x = yg1 , so y x.
Transitivity: if x = yg and y = zh , then x = zhg , so x y and y z
implies x z.
(b) Describe the elements a whose conjugacy class (= equivalence class)
consists of the the element a alone.
Solution: An element a is of this type precisely when gag 1 = a for
all g G, that is, when a Z(G).
14. Prove directly that distinct cosets do not overlap.
Solution: Let H be a subgroup of a group G, let a, b G, and let
x aH bH. Then there are h1 , h2 H such that ah1 = x = bh2 .
Multiplying on the left by h1 1
1 , we obtain a = bh2 h1 . Then for any
y aH, there exists some h3 H such that y = ah3 = bh2 h1 1 h3 bH, so
aH bH. By symmetry, bH aH, so aH = bH. Therefore, overlapping
cosets are identical, i.e. distinct cosets do not overlap.

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15. Let H, K be subgroups of a group G of orders 3, 5 respectively. Prove that
H K = {1}.
Solution: An intersection of subgroups is again a subgroup; this follows
because for all a, b H K, ab1 H and ab1 K, so ab1 H K,
and further 1 H K. Thus H K is a subgroup both of H and of
K. By Lagranges theorem |H K| divides |H| = 3, and |H K| divides
|K| = 5, so |H K| = 1; therefore, H K = {1}.
Note that this argument immediately generalizes to show that any family
of subgroups such that the greatest common divisor of their orders is 1
has trivial intersection.
16. (a) Prove that every subgroup of index 2 is normal.
Solution: Let H be a subgroup of index 2 in a group G. Then the
left cosets of H in G must consist of H, and G\H. These must also
be the right cosets of H in G by the same argument. Therefore, the
left and right cosets of H coincide, i.e. gH = Hg for all g G. This
is equivalent to gHg 1 = H for all g G, which by (6b) is equivalent
to normality of H.
(b) Give an example of a subgroup of index 3 which is not normal.
Solution: Consider h(12)i S3 . It is an index 3 subgroup, but is
not normal as, for instance, (12)(23) = (13)
/ h(12)i.