LYCOMING Operations

Lycoming Flyer
OPER AT IONS
L y c o m i n g F l y e r 35
inside the cylinder are great enough to cause expansion of the
piston rings. Pressures in the cylinder only become great enough
for a good break-in when power settings above 65% are used.
Most people seem to operate on the philosophy that they can best
Full power for takeoff and climb during the break-in period is
get their money’s worth from any mechanical device by treating
not harmful; it is beneficial, although engine temperatures should
it with great care. This is probably true, but in many cases, it is
be monitored closely to ensure that overheating does not occur.
necessary to interpret what great care really means. This is par-
Cruise power settings above 65%, and preferably in the 70%
ticularly applicable when considering the break-in of a modern,
to 75% of rated power range, should be used to achieve a good
reciprocating aircraft engine. Aircraft owners frequently ask
engine break-in.
about the proper procedures for run-in of a new or rebuilt engine
so they can carefully complete the required steps. Many of these Remember that if the new or rebuilt engine is normally aspi-
recommended break-in procedures also apply to engines which rated (non-turbocharged), it will be necessary to cruise at lower
have been overhauled or had a cylinder replaced. altitudes to obtain the required cruise power levels. Density
altitudes in excess of 8000 feet (5000 feet is recommended) will
The first careful consideration for engine run-in is the oil to be
not allow the engine to develop sufficient cruise power for a good
used. The latest revision of Lycoming Service Instruction 1014
break-in.
should be consulted for this information. The basic rule which
applies to most normally aspirated Lycoming piston engines is For those who still think that running the engine hard during
simple: use straight mineral oil of the proper viscosity for the break-in falls into the category of cruel and unusual punishment,
first fifty hours or until oil consumption stabilizes. Then switch there is one more argument for high power settings during engine
to ashless dispersant (AD) oil. break-in. The use of low power settings does not expand the piston
The exceptions to the basic rule above are the O-320-H and rings enough, and a film of oil is left on the cylinder walls. The
the O/LO-360-E series. These engines may be operated using high temperatures in the combustion chamber will oxidize this oil
either straight mineral oil or ashless dispersant oil; however, film so that it creates a condition commonly known as glazing of
if the engine is delivered with ashless dispersant oil installed, the cylinder walls. When this happens, the ring break-in process
it must remain on ashless dispersant oil. The Lycoming oil stops, and excessive oil consumption frequently occurs. The bad
additive P/N LW-16702 must be added to the O-320-H and news is that extensive glazing can only be corrected by removing
O/LO-360-E engines at airframe installation, and every 50 hours the cylinders and rehoning the walls. This is expensive, and it is
thereafter or at every oil change. An FAA-approved lubricating an expense that can be avoided by proper break-in procedures.
oil that contains, in the proper amount, an oil additive equivalent To summarize, there are just a few items to remember about
to LW-16702 will meet the requirements for the additive as stated engine break-in:
in Lycoming Service Instruction No. 1014M.
1. If a preservative oil has been added by the aircraft manufac-
All Lycoming turbocharged engines must be broken in with ash- turer, drain it no later than the first 25 hours of operation;
less dispersant oil only.
2. Follow the engine manufacturer’s recommendation regarding
When taking delivery of a new aircraft, there is another point the oil to be used for break-in and the period between changes;
which must be emphasized. Some aircraft manufacturers add
approved preservative lubricating oil to protect new engines from 3. Run the engine at high cruise power levels for best piston
rust and corrosion at the time the aircraft leaves the factory. This ring/cylinder wall mating;
preservative oil must be removed by the end of the first 25 hours 4. Continue break-in operation for 50 hours or until oil consump-
of operation. tion stabilizes. These simple procedures should eliminate the
Each new or rebuilt engine is given a production test run at the possibility of cylinder wall glazing and should prepare the engine
factory before the engine is delivered to an aircraft manufacturer for a long and satisfactory service life.
or customer. After installation in the aircraft, the engine is run
again during the test flights. These test runs will ensure that the
engine is operating normally and will provide an opportunity to
locate small oil leaks or other minor discrepancies. In addition,
these test runs do the initial seating of the piston rings. The rest of
the break-in is the responsibility of the pilot who flies the aircraft
during the next 50 hours. A direct reprint of Service Instruction 1094D
A new, rebuilt or overhauled engine should receive the same Revision “D” to Service Instruction No. 1094 supersedes all
start, warm-up and preflight checks as any other engine. There previous recommendations and should be used for engine
are some aircraft owners and pilots who would prefer to use low leaning during normal flight operations. All leaning recommen-
power settings for cruise during the break-in period. This is not dations are based on calibrated instrumentation.
recommended. A good break-in requires that the piston rings Lycoming strongly recommends that all engine instrumentation
expand sufficiently to seat with the cylinder walls. This seating be calibrated annually. All instrumentation for manifold pressure,
of the ring with the cylinder wall will only occur when pressures engine RPM, oil temperature, cylinder head temperature, exhaust
36 L y c o m i n g F l y e r
gas temperature and turbine inlet temperature in the aircraft propellers, gradually lean the mixture until either the tachometer
should be included in this annual calibration. or the airspeed indicator reading peaks. For engines equipped
Regardless of the fuel metering device, fuel management of with controllable pitch propellers, lean until a slight increase of
normally aspirated engines is primarily dependant on the instru- airspeed is noted.
mentation available. The method is the same for both fixed- and 4. For a given power setting, best economy mixture provides the
controllable- pitch propellers. most miles per gallon. Slowly lean the mixture until engine opera-
Lycoming recommendations for leaning turbocharged engines in tion becomes rough or until engine power rapidly diminishes as
this Service Instruction refer to Lycoming-supplied turbocharged noted by an undesirable decrease in airspeed. When either condi-
engines. For aftermarket turbocharger installations, contact the tion occurs, enrich the mixture sufficiently to obtain an evenly
STC holder for proper leaning instructions. firing engine or to regain most of the lost airspeed or engine RPM.
Some engine power and airspeed must be sacrificed to gain a best
CHT (cylinder head temperature) and TIT (turbine inlet tempera- economy mixture setting.
ture) probes are required for leaning turbocharged engines. Refer
to the latest edition of Service Instruction No. 1422 for proper TIT NOTE — When leaned, engine roughness is caused by mis-
probe locations and depth. firing due to a lean fuel/air mixture which will not support
combustion. Roughness is eliminated by enriching slightly
until the engine is smooth.
A. GENERAL RULES
1. Without exception, observe the red-line temperature 5. The exhaust gas temperature (EGT) offers little improvement
limits during takeoff, climb and high-performance cruise in leaning the float-type carburetor over the procedures outlined
power operation. above because of imperfect mixture distribution. However, if the
EGT probe is installed, lean the mixture to 100˚ F on the rich
a. Cylinder head temperature — maximum limit listed in the side of peak EGT for best power operation. For best economy
Lycoming Operator’s Manual. cruise, operate at peak EGT. If roughness is encountered, enrich
b. Oil temperature limit — maximum limit listed in the the mixture slightly for smooth engine operation.
Lycoming Operator’s Manual. 6. When installing an EGT probe, the probe must be installed
c. TIT - maximum allowable limit specified in the Lycoming in the leanest cylinder. Contact the airframe or kit manufacturer
Operator’s Manual. for the correct location. In experimental or custom applications,
2. Whenever mixture is adjusted, rich or lean, it should be multiple probe instrumentation is required, and several power
done slowly. settings should be checked in order to determine the leanest
cylinder for the specific application.
3. Always return mixture slowly to full before increasing
power setting. 7. During normal operation, maintain the following recommended
temperature limits:
4. At all times, caution must be taken not to shock-cool the
cylinders. The maximum recommended temperature change a. Cylinder head temperature — limit listed in the Lycoming
should not exceed 50˚ F per minute. Operator’s Manual.
b. Oil temperature — limit listed in the Lycoming
B. Leaning the normally aspirated engines Operator’s Manual.
1. Use full-rich mixture during takeoff or climb. Careful obser- 8. For maximum service life, maintain the following rec-
vation of engine temperature instruments should be practiced to ommended limits for continuous cruise operation:
ensure the limits specified in Lycoming Operator’s Manual are
never exceeded. Refer to the aircraft POH (Pilot’s Operating a. Engine power setting — 65% of rated or less.
Handbook) or AFM (Aircraft Flight Manual) for more specific b. Cylinder head temperatures — 400˚ F. or below.
instructions.
c. Oil temperature — 165˚ F. — 220˚ F.
2. For 5,000 feet density altitude and above, or high ambient
temperatures, roughness or reduction of power may occur at C. LEANING THE TURBOCHARGED LYCOMING
full rich mixture. The mixture may be adjusted to obtain smooth POWER PLANT
engine operation. For fixed-pitch propellers, lean to maximum
RPM at full throttle prior to takeoff where airports are at 1. The cylinder head temperature (CHT) and turbine inlet tem-
5,000-feet density altitude or higher. Limit operation at full throttle perature (TIT) gages are required instruments for leaning with
on the ground to a minimum. For direct-drive and for normally turbocharging by Lycoming. EGT probes on individual cylinders
aspirated engines with a prop governor, but without fuel flow should not be used for leaning.
or EGT, set throttle at full power and lean mixture at maximum 2. During manual leaning, the maximum allowable TIT for a
RPM with smooth operation of the engine as a deciding factor. particular engine must not be exceeded. Check the POH/AFM or
3. For cruise powers where best power mixture is allowed, the Lycoming Operator’s Manual to determine these temperatures
slowly lean the mixture from full rich to maximum power. and fuel-flow limits.
Best power mixture operation provides the most miles per hour
for a given power setting. For engines equipped with fixed-pitch
3. Maintaining engine temperature limits may require adjust-
ments to fuel flow, cowl flaps or airspeed for cooling.
4. All normal takeoffs, with turbocharged power plants, must
be at full-rich mixture regardless of airport elevation.
5. If manual leaning of the mixture is permitted at takeoff, climb
power or high-performance cruise, it will be specified in the
POH/AFM and will list required ranges for fuel flow, power set-
tings and temperature limitations.
6. Leaning to best economy mixture.
a. Set manifold pressure and RPM for the desired cruise power
setting per the aircraft POH/AFM.
b. Lean slowly in small steps, while monitoring instrumen-
tation, to peak TIT or maximum allowable TIT, whichever
occurs first.
7. Leaning to best power mixture.
Before leaning to best power mixture, it is necessary to establish
a TIT reference point. This is accomplished as follows:
a. Set manifold pressure and RPM for the highest cruise power
setting where leaning to best economy is permitted per the
aircraft POH/AFM.
b. Lean slowly in small steps until peak TIT or max-
imum allowable TIT is reached. Record peak TIT as a
reference point.
c. Deduct 125˚ F. from this reference, and thus establish the
TIT temperature for best power-mixture operation.
d. Return the mixture to full-rich, and adjust manifold pres-
sure and RPM for the desired cruise conditions.
e. Lean mixture to the TIT temperature for best
power/mixture operation established in step c.
8. During normal operation, maintain the following limits:
a. Engine power setting — rating listed in the Lycoming
Operator’s Manual.
D. LEANING THE SUPERCHARGED LYCOMING
b. Cylinder head temperature — limit listed in the Lycoming POWER PLANTS
Operator’s Manual.
1. All takeoffs with supercharged power plants must be at
c. Oil temperature — limit listed in the Lycoming Operator’s full-rich mixture regardless of the airport elevation.
Manual.
2. If manual leaning of the mixture is permitted at climb power,
d. Turbine inlet temperature — limit listed in the Lycoming it will be specified in the POH/AFM and will list required ranges
Operator’s Manual. for fuel flow, power settings and temperature limitations.
9. For maximum service life, maintain the following recom- 3. Recommended standard cruise power for the supercharged
mended limits for continuous operation. engine is 65%. At 65% power or less, this type of engine may be
a. Engine power setting — 65% of rated or less. leaned as desired as long as the engine operates smoothly, and
b. Cylinder head temperatures — 400˚ F. or below. temperatures and pressures are within manufacturer’s prescribed
limits.
c. Oil temperature — 165˚ F. — 220˚ F.
4. The exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gage is a helpful instru-
d. Turbine inlet temperature — maintain 100˚ F. on rich side ment for leaning the supercharged engine at cruise power with a
of maximum allowable. manual mixture control.
38 Lycoming Flyer

To put the cost of operating at a full-rich mixture setting during
cruise flight into perspective, let us assume that the cost of avia-
tion gasoline is $4.00 per gallon. In each case, it is only neces-
sary to multiply the difference in gallons burned at “Full Rich”
vs. “Best Economy” times the fuel price. The number obtained
will be the amount saved each hour of flight by operating at best
This Article Now Incorporates Material From “A Special
On Fuel Management” Which Has Been Eliminated economy during cruise. Using the examples above, these are the
savings for each of those aircraft and engines:
Aircraft Fuel-burn difference Fuel-cost savings
Various Lycoming Flyer articles have emphasized proper leaning
at the manufacturer’s recommended cruise power. Before delving Cherokee 300 3.4 gallons X $4.00 = $13.60 per hr.
into the savings to be obtained by leaning, it may be appropriate Aztec 5.2 gallons X $4.00 = $20.80 per hr.
to again review those factors that affect leaning at cruise.
Cardinal 2.2 gallons X $4.00 = $8.80 per hr.
First, we must know that cruise power for Lycoming normally
aspirated engines is generally considered to be 55% to 75% of the While we are on a discussion of unnecessary costs of operation,
maximum power for which the engine is rated. At these power set- another important factor is the damage often done to engine
tings, the engine may be leaned at any altitude. There has been accessories by operating at full rich at cruise power. Engines
confusion about the reference to not leaning below 5000-feet den- operating at full rich in cruise tend to be rough, resulting in
sity altitude. Remember that this reference only applies to those shaking engine accessories and engine mounts, thereby consid-
power settings above the cruise range — those normally used for erably reducing their life and often resulting in expensive early
takeoff and climb. Once cruise power has been set, leaning to best replacement. A properly leaned engine at cruise power is a smooth
economy should be standard procedure as damage to the engine engine — and will save money.
will not occur from leaning at cruise power settings.
In earlier issues of the Flyer, we have been telling all concerned
In this article, we will expand our discussion of leaning and about the benefits to the spark plug of proper leaning at cruise
explain (1) how it saves dollars, and (2) how it aids safe flight. In power. That information can be repeated in this discussion,
a practical approach to our subject, let’s look closely at the chart because it helps to illustrate our point on saving dollars. Proper
printed below: leaning at cruise helps prevent spark plug fouling. The mainte-
nance cost to remove and clean spark plugs can be reduced by
Leaning the normally aspirated, direct-drive good leaning techniques. Frequent cleaning of spark plugs reduces
Lycoming engine at cruise vs. full rich at their life and requires early replacement. Furthermore, badly
4,000-feet density altitude, 75% power. fouled spark plugs could also become a safety-of-flight problem.
For a very interesting safety-of-flight item, let’s look at the chart
Engine Model Airplane Model again. Notice the difference in hours of flight at full rich vs. lean
at cruise. In the illustration of the 180 HP engine, there is one full
300 HP Piper Cherokee 300
additional hour of flight when properly leaned. The other engines
Full Best Economy Hours Hours provide nearly an additional hour of flight time when leaned to best
Rich (Peak EGT) Rich Lean economy during cruise. Efficient fuel management is a very real
safety-of -flight fact.
19+ gals. 15.6 gals. 4.2 hrs. 5.1 hrs.
These are some of the more important facts that illustrate how
proper leaning at cruise power aids safe flight — and saves dollars.
Engine Model Airplane Model

250 HP Piper Aztec
Full Best Economy Hours Hours
Rich (Peak EGT) Rich Lean
16.2 gals. 13.6 gals. 4.3 hrs. 5.1 hrs.
Some pilots have demonstrated a lack of understanding with regard
to the operation of the direct-drive, fixed-pitch, normally aspirated
Engine Model Airplane Model power plants. When a power chart is provided, it will indicate that as
the airplane is flown at different altitudes above sea level, it is neces-
180 HP Cessna Cardinal sary to use a higher RPM for adequate cruise performance with an
Full Best Economy Hours Hours increase in altitude. A typical example might be the O-360, 180 HP
Lycoming power plant. The power chart by the airframe manufac-
Rich (Peak EGT) Rich Lean
turer for this fixed-landing gear aircraft lists 75% power at 7,500 feet
11.9 gals .9.7 gals. 4.1 hrs. 5.1 hrs. at 2675 RPM (no manifold pressure gage in their airplane). The pilot
L y c o m i n g F l y e r 3 9
who does not understand the principles of operation in the thin air at throttle at takeoff, the pilot may want to reduce power 100 or 200
altitude may observe that red-line takeoff RPM is 2700 RPM, and RPM and still not see performance suffer.
is then reluctant to lean either for cruise or climb despite the altitude
Those direct-drive normally aspirated engines with a prop gov-
because he is pulling almost the same RPM as at takeoff.
ernor are also rated indefinitely at full power, and the manuals all
However, the pilot can and should lean the engine at these alti- recommend full power for takeoff, but specify a small reduction in
tudes despite the high RPM, for the horsepower is down to 75% power, generally to 85% power climb. Study the specific airplane
because of the thinner air. On the other hand, with any direct- Pilot’s Operating Handbook for detailed power settings.
drive normally aspirated Lycoming engine, the pilot can and
should lean the mixture at any altitude as long as the aircraft is GEARED, TURBOCHARGED AND SUPERCHARGED ENGINES
in cruise configuration at 75% power or less.
Turning to the more complex power plants such as the geared, tur-
Let’s look at the airframe manufacturer’s power chart for the bocharged and supercharged models, the manuals are quite specific
O-360, 180 HP engine, and observe the gradual increase in in their description of takeoff and climb techniques. Our geared and
RPM required with the increase in altitude, but maintaining supercharged power plants have a limit of five minutes at takeoff
75% for cruise at each altitude. What the chart will not show power. However, it is advisable to throttle power to the recommended
here is that for flight above 7500 feet, it is not possible to achieve climb power as stipulated in the manual as soon as takeoff obstruc-
75% power with a normally aspirated engine (meaning not tions have been cleared and proper airspeed attained.
turbocharged or supercharged).
The turbocharged Lycomings (including the TIGO-541-E series)
do not have a five-minute limit at takeoff power. However, the
POWER CHART manual clearly stipulates a reduction to a proper climb power
when clear of obstacles, when climb speed has been established,
Percent Endurance on
and when cylinder head, oil and turbine inlet temperatures are
Altitude RPM of H. P. 59 gals. fuel within limits. Due to the more complete engine instrumentation
2500 2550 75% 4.8 hours in the airplane, the manuals allow some leaning at climb, but only
with the engine instruments reading within specified limits listed
3500 2575 75% 4.8 hours in the airplane manual.
4500 2600 75% 4.8 hours
The more complex power plants (geared, supercharged and
5500 2625 75% 4.8 hours turbocharged) demand smooth, careful operation of the throttle
6500 2650 75% 4.8 hours at all times, particularly at high power, but especially when
engines and oil are not up to normal operating temperatures
7500 2675 75% 4.8 hours such as for the initial takeoff. Overboost or erratic engine
operation will result from abrupt movements of the throttle.
All supercharged and turbocharged engines must use full-rich
mixture for all takeoffs regardless of field elevation.
Because there are a wide variety of Lycoming engines in opera-

tion, the paragraphs below may be helpful in understanding the
different modes of operation required when operating each type at
takeoff and climb power settings. The Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Since so many operators of our engines frequently ask us about
for the aircraft in which the engines are installed should be the
the use of an exhaust gas temperature with our power plants,
final authority as to how the engine should be operated.
perhaps we should examine the system and see how it relates to
fuel management.
DIRECT-DRIVE ENGINES
Most normally aspirated engines are rated at full power One of the better publications describing the EGT that we have
for takeoff and climb indefinitely, provided engine tem- seen was put out by Alcor Inc., P. O. Box 792222 of San Antonio,
peratures and pressures are within the green arc area of the Texas 78279-2222. This excellent booklet is titled, “EGT and
engine instruments. Extra fuel, sensible airspeed and cowl Combustion Analysis in a Nutshell,” and is available free on line
flaps, if available, are all helpful in keeping cylinder head at www.alcorinc.com.
temperatures within desired limits during takeoff or climb. An EGT system is not a complex or expensive item to install.
Climb requirements may vary; for example, on a warm day with The more economical kit consists basically of the gage, wiring
the airplane close to gross weight, and a direct-drive engine and probe (see illustration). The system generates its own
with a fixed-pitch prop, the pilot will need full throttle all the electricity to operate the instrument.
way to cruise altitude. The same airplane on a cold day and
lightly -loaded may not require full power for climb. After full
40 Lycoming Flyer

INSTALLATION INFORMATION smoother at +25˚ to +50˚ F on the rich side of peak EGT. Whereas,
The mechanic must carefully follow the installation instructions the fuel-injected engines at 250 HP and higher will provide a more
concerning placing the probe in the exhaust stack. If it is closer than 1 precise peak, and therefore the EGT system is likewise a more
½ " to the cylinder head, probe life will be limited, or if too far down precise method of fuel management with fuel injection.
toward the end of the exhaust stack, the response on the gage will
be slow. Should there be doubt concerning in which stack a single DEFINITION OF PEAK EGT
probe is to be installed, that information may be available from the A simple definition of peak EGT is given us by engineering as
airframe dealer’s service department. The operator might desire the chemically correct mixture of fuel and air which gives 100%
the more expensive installation of probes in all cylinders, therefore utilization of all the fuel and all the air. Remember, we said
the accompanying gage will generally have a selector switch for earlier that at mixtures leaner than peak EGT, there is excess
individual readings on all cylinder exhaust stacks. Again, it is most air, and at richer mixtures, excess fuel. Operation at peak EGT,
important that the installation instructions are carefully followed in particularly on long flights, can be an advantage not only for
order to get reliable readings. purposes of increased range, but there is less likelihood of spark
INTERPRETING THE SYSTEM plug fouling as well.
Most of the EGT manufacturers have standardized on gage Don’t be surprised to see variations in temperature between
increment markings of 25˚ F (see illustration). A few EGT manu- individual cylinders where there is a probe for every cylinder.
facturers will go further and show the temperature range on the It is fairly typical to see an average 100˚ F variation with fuel
gage as 1200˚ F to 1700˚ F. injection, and as much as 200˚ F variation with a float-type
carburetor. The latter (carburetor) variation tends to be greater
because fuel/air distribution is not as good as with fuel injec-
tion. In cold outside air temperature flight conditions, the mix-
ture distribution is poorer for both fuel-injected and carbureted
engines. However, with the float-type carburetor operating in
below-freezing ambient temperatures, the fuel/air distribution
is definitely worsened, resulting in noticeable variations in tem-
perature between individual exhaust stacks.
It is also important to understand that leaning to roughness at
the engine manufacturer’s recommended cruise power is not an
indication of detonation, but indicates normal characteristics of
distribution to the individual cylinders. The roughness indicates
that the leanest cylinder has become so lean, it is beginning to
miss. This is typical of an engine with a float-type carburetor.
Damage, to an engine from leaning does not occur at the manu-
facturer’s recommended cruise power, but takes place at higher
than cruise power.
The simple gage shown in the illustration is quite satisfactory As far as the pilot is concerned, operating on the lean side of
for the less complex engines. An advantage of the EGT over the peak EGT can only be accomplished with fuel-injected engines
cylinder head temperature gage is one of an almost immediate
of at least 250 HP or higher because the fuel flows in the lower
response to manual movement of the mixture control, as long as it
horsepower engines are so small. It isn’t possible with float-type
is not a rapid movement of the control. Remember that the peak or
carburetors because of the fuel/air distribution problem. In any
point of maximum needle deflection of the EGT gage is the basic
case, leaning past the peak is not recommended.
reference for fuel management. If an operator has experimented
with the EGT at the engine manufacturer’s recommended cruise
LIMITATIONS OF POWER AT PEAK EGT
power, he observes that gradual leaning does result in peak EGT.
The location of peak EGT on the gage will also vary with dif- Lycoming allows leaning to peak EGT at 75% power and
ferent power settings, changes in altitude and change in ambient below on our direct-drive normally aspirated engines. We
temperature. limit operation at peak EGT on our geared, supercharged
power plants at 65% power or below. With Lycoming turbocharged
From peak EGT, either increasing or decreasing the fuel flow engines, where the EGT gage is used to interpret turbine inlet tem-
causes a decrease in EGT. When richer than peak EGT cooling perature (TIT), the maximum allowable TIT specified in the POH
occurs because there is excess fuel, and when leaner than peak, should not be exceeded when attempting to find a peak temperature
cooling occurs because there is excess air. by manual leaning. Where a cylinder head temperature is also avail-
Peak EGT with a float-type carbureted engine is frequently able, the operator should always cross-check the head temperature
a vague point because of less efficient distribution (than fuel as a routine procedure when leaning, and remember that whenever
injection) to the individual cylinders by this type of metering CHT reaches the maximum before reaching peak EGT, then CHT
device. As a result, float-type carbureted engines tend to operate rather than EGT should dictate the limit of allowable leaning.
BEST ECONOMY MIXTURE The pilot must also realize that even with a fuel-injected engine,
Best economy mixture as it relates to the EGT system begins at there will be variations in fuel flow. Utilizing an EGT with probes
peak. For all practical purposes with Lycoming engines, peak in each exhaust stack (sometimes called a combustion analyzer)
EGT is right at the edge of best economy mixture, and is our only will show these variations. Trying to interpret the variations in
practical point of reference in the best economy mixture range. At temperature shown for each cylinder has caused some pilots to
the manufacturer’s recommended cruise power, peak EGT causes suspect problems with their engine when it has been operating
a slight loss of horsepower usually reflected in two or three miles normally. Sometimes too much knowledge can be a problem.
per hour of airspeed. If the pilot attempts to go leaner than peak Finally, the EGT system must be in perfect working order to
EGT (with fuel injection only), the power decreases rapidly as give accurate readings. The probes in the exhaust system will
fuel flow decreases. deteriorate with age and continuous use. This often causes the
gage to read a temperature that is not accurate, and therefore
BEST POWER MIXTURE a peak reading that is not reached soon enough. This results in
Best power mixture, or sometimes termed maximum power overleaning to the lean side of peak where operation is not recom-
range, as depicted on the EGT gage, is in the range of plus mended. Frequent maintenance to ensure that temperature probes
100˚ F on the rich side of peak. Best power mixture will provide are in good condition will reduce the possibility of inaccuracies,
fastest indicated airspeed for a cruise power setting, although but the pilot cannot determine the accuracy of this rather critical
it is generally not considered a practical economic mixture for reading during operation.
cruise purposes. However, best power mixture generally provides
The exhaust gas temperature system, when well maintained and
a safe amount of fuel for a power setting higher than the engine
thoroughly understood, can be an aid in proper leaning at cruise
manufacturer’s recommended cruise, except that needed for
power with fuel-injected power plants. It is hoped that this infor-
takeoff power.
mation will help the operators of Lycoming engines achieve the
Again, we repeat that maximum leaning (peak EGT) does best possible engine efficiency through use of the EGT system.
not damage an engine at the engine manufacturer’s recom-
mended cruise power. Damage is caused by maximum leaning
at higher than recommended cruise power where the manuals
do not spell it out or allow it, and when the aircraft does not
have a complete set of reliable engine instruments to protect
the power plants. Excessive leaning under the latter high
power conditions can cause detonation and/or preignition and
possible engine failure. Pilots frequently ask us for information and guidance concerning
If we were to sum up the major advantages of an EGT to the landings and takeoffs from high-elevation airports. Our reference
operator, they are as follows: point in this discussion will be based on density altitude. The
1. Saves fuel — an economy aid. discussion also requires that we treat separately operation of
normally aspirated, turbocharged and supercharged engines at
2. Aids proper mixture control — more precise fuel high-elevation airports.
management.
3. Helps increase range. NORMALLY ASPIRATED
4. Detects some types of engine troubles. The normally aspirated engine performs and reacts to density
altitude. As an example, this type of power plant at takeoff
5. Aids peak engine performance at cruise. from an airport with an indicated altitude of 3,000 feet, but
6. Helps prevent spark plug fouling. with an ambient temperature at 85˚ F, would have a density
altitude of more than 5,000 feet. The engine would lack some
7. Fits any General Aviation piston aircraft engine. 20 to 25% of its power and also probably run rough because of
Although use of the EGT has the advantages listed above, from a a rich mixture on the ground at full rich. Therefore, the typical
pilot’s point of view, there are also some possible disadvantages. normally aspirated direct-drive engine requires the mixture be
Poor mixture distribution to the cylinders (particularly in car- leaned on the ground for efficient takeoff performance where
bureted engines) is the primary reason for these disadvantages. airports are 5,000 feet (density altitude) or higher. The over-rich
The EGT probe is to be installed in the leanest cylinder, but this condition is something the pilot can compensate for by leaning.
changes with altitude and power setting, therefore making it However, the higher-density altitude with its thinner air cannot
very difficult, or perhaps impossible, to choose a best cylinder be compensated for with a normally aspirated engine unless a
for probe installation. Without an EGT installation, the pilot can supercharger or turbocharger unit is added to the power plant.
easily lean using the leanest cylinder of a carbureted engine by Thus, at density altitudes of 5,000 - 6,000 feet, the pilot of a nor-
simply leaning to find engine roughness from the first indica- mally aspirated engine has available to him approximately 75%
tion of “lean misfire,” and then richening the mixture to smooth of the engine power, and must plan his takeoff accordingly after
engine operation. setting the mixture.
PROCEDURE FOR LEANING tion in several older models of our geared normally aspirated
1. The fixed-pitch propeller — lean to maximum RPM at full power plants, such as the GO-480 and GO-435 series. In the
throttle prior to takeoff where airports are 5,000 feet density climb configuration, we recommended full throttle throughout
altitude or higher. Limit operation at full throttle on the ground the climb for internal fuel cooling with RPM reductions ini-
to a minimum time. tially to 3000 RPM and then 2750 RPM for prolonged climb.

2. The direct-drive normally aspirated engine with a prop gov- Turbocharged and supercharged engines require careful applica-
ernor but without a fuel-flow gage, set throttle at full power and tion of the basic power sequences as outlined in the beginning. It is
lean mixture at maximum RPM with smooth operation of the also possible to create an overboost condition on these engines by
engine as a deciding factor. going to takeoff manifold pressure at cruise RPM, such as might
3. With fuel injection, if the power plant has a marked fuel-flow take place in an unexpected go-around. The stresses and pressures
gage, then set mixture in accordance with instructions on the on prop and engine would create a threat to both.
fuel-flow gage and/or in accordance with the airplane Pilot’s
Operating Handbook.
4. Pressure carburetor — All Lycoming engines equipped with
Bendix PS carburetors have an automatic mixture control which
does not require leaning for takeoff.
5. Turbocharged and supercharged engines — All takeoffs must A letter received here at the factory asked a question we have
be at full-rich mixture, because the engine is brought back to sea heard quite often:
level horsepower which does not permit leaning. “Is it a fact, or is it fiction, that engines with constant speed
props should not use power settings where inches of mer-
DESCENT cury exceed RPM in hundreds? I am referring, of course, to
Regardless of the field elevation where the pilot intends to land, non-turbocharged engines in general .”
the descent from cruise altitude to traffic pattern altitude should
The answer to this question is easily found in cruise power
be made with the engine leaned for smooth engine operation. Low
charts of the airframe Pilot’s Operating Handbook. Whatever
elevation fields (below 5,000 feet density altitude) will require
the combinations of RPM and MP listed in the charts — they
that the mixture be moved to full rich in the “before landing
have been flight tested and approved by the airframe and
checklist.” Landing at airports above 5,000 feet density altitude,
power plant engineers. Therefore, if there are power settings such
the mixture must be leaned to smooth engine operation during
as 2100 RPM and 24" MP in the power chart, they are approved
traffic pattern flight and landing; otherwise, the engine may stop
for use.
on the runway because of excessive richness.
The confusion over so-called “squared” power settings
(i.e., 2400 x 24" MP), appears to have been a carry-over from
some models of the old radial engines which were vulnerable
to excessive bearing wear where an MP higher than “squared”
was used. More pressure on the bearings with the higher than
“squared” MP was the cause of their problem. However, changes
in design, metals and lubricants permit changes in operation in
the more modern flat-opposed power plants.
TO INCREASE POWER — first, enrich mixture, increase RPM,
then follow with throttle. Let’s look at the power charts in a couple of the Pilot’s Operating
Handbooks of two different aircraft manufacturers, but where
TO DECREASE POWER — first, reduce throttle, reduce RPM, both are using the four-cylinder 200 HP Lycoming engine.
and then adjust mixture.
Cessna’s Model 177 RG, using the Lycoming IO-360-A1B6D, in
INCREASING POWER — enrich mixture first to ensure pro- the cruise range at 6,000 feet, lists a cruise power-setting range
tecting the engine against damage from higher power when at that altitude of anywhere from 2100 RPM to 2500 RPM with
previously leaned out for a lower power setting. variations all the way from 18" MP to 24" MP. They list a recom-
Next, increase RPM because in some models the engine and mended power-setting for 66% power at 2100 RPM at 24" MP.
propeller would have undesirable pressure and stresses with a The Piper Arrow, powered by the Lycoming IO-360-C series
high manifold pressure and lower RPM. engine, lists the following cruise power settings at 6,000 feet
Then, follow with the appropriate manifold pressure, now that in their chart at 65% power at full throttle (about 23" MP)
the mixture and RPM have been correctly set to accommodate x 2100 RPM.
the increased throttle.
DECREASIN G POWER — Most models of our engines
require the basic procedure for decrease of power by retarding
throttle, followed by RPM. However, we do have an excep-
The complete chart for 65% power is shown Although there are restrictions, it is quite apparent that operation
as follows: is possible in the 1800 to 1900 RPM range. Lower RPM will
Altitude 2100 RPM 2400 RPM result in less-friction horsepower with a resultant fuel savings, but
most of the fuel-flow reduction experienced will be the result of
SL 25.9 MP 22.9 MP a much lower power setting and therefore reduced performance.
1,000 25.6 MP 22.7 MP This raises a question about the amount of benefit in terms of cost
2,000 25.4 MP 22.5 MP savings that might actually be achieved by using the lower RPM
settings for cruise.
3,000 25.1 MP 22.2 MP
One of the first considerations of low-RPM cruise is that power
4,000 24.8 MP 22.0 MP settings this low should not be used during the engine break-in
5,000 F. T. MP 21.7 MP period. During the break-in period, normal climb power as speci-
fied in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook should be used. To seat
6,000 F. T. MP 21.5 MP the piston rings in a new or overhauled engine, cruise the aircraft
at 65% to 75% power for the first 50 hours, or until oil consump-
After studying the power chart, the pilot would undoubtedly then tion has stabilized. Low power for break-in may result in glazed
ask what combination of RPM and MP would be best to use at cylinder walls and high oil consumption that can only be cured by
cruise. We recommend the pilot try the various combinations cylinder removal and rehoning.
offered by the power chart over a five-minute period when flying There are some other considerations of low-power cruise opera-
in smooth air, and use the listed RPM and MP combination which tion. Low manifold pressures, below an arbitrary point of perhaps
gave the least vibration and the lowest noise level. 18" for continuous cruise, may cause excessive oil usage and oil
In addition to the quieter and smoother consideration, lower RPM buildup in the valve guides which could lead to sticking valves.
means lower friction HP. This reduced loss of horsepower due to Particularly during cold-weather operation, low-power opera-
friction also translates to slightly improved fuel economy. tion may allow both the oil and cylinder head temperatures to
The Pilot’s Operating Handbook is the basic reference for the fall below the normal range. This is detrimental to good engine
pilot as this subject illustrates. health. Oil temperature in particular should be maintained between
165˚ F and 220˚ F to achieve maximum service life. At lower
temperatures, the moisture which gathers as a result of combustion
will not vaporize and be expelled. This can cause dilution of the
oil which detracts from its lubricating properties.
The Pilot’s Operating Handbook for each aircraft provides a variety
of power settings that most often show 2100 or 2200 RPM as the
minimum for cruise. The table shown here is for the IO-540-K
series engine which was illustrated in the curve shown earlier.
The high price of aviation fuel is causing aircraft owners and pilots
Using that curve, note that cruise flight at 6,000 feet using 1900
to review their operations in search of ways to keep operating
RPM would be limited to approximately 55% of power with
costs down. Those operating aircraft with controllable propellers
manifold pressure set at 24". As shown in the curve, 24" of MP is
have been requesting information on cruise operation in the low
very near the limiting manifold pressure line and therefore close
RPM range — 1800 or 1900 RPM for example. The number of
to the maximum available.
queries received indicates a great deal of interest, and therefore it
seems appropriate to share the information on this subject with Quite frequently, someone will ask if the engine will last longer
all of our readers. if it is run at a slower RPM setting. The answer must be qualified.
Operation at the recommended cruise RPM settings should allow
The Lycoming Engine Operator’s Manual has performance the engine to reach TBO if it has regular oil changes, is operated
curves applicable to each engine series. The curve for the within normal temperature ranges and is well cared for by pilots
IO-540-K series, 300-horsepower engine is printed here as a and maintenance personnel. Longer engine life may be expected
reference for this article. The curve does provide data on the from most engines when the operator is willing to sacrifice max-
maximum manifold pressure (MP), which may be used with imum performance for conservative cruise operation in the 60%
any particular RPM at sea level and at altitude. The limiting to 65% power range. For many engines, these power settings are
manifold pressure line clearly restricts high manifold pressures achieved at 2100 or 2200 RPM rather than the 1800 or 1900 RPM
with low-RPM settings. There is a good reason for this; high mentioned earlier in this discussion.
manifold pressure and low RPM is similar to allowing your auto-
mobile to lug uphill in fourth gear. The pinging you hear in your In summary, it is possible to run an engine at cruise using 1800
automobile tells you that detonation is occurring, and you should or 1900 RPM. A curve from the Engine Operator’s Manual
shift down to a lower gear. In an aircraft, detonation is not likely should be consulted to ensure that manifold pressure limits are
to be heard as damage occurs in the engine, and it is then too late not exceeded. In reality, the recommendations of the Pilot’s
for preventive measures. For this reason, engine operation should Operating Handbook provide the best guidance for operation of an
be within the limitations established in the Pilot’s Operating aircraft/engine combination, and therefore the recommendations
Handbook (POH). and limitations of the POH should be observed.
SEA LEVEL AND ALTITUDE PERFORMaNCE CURVE - IO-540-K, -L, -M, -S
POWER TABLE SETTING —
LYCOMING MODEL IO-540-K, -L, -M SERIES, 300 HP ENGINE
freezing and water readily ran off the windscreen. Although
this would seem to be a no-problem situation, the engine started
to lose power. After consideration of the available options, the
manual alternate air system was activated. The engine immedi-
ately regained power, and flight was continued to the home-base
destination. After landing, the aircraft was taken into the hanger
Rewritten
and combined with article “Induction Icing” for examination. It was found that the air filter was covered with
a layer of ice that had cut off the airflow. This is not an isolated
The gasoline engine operates on a fuel/air mixture that is ignited or unusual case. When water is near freezing, movement of the
by the spark plugs. Engines do not run when any of these ele- water molecules may sometimes cause instantaneous freezing.
ments are missing. Pilots know positively that they must refuel the This glazing over of the air filter is a known phenomena which
aircraft on a regular basis if they want to fly without incident, but pilots should expect and be ready to cope with. Again, bypassing
the possibility of losing the air part of the fuel/air mixture is not the blockage of impact ice by use of alternate air proved to be a
always considered and understood as well as it should be. Perhaps successful tactic for this pilot.
the personal experience of several individuals, and some facts The most subtle and insidious of the airflow blockage possibilities
about induction-system icing can be used to help Flyer readers is probably refrigeration ice, known more commonly as carbu-
avoid an accident caused by lack of air for their engines. retor ice, that forms in the vicinity of the “butterfly” or throttle
Remember that any material that reduces or cuts off the flow of air plate. Unfortunately, there are many pilots who are not fully
in the induction system has the potential to cause a loss of power. aware of what carburetor ice can do or what to do about it when
A material failure of the air filter is one problem which is reported it does occur. An indication of this are statements made by pilots
all too often. The filter is very necessary to keep dirt out of the involved in power-loss accidents who have said that they tried
engine; it must be inspected frequently and should be changed on carburetor heat, found it did not work, and then returned the con-
some regular schedule. A filter which is several years old and has trol to the cold position. Carburetor heat does not provide instant
filtered the air during hundreds of hours of operation may be tired. relief when applied after ice has formed in the carburetor. Once
One pilot reported that on turn-up of the engine before takeoff,
he could not get the static RPM that his engine and fixed-pitch carburetor ice
propeller should have produced. He wisely elected to return to the
line and have the engine inspected. The air filter had pulled loose
from its supporting frame and was lodged in the intake system
where it was cutting off the air supply.
If this incident had occurred in flight, the engine would possibly
not have been producing enough power to maintain altitude.
Depending on the particular airframe, there are some options
which might be utilized to regain some of the lost power. An
alternate air system or carburetor heat system is designed into the
induction system primarily to combat induction icing, but use of
these systems may possibly help when intake air is blocked by
other foreign materials. In some cases, just leaning the mixture
may help to regain a little of the lost power.
Several years ago, there was a reported loss of engine power in
heavy rain. In that case, a paper air filter was being used. When
saturated with water, the paper filter element became swollen
so that airflow was impeded. In this case, the use of carburetor
heat to bypass the filter and releaning to achieve a better fuel/air
mixture were successful tactics that kept the aircraft flying until
a safe, on-airport landing could be made. We should keep in mind
that it is not the ingestion of water through the engine that causes
a serious loss of power; it is the reduced airflow.
Some pilots believe that fuel-injected engines are immune to
induction icing. This is not so. Although the pilot flying with
a fuel-injected engine does not have the same threat of icing at
the venturi as those with a carburetor, rain, snow, slush and cold
temperatures may cause a blockage (impact ice) to air flow in
other parts of the induction system.
As an example, the pilot of a fuel-injected single reported flying
at 11,000 feet in light drizzle. The temperature was slightly above
heat is applied, it should be left on until engine power returns. system without any problem is melted by the partial heat. This
Left uncorrected, ice accumulation in the carburetor may cause moisture then freezes when it comes in contact with the cold metal
complete engine stoppage. of the throttle plate.
Every pilot who flies an aircraft powered by a carbureted Whenever carburetor heat is used in the landing configuration,
engine should be thoroughly educated about carburetor ice. They and a go-around or touch-and-go takes place, there are some
should know that under moist conditions (a relative humidity of important steps for the pilot to remember. The throttle must be
50% to 60% is moist enough), carburetor ice can form with any advanced, and the carburetor heat lever placed in the cold posi-
outside air temperature from 20˚ to 90˚ F. It is most likely in the tion. The order in which these steps are accomplished is not too
30˚ to 60˚ F range. Temperatures in the carburetor can drop 60˚ important, but both must be done. Leaving the carburetor heat
to 70˚ F (refrigerator effect) as a result of fuel vaporization and on during a go-around will result in a loss of power that could be
the carburetor venturi effect. It also happens that carburetor ice critical at low altitude and low airspeed.
forms more readily when the engine is operated in the lower Do not use carburetor heat for takeoff or climb with a Lycoming
power range. It will form while taxiing, and this makes it very engine as it is not necessary, and it may bring on detonation
important to check engine power before takeoff and to remove and possible engine damage. An exception to this rule might
the ice if necessary. Care should be taken to avoid dusty or dirty be justified in extremely cold-weather conditions such as those
conditions when utilizing carburetor heat on the ground. found in the Arctic, and these conditions require a special knowl-
Next, it is imperative that the pilot recognize carburetor ice when edge to accommodate operation under such extreme conditions.
it forms during flight. The loss of power that occurs will cause a A review of the material discussed in this article should help pilots
reduction of RPM when flying with a fixed-pitch propeller, and cope with reduction of engine power when it is caused by loss of
a loss of manifold pressure when a controllable-pitch propeller intake air for combustion. A thorough understanding of the air
is used. In either case, a loss of altitude or airspeed will occur. intake system and the knowledge to competently deal with induc-
These symptoms may sometimes be accompanied by vibration tion icing are essential to safe flight in general aviation aircraft.
or engine roughness. In any case, it is a good idea to consider Pilots are encouraged to enhance the safety of their flying by
carburetor ice as the cause of any unexplained power loss during knowing what to expect and what steps to take when the airflow
cruise flight. to the engine is cut off for any reason.
Once a power loss is noticed by the pilot, immediate action
should be taken to eliminate ice which has already formed in
the carburetor, and to prevent further ice formation. This is
accomplished by applying full carburetor heat which will initially
cause a further loss of power (perhaps as much as 15%) and pos-
sibly, engine roughness. The additional power loss is caused by
the heated air that is being directed into the induction system. A note that came in the mail from a Flyer reader included a
Heated air makes the mixture richer and also melts the ice which suggestion that went something like this, “How about an article
then goes through the engine as water. The throttle may be dealing more extensively with the cold-start problem?” This
advanced and the mixture may be leaned to help get some of the suggestion was a good one as it provided an opportunity to share
lost power back, but immediately after the application of carbu- information about a variety of cold-weather considerations to
retor heat, the pilot must be patient and keep the airplane flying help get the engine started and to keep it operating during cold-
until the ice has completely melted and normal power returns. weather conditions.
How long this will take depends on the severity of the icing, but Although the suggestion made in the first paragraph was aimed at
the pilot should expect a delay of 30 seconds to several minutes. helping with cold-weather starting, this article has been expanded
Under the circumstances, this period of time will be stressful to include tips and information on preflight, starting, in-flight
and always seems longer than it really is, but the knowledgeable safety and engine operational considerations. Keep in mind that
pilot will not retreat from use of carburetor heat. Carburetor heat this material deals with normal cold-weather operation experi-
should remain in the hot position until power returns. enced at temperatures to -25˚ F, and not the extremely low tem-
In conditions where carburetor ice is likely to form, the peratures that may be found in Arctic regions. Operation in those
pilot may use heat during cruise to prevent the formation of ice regions may require more specialized knowledge.
in the carburetor. It is also appropriate to use full carburetor Let’s start with the general health of the engine. When attempting
heat, if needed, to prevent icing when operating at low power a start under adverse conditions, it is imperative that the engine
for instrument approaches, or for flight in the traffic pattern. be well maintained and in excellent operating condition.
Unless the aircraft is equipped with a carburetor air temperature Spark plugs and magneto points should be properly gapped
(CAT) gage, and very few general aviation aircraft are, use of and ready to function effectively. In addition to the ignition
full carburetor heat is recommended. An unknown amount of system, the proper functioning of other systems such as induction,
partial heat can actually cause induction ice in the float-type priming, exhaust and carburetor heat can have an effect on the
carburetor. This may occur when moisture in crystal form in the starting and operation of the engine.
incoming air that would ordinarily pass through the induction
48 Lycoming Flyer

Regular maintenance should include having the heating system energy required. Combine this with reduced battery output at
checked for leaks. This cold-weather tip is worthy of a sepa- lower temperatures, and it can be a serious handicap.
rate little sentence all its own — remember, you can’t smell While on the subject of batteries, remember that freezing tem-
carbon monoxide. peratures provide a perfect opportunity to destroy an aircraft bat-
In cold weather, preheat is another factor that must be consid- tery. The battery with a full charge survives nicely, but one that is
ered prior to starting the engine. There are specific guidelines discharged will freeze. Once this happens, the problem can only
in Lycoming service instructions which establish when preheat be remedied by replacing the battery, so it is very worthwhile to
should be used, but how much, or the method of preheat is take preventive measures. Should the battery be run down during
generally left to the good judgment of the pilot or maintenance an attempt to start, do not leave it; get it charged immediately.
person doing the preheating. Use of the heated dip stick is not And finally, be absolutely certain that the master switch is always
recommended by Lycoming, although most other methods are OFF while the aircraft is parked between flights. If left on, the
considered to be satisfactory. For most Lycoming models, preheat battery will discharge and freeze. These rather minor mistakes
should be applied anytime temperatures are at 10˚ F or lower. The can be quite expensive.
exception to this rule is the 76 series models that include the O- Oil is another factor to be considered in the cold-weather starting
320-H, and the O/LO-360-E. These engines should be preheated process. All oils are affected by temperature and tend to thicken
when temperatures are below 20˚ F. It is recommended that these as the temperature drops. The engine may be reluctant to turn
guidelines be followed even when multi-viscosity oil is being over when the oil is stiff; a summer weight oil is not suitable in
used. In addition to hard starting, failure to preheat the entire cold weather. It is also the condition which brings out the primary
engine and oil supply system as recommended may result in minor advantage of multiviscosity oils and of preheating. Because multi-
amounts of abnormal wear to internal engine parts, and eventually viscosity oils are thinner (lower viscosity), they allow the engine
to reduced engine performance and shortened TBO time. to be turned over more easily. The easier and quicker oil flow
Water is one of the most likely contaminants of aviation gaso- also promotes faster lubrication of internal engine parts when the
line. The engine will not run on water, and although we may get engine does start. Since the proper oil viscosity is so important in
away with small amounts of moisture in the fuel during warm all aspects of engine starting and operation, the recommendations
weather, flight into freezing temperatures makes any amount of of oil grade vs. temperature range shown in Lycoming Service
moisture in the fuel system very critical. Even a tiny bubble of Instruction No. 1014 should be followed.
moisture may freeze in the fuel line and totally cut off the flow Probably the most important factor in starting an engine is
of fuel. Two steps should be taken to avoid this problem. First, achieving a fuel/air mixture that is satisfactory for combus-
avoid water contamination if possible. Keep fuel tanks full to tion. Since the engine usually starts very easily, many pilots are
prevent condensation, and be sure fuel caps do not allow leakage unaware of or ignore the change of starting procedure needed to
if the aircraft is parked outside in rain or snow. Second, look for successfully start under varying temperature conditions. In warm
contamination before every flight by religiously draining fuel weather, the air is less dense, and therefore must be mixed with a
tanks and sumps. lesser amount of fuel than in cold weather. In addition to this, in
If flight is planned for bad weather, the preflight inspection warm weather, the fuel will vaporize readily and make starting
should include observation of the relief opening in the engine easier. Simply stated, as temperatures go down it becomes more
breather tube so that any freezing of moisture at the end of the and more important that we have a plan for priming that will
breather will not result in a loss of engine oil. (See “The Whistle achieve the correct fuel/air mixture.
Slot” in this book.) When priming a carbureted engine, the pilot’s plan must
Once on board the aircraft, check the fuel-selector valve for consider the temperature, the number of cylinders which have
freedom of movement. It may be frozen fast (this has happened), priming lines installed, and the number of strokes of the primer
and you’d better find out while still on the ground. needed to produce the correct fuel/air mixture. The primer lines
are ordered or installed by the airframe manufacturer and not
Most of the time, we think of starting any engine as a very simple all aircraft are configured the same. Some aircraft have actually
process. Just engage the starter, and listen for the engine to start been produced with only one cylinder being primed, and these
purring. Unfortunately, when the weather turns cold, it is not engines are extremely hard to start in cold weather. The number
always that simple. When dealing with a reciprocating aircraft of cylinders that are primed must be considered since the total
engine, it may be essential to get a start on the first try in order fuel delivered by the primer will be divided and sent to these
to avoid icing over the spark plugs and making an immediate cylinders. As the air becomes colder and denser, the amount
start impossible. In order to achieve a start on the first try, there of prime used must be increased, but the number of strokes to
are a number of factors to be considered. Those factors will be be used should be planned as a result of some trial and error
discussed in the following paragraphs. experimentation for each aircraft a pilot flies. When the cor-
Although it might be good procedure to use an external power rect number of primer strokes for each temperature range has
source for starting during very cold weather, most of us expect been established, the engine will usually start very quickly. We
our battery to do the job. We should remember that the battery is may find that an engine starts easily when one stroke of the
handicapped by cold weather. Particularly when a single-viscosity primer is used in the 60˚ range, two strokes in the 50˚ range,
oil is being used, the colder the temperature, the more cranking three strokes in the 40˚ range, etc. This is an example of the
trial and error we might use to establish the number of primer Now, here’s a tip for novice pilots. When setting up for cruise
strokes to use under any particular temperature condition. configuration, be precise, read your instruments and remember
While discussing the priming of an engine, there have been situ- what you read. Example: If you decide on 22" of manifold pres-
ations where primer lines become clogged. This makes engine sure, set it right on 22. If the RPM is to be 2350, make it 2350.
starting difficult and negates any trial and error experimentation Select an altitude. Trim the aircraft to hold that selected altitude.
that may have been done. When maintenance is done on an aircraft Note airspeed. Now, if anything changes, barring turbulent air, it
before the start of winter, it may be wise to have those primer lines has to be a change in power. Perhaps it is carburetor or induction-
checked to ensure that fuel will flow through them. air icing. Suppose you picked up a bit of carburetor ice, and the
engine suffers a slight power loss. There will be a slight drop in
The amount of fuel needed to achieve the correct fuel/air mixture manifold pressure, a loss in airspeed, and the aircraft will want to
for starting a fuel-injected engine is controlled by timing rather lose altitude, and if you hold altitude, you’ll find back pressure on
than number of primer strokes. With the electric fuel pump on, the wheel is required. Therefore, even though you didn’t discover
moving the mixture control to the rich position allows fuel to the power loss through instrument scanning, you’ll get a warning
flow to the cylinders. For cold-weather starting, it may be neces- through the “heavy” wheel or stick.
sary to keep the mixture control in rich somewhat longer than in
warm weather. During flight in very low temperatures, exercise constant speed
props about every 30 minutes to help prevent congealing of oil
The fuel part of the fuel/air mixture may be the part we have
in the prop dome.
the most control over during the engine start, but keep in mind
that the amount of throttle opening does have an effect on the Should one engine of a twin, for any reason, indicate the prop
air that is pumped through the engine. Just as we compensate must be feathered, don’t tarry too long with reduced power in
for cold/dense air by adding more fuel for start, it may also be very cold weather. At reduced power, the oil may congeal making
appropriate to reduce the air part of the mixture when the tem- feathering an impossibility.
perature is very cold. For example, if the throttle is normally set
A tip for every pilot, don’t run one set of fuel tanks nearly dry
open one-half inch for warm weather starting, it may be helpful
before switching tanks. Switch with plenty of fuel remaining in
to reduce this to one-quarter inch in cold weather. Again, it will
the tanks first used. This is “money in the bank,” should you find
require some experimentation to determine what is needed to
the selector valve frozen.
achieve the correct fuel/air mixture for any particular aircraft at
any temperature range. Although carburetor ice is not necessarily a wintertime phenomena,
a check of carburetor heat should be made during the engine run-up.
When an engine does not start easily, it can be frustrating. Of
Generally speaking, we can say that carburetor heat should never be
course, this can occur at any time of the year, and it is very
tempting to just keep grinding away with the starter in an attempt used for takeoff, but there is one exception. This exception occurs
to get it going. Should this happen to you, RELAX. Take care when operating in temperatures so cold that application of carburetor
of that starter, or it may fail. The general rule for starters is heat produces a rise in RPM. Most pilots will never find themselves
that they should only be operated for short periods, and then in circumstances which require use of carburetor heat for takeoff
allowed to cool. If engine start has not occurred after three and climb; those who fly carbureted engines will almost certainly
10-second periods of operation with a pause between each, a have occasion to use carburetor heat during cruise or let down. Use
five-minute cooling off period is required. Without this time limit of the full-hot or full-cold position is recommended. An intermediate
for operation and an adequate cooling off period, the starter will setting should only be selected if the aircraft is equipped with a
overheat and is likely to be damaged or to fail completely. carburetor air temperature (CAT) gage.
The previous paragraphs have addressed several issues that relate Engine operating temperature is another item that is not usu-
to the cold-weather preflight and the cold-weather start. There ally given enough consideration in cold weather. We usually
are other cold-weather items that should be considered in the are very cautious about high oil temperature which we know is
operation of the engine. detrimental to good engine health, while a low oil temperature is
easier to accept. The desired oil temperature range for Lycoming
Assuming the engine has kicked off, check for an indication engines is from 165˚ to 220˚ F. If the aircraft has a winteriza-
of oil pressure. Learn the characteristics relative to response tion kit, it should be installed when operating in outside air
of oil pressure indications of your aircraft/engine combina- temperatures (OAT) that are below the 40˚ to 45˚ F range. If no
tion. On most single-engine aircraft, an almost immediate winterization kit is supplied and the engine is not equipped with
response is noted. On twin-engine aircraft, the response may be a thermostatic bypass valve, it may be necessary to improvise a
much slower. On some twins, the oil pressure may go up, means of blocking off a portion of the airflow to the oil cooler.
and during warm-up, may drop again for a short period of time, Keeping the oil temperature above the minimum recommended
then again rise to normal. All cases mentioned may be normal, temperature is a factor in engine longevity. Low operating
but the important thing is to know what to expect from your temperatures do not vaporize the moisture that collects in the oil
aircraft/engine combination. as the engine breathes damp air for normal combustion. When
After start, do not idle engine below 1000 RPM. It’s not good minimum recommended oil temperatures are not maintained,
practice to idle engines below 1000 RPM at any time. This is oil should be changed more frequently than the normally rec-
particularly true during cold weather to prevent lead fouling of ommended 50-hour change cycle. This is necessary in order to
spark plugs. (Exception — Piper Pressurized Navajo) eliminate the moisture that collects and contaminates the oil.
50 Lycoming Flyer

And finally, power-off letdowns should be avoided. This Since it was common technique by flight instructors to termi-
is especially applicable to cold-weather operations when nate power abruptly to simulate an engine power loss, we had
shock-cooling of the cylinder heads is likely. It is recommended to protect the engine. As a result, we published in our Engine
that cylinder head temperature change not exceed 50˚ F. per Operator’s Manual and in Service Bulletin No. 245, the recom-
minute. Plan ahead, reduce power gradually and maintain some mendation that if the power was abruptly terminated, it must
power throughout the descent. Also keep the fuel/air mixture be accomplished with the mixture control. Of course, this was
leaned out during the descent. If an exhaust gas temperature gage intended for the higher altitudes where a complete engine
is installed with a normally aspirated engine, keep it peaked to shut-down could be conducted safely. The student was to iden-
ensure the greatest possible engine heat for the power setting tify the dead engine by retarding that throttle to about 12" MP to
selected; for a turbocharged installation, lean to peak during simulate zero thrust, or similar to having the prop feathered. At
descent unless otherwise specified in the Pilot’s Operating that point, the instructor could immediately return the mixture to
Handbook, or under conditions where the limiting turbine inlet an engine-operating condition, and power would be available
temperature would be exceeded. if needed.
Exposure to snow, frost and cold weather while flying requires In our publications, we then explained the reason for using the mix-
the consideration of many factors, both airframe and engine ture to abruptly terminate power. By putting the mixture control in
related. This discussion deals with issues relating to the engine. idle cutoff position with the throttle in a normal open or operating
While there may be other issues, those items which are asked position, the pilot merely cut off the fuel, but allowed the air to con-
about most frequently have been discussed. Safer flying and tinue to fill the cylinders with resulting normal compression forces
longer engine life could result from careful consideration of the that are sufficient to cushion the deceleration of the engine and
material addressed. prevent the detuning of the crankshaft counterweights.
However, any practice of simulated engine-out condition at low
altitudes should be best accomplished by a slow retardation of
the throttle in accordance with the NTSB recommendation. This
careful technique will protect the engine, and at the same time,
provide for instant power if it is needed.
The fatal crash of a light twin in which a flight instructor and an

applicant for a multiengine rating were killed prompted the NTSB
to issue an urgent warning to all pilots simulating an engine-out
condition on multiengine airplanes. The Board’s investigation
revealed that some flight instructors do use the fuel selector or A lt hough t he sma l ler fou r- cyl inder engines of t he
the mixture control to shut down an engine to test a multiengine low-compression, low-horsepower variety do not generally use
applicant. Although this is a recommended procedure, the urgent a cylinder head temperature gage, the higher powered, more
warning was aimed at flight instructors who were using this pro- complex power plants require a cylinder head temperature gage
cedure at altitudes too low for continued safe flight. in order to prevent unwitting abuse by the pilot.
The NTSB observed that use of such procedures at traffic pattern If head temperatures are higher than normal during flight, it
altitudes may not permit instructors enough time to overcome should not be ignored, because there is some reason for it. It
possible errors on the part of the applicant. The recommenda- may be caused by hot ambient temperatures, a lean fuel metering
tion by the NTSB means that all simulated engine-out operation device at higher than cruise power, bad baffles or leaking cowling,
at the lower altitudes should be accomplished by retarding the or malfunctioning of the ignition system. Even old and tired
throttle, and this should be done slowly and carefully to avoid engine mounts that allow the engine to sag slightly may cause a
engine damage or failure. change in the airflow pattern and an abnormal increase in CHT.
Many flight instructors down through the years used the tech- It is also possible that a mechanical problem may be developing
nique of abruptly cutting an engine with a multiengine can- in the engine.
didate to test his emotional reaction and judgment with this When higher than normal cylinder head temperatures are showing
extreme technique. Big radial piston engines with short, stubby on the gage, the pilot should take steps to bring the temperatures
crankshafts could tolerate the abrupt technique. However, down to the normal operating range in order to keep the remaining
flat-opposed piston engines with their long crankshafts and flight safe. Head temperatures may be reduced by:
attached counterweights could not as readily take the abuse 1. Enriching the mixture
of suddenly snapping a throttle shut, particularly at takeoff or
climb power. Use of the latter technique would tend to detune 2. Adjusting cowl flaps
crankshaft counterweights and could possibly result in a nasty 3. Reducing power
engine failure.
4. Any combination of the above
We suggest that in order to help the mechanic diagnose the Operators frequently ask about the difference between the CHT
problem, the pilot or some member of the crew should make a and EGT (exhaust gas temperature) systems, and their meaning
written record of the engine instrument readings during the above to the pilot during operation of the engine or engines. The EGT
flight condition and present it to the maintenance people. probe is installed in a different location from the CHT, or about
four inches from the cylinder head down the exhaust stack.
A first step in diagnosing abnormal cylinder head temperatures
Although the EGT has some troubleshooting ability, it is pri-
would be ensuring that the gages are providing accurate readings.
If they are, the mechanic can then proceed to check engine baffles marily a fuel-management instrument. On the other hand, the
that may have deteriorated, proper flow of the fuel metering CHT is an engine instrument designed to protect the power plant
device, and then other more time-consuming checks for ignition against its enemy, excessive heat.
or mechanical malfunction.
The present-day piston engine instruments used in the typical

general aviation airplane are not precision laboratory instru-
The cylinder head temperature gage (CHT) helps the pilot pro- ments. We exclude the turbine and jet-powered aircraft from this
tect his engine against the threat of excessive heat. Most General discussion and will consider only piston engines, recognizing
Aviation aircraft take the CHT off the hottest single cylinder that the more expensive pressurized twin-engine models may
of the four- six- or eight-cylinder power plants determined by also be exceptions.
extensive flight tests. Optional installations offer readings from Nevertheless, the purpose of this brief presentation is a practical
all cylinders. In Lycoming engines, all cylinders are drilled to approach to interpreting the readings of your engine instruments
accommodate a CHT bayonet-type thermocouple. in accomplishing a safe and efficient flight. If, for example, you
Some operators in the field have been using a spark plug were to observe an irregular reading of one engine instrument, it
gasket-type installation in order to get cylinder head tem- calls for a cross-check on all other instruments, and not relying
perature readings. Lycoming Engineering does not currently on one instrument as a basis for a decision affecting flight.
approve this method of determining CHT. Not only is the Since the engine is dependent on fuel, we consider the gasoline
method less accurate than the recommended thermocouple gage as a related engine instrument. If pilots are going to attempt
type, but the temperature readings differ noticeably from the to stretch their flight range close to limits, they should be aware
approved installations. of the errors in the gages vs. the actual usable fuel. Some modern
Minimum in-flight CHT should be 150˚ F (65˚ C), and maximum single-engine aircraft have had the gas gage show several gallons
in most direct-drive normally aspirated Lycoming engines is remaining, when in reality, the tank was empty. Others have
500˚ F (260˚ C). Some of our higher-powered more complex indicated a specific number of gallons when filled, but actually
engines have a maximum limit of 475˚ F (245˚ C). Although these the tank held several gallons less than indicated.
are minimum and maximum limits, the pilot should operate his Therefore, in planning for each flight, remember that general
or her engine at more reasonable temperatures in order to achieve aviation engine instruments are not precision laboratory types, so
the expected overhaul life of the power plant. In our many years cross-check, and give yourself an extra margin for safety.
of building engines, the engines have benefited during continuous
operation by keeping CHT below 400˚ F in order to achieve best
life and wear of the power plant. In general, it would be normal
during all-year operations, in climb and cruise to see head tem-
peratures in the range of 350˚ F to 435˚ F.
If an engine has bayonet probes in all cylinders, it is not unusual An important part of the engine-starting procedure is the priming
to see variations in CHT readings on fuel-injected engines of technique. Of course, the Pilot’s Operating Handbook will specify
100˚ F between cylinders, and as much as 150˚ F on engines with the steps in starting a specific model engine. However, some of
float-type carburetors. With the latter, an important cause of the the pilot handbooks may not explain why certain procedures are
variation is the kind of distribution of fuel and air to the individual used in the starting process.
cylinders. Other influences on CHT are such items as cylinder
Priming can be best accomplished with an engine priming system,
baffles, cowling, cowling flaps, location of engine accessories
as opposed to use of the throttle. The primer pumps extra fuel
and, of course, manual control of fuel mixture.
directly into the cylinder intake port or induction system. Some
It is very important that the CHT probes be checked on a regular float-type and pressure carburetors also provide a supplemental
basis. When these bayonet probes deteriorate, they tend to give source of priming. Lycoming engines of more than 118 HP have
readings that are less than the actual temperature of the cylinder a throttle pump which can be used for priming under moderate
head. This can result in operation above the recommended max- ambient temperature conditions while turning the engine with
imum temperature without the pilot even knowing it. the starter.
Pilots should, however, be advised that excessive throttle priming 3. When switching fuel selectors from one separate fuel tank
can cause flooding of the carburetor and airbox, and result in to another, the fuel boost pump should be “on” in the new
a fire in the induction system or on the outside where the fuel tank until the operator is assured there will be no interruption of
drains overboard. If the operator floods the engine by pumping the fuel flow.
the throttle and has a fire, it is possible to handle such a fire in
4. Every landing approach.
the early stages by continuing to turn the engine with the starter,
thereby sucking the fire back into the engine. Furthermore, 5. Any time the fuel pressure is fluctuating, and the engine is
if there is any fire on the outside of the engine, if the engine starts, affected by the fluctuation.
there is a good chance it will blow out the external fire.
6. Hot weather, hot engine ground operation where fuel vapor
If there is flooding of the engine without a fire, the operator problems cause erratic engine operation.
should open the throttle full and close the mixture; (see Operator’s
7. Some General Aviation aircraft require the use of the fuel
Handbook on mixture) turn the engine over several times with the
boost pump during high-altitude flight. This will be spelled
starter to clear it; then begin again with a normal start routine.
out in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook.
Most Lycoming fuel-injected engines are simply primed by
8. If the engine-mounted fuel pump fails.
turning the fuel boost pump on, opening the mixture briefly to
full rich, and cracking the throttle. Any pumping of the throttle If the fuel boost pump is used during ground operation, don’t fail
is ineffective until the engine begins to fire. to check the condition of the engine-mounted fuel pump before
takeoff by turning the boost pump off briefly, and then back “on”
FUEL CONTAMINATION — Water (says the FAA) is the
principal contamination of aviation fuel. For a safe for takeoff. If the engine-mounted pump has failed, it would be
flight, carefully drain fuel sumps at each preflight. safer to know that on the ground rather than in the air when the
fuel boost pump is turned “off.”
When in doubt, do the safest thing and use the fuel boost pump
with Lycoming engines. Don’t be “stingy” with the boost pump.
In most cases, they last the overhaul life of the engine, and are
then exchanged or overhauled themselves. AS A REMINDER,
the airframe Pilot’s Operating Handbook is the authority if boost
pump information is spelled out in it.
As an engine manufacturer, we are frequently asked about
the proper use of the fuel boost pump with our power plants.
Although we can’t pretend to be an expert on the fuel boost
pump itself, we have some positive recommendations concerning
its use with our engines. Where a boost pump is provided by
the airframe manufacturer, and the airframe Pilot’s Operating
Handbook has a limited treatment of the use of the fuel boost Sudden cooling is detrimental to the good health of the piston
pump, perhaps this discussion can provide the necessary fuel aircraft engine. Lycoming Service Instruction 1094D recommends
boost pump information for the pilot in order to operate his or her a maximum temperature change of 50˚ F per minute to avoid
engine as safely as possible. shock-cooling of the cylinders.
It is necessary to supply the engine with a steady, uninterrupted Operations that tend to induce rapid engine cooldown are
flow of fuel for all operating conditions. Entrapped air, tempera- often associated with a fast letdown and return to the field after
ture changes, pressure drops, agitation in the fuel lines and other dropping parachutists or a glider tow. There are occasions when
factors affect the release of air and vapor from the fuel system. Air Traffic Control also calls for fast descents that may lead to
Under some circumstances where an engine-mounted fuel pump sudden cooling.
is provided, it may not be able to pump a continuous fuel supply The engine problems that may be expected when pilots consis-
free of excessive vapor. tently make fast letdowns with little or no power include:
An effective continuous fuel supply is provided by use of the fuel 1. Excessively worn ring grooves accompanied by
boost pump. As a general recommendation, the fuel boost pump broken rings.
should be used with Lycoming engines in all conditions where
there is any possibility of excessive vapor formation, or when a 2. Cracked cylinder heads.
temporary cessation of fuel flow would introduce undesirable 3. Warped exhaust valves.
hazards. The conditions under which Lycoming recommends 4. Bent pushrods.
operation of the fuel boost pump are as follows:
5. Spark plug fouling.
1. Every takeoff.
Generally speaking, pilots hold the key to dodging these prob-
2. Climb after takeoff unless Pilot’s Operating Handbook says lems. They must avoid fast letdowns with very low power
it is not necessary. (high-cruise RPM and low manifold pressure), along with rich
mixtures that contribute to sudden cooling. It is recommended Knowledge gained from the experience of others is usually the
that pilots maintain at least 15" MP or higher, and set the RPM easy way to learn. In the case of sticking valves that may damage
at the lowest cruise position. This should prevent ring flutter and an engine or cause it to fail, it is surely best if the knowledge is
the problems associated with it. not acquired firsthand. The experience of others is related in the
Letdown speed should not exceed high cruise speed or approxi- following paragraphs.
mately 1,000 feet per minute of descent. Keeping descent and One of the regional service managers here at the Lycoming
airspeed within these limits will help to prevent the sudden factory indicated that his experience over the years included
cooling that may result in cracked cylinder heads, warped working on engines with sticking valves. He commented that
exhaust valves and bent pushrods. the engine will almost always provide a warning by running
The mixture setting also has an effect on engine cooling. To very rough at start-up. As the engine warms up, it may then
reduce spark plug fouling and keep the cylinder cooling within smooth out after a few seconds and run normally, but the ini-
the recommended 50˚ per-minute limit, the mixture should be tial roughness is a warning that preventive maintenance action
left at the lean setting used for cruise and then richened gradu- is required.
ally during descent from altitude. The lean mixture, maintaining Just a few days after these comments were made, a conversation
some power and using a sensible airspeed should achieve the most with an aircraft owner confirmed that the regional manager’s
efficient engine temperatures possible. comments were right on target. This is the story which the aircraft
The operating techniques recommended in this article are worth owner related.
consideration as they will be a positive step toward saving dol- An aircraft had been purchased recently, and the owner flew it to
lars that might be spent on maintenance. Whatever the circum- altitude in the vicinity of his home airport to satisfy himself of the
stances, pilots must plan their flight operations so that the poten- aircraft capability to fly over mountainous terrain during a planned
tial damage caused by sudden engine cooling can be avoided. vacation trip. Content that the aircraft and engine were capable of
meeting his requirements, the vacation trip was undertaken. All
went smoothly on the first 300-mile leg of the trip which ended
with a planned overnight stop.
When the engine was started the next day, it was very, very
rough, but smoothed out and ran normally after a short time. With
the engine running smoothly, the vacation trip continued to its
destination. The aircraft was then tied down and not operated line of defense in keeping dirt and abrasives from entering the
until it was time for the return trip — a period of about one week. engine. To prevent dirt from entering the engine, the filter must
form a good seal with the filter holder, and the induction system
As the engine was started for the return trip, it again gave indica-
should be free of air leaks. The air filter should be cleaned or
tions that a valve was momentarily sticking ... it ran very rough for
changed on a regular basis. In extremely dusty conditions, a filter
several seconds, but then smoothed out. With the engine running change could be necessary as frequently as every few hours of
smoothly again, the return trip was started. After one to two hours operation.
of flight at altitude, over mountainous terrain, the engine ran very
rough again for a short period of time, and then smoothed out. The second line of defense against dirt and abrasives is the
The pilot decided to land at the nearest airport. full-flow oil filter that is standard with most Lycoming engines
now being produced. Older engines were manufactured with a
Examination of the engine revealed a considerable amount of oil pressure screen, but may be converted to a full-flow filter for
leakage. The cause — a valve which had stuck solidly and caused more effective cleaning of the oil. Lycoming Service Publication
the pushrod to bend. This bending ruptured the pushrod shroud SSP-885-2 provides information and instructions needed for this
tube and allowed oil to escape. This is a classic example of the conversion.
damage that sticking valves can cause.
Another contributor to a variety of engine problems, including
The lesson to be learned is quite simple. Do not neglect the valve sticking, is frequent long periods of inactivity. An engine
warning signs. Perhaps the experience related here will allow should be flown regularly to stay in tiptop condition. The oil in
others to recognize a rough-running engine at start-up as a pos- the sump collects residue from combustion such as moisture,
sible indication of sticking valves. The next step is to take imme- acid and lead sludge. Flying the aircraft tends to heat the oil
diate action to prevent damage. enough to vaporize the moisture and help eliminate some of
Although there may be an occasional exception, it is almost these contaminants, but an engine that is not flown will col-
always an exhaust valve that sticks. To prevent further valve lect moisture, acids and gums which may contribute to corro-
sion and to valve-train problems. In addition to frequent flight,
sticking and to reduce the possibility of damage, all exhaust
these contaminants are also eliminated from the engine by
valve guides should be cleaned of any carbon, varnish or other
changing the oil. Lycoming Service Bulletin No. 480 makes
contamination buildup. This is accomplished by reaming the
these recommendations for engines operating under normal
guides to their original size as specified in Lycoming Publication
(non-dusty) conditions:
SSP 1776, Table of Limits. The latest revision of Lycoming
Service Instruction 1425 provides recommendations to reduce a. 50-hour interval oil change and filter replacement for all
the possibility of valve sticking. In particular, Part III of the engines using a full-flow filtration system.
instruction gives a procedure for reaming valve guides that can b. 25-hour interval oil change and screen cleaning for all
be accomplished without removing the engine from the aircraft engines employing a pressure-screen system.
or the cylinders from the engine.
c. A total of four months maximum between oil changes for either
of the systems discussed under a. and b., even if the engine is
not flown.
Reports from aircraft owners continue to indicate that trouble-
free operation through TBO is most often obtained with engines
subjected to frequent oil change intervals. Absurd as it may
seem, an engine which does not fly regularly should have the
Considering that the properly timed sequence of valve opening oil changed at more frequent flight time intervals than one that
and closing is essential to efficient and reliable engine operation. does fly regularly.
Anytime those valves stick for any reason, it is a serious problem.
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide our readers with Preventing a buildup of contaminants is just as important as
some insight into this problem along with methods to help avoid it. eliminating those that do form. Avoiding long periods of ground
operation is a vital step since moisture can enter the breather,
The space between the continuously moving valve stem and its but will not vaporize when the oil is not heated to normal oper-
stationary valve guide is extremely critical. Note that the amount ating temperatures. Ground running also involves a slightly rich
of clearance can be affected by high temperatures, engine clean-
mixture which contributes to the formation of lead sludge in the
liness and extended periods of engine inactivity. Changes in
oil. During flight, the deposit of lead sludge in the oil can be
valve-to-guide clearance can occur during the course of engine
minimized by proper leaning.
operation. In other words, a sticking or broken valve may not be
the fault of the engine. It is possible to promote valve sticking, Although some excess fuel is required for engine cooling during
and there are actions that can be taken to reduce or eliminate high-power operation, proper leaning at cruise-power settings will
the possibility of this phenomena. These actions will affect promote complete burning of the fuel and, therefore, a minimum
engine cooling, fuel management and internal engine cleanliness. of lead sludge deposited in the oil. This is important since lead
Engine cleanliness is a primary consideration that is affected sludge is not filtered out, but is removed by changing the oil. The
by many maintenance and operational procedures. Proper filter airframe manufacturer’s recommendations and limitations for
maintenance is one such item. The induction air filter is the first leaning should be observed, but it may be beneficial to be aware
that when permitted by the Pilot’s Operating Handbook, leaning may be an indication that carbon or other similar contaminants
to peak EGT at cruise-power settings will produce complete have built up inside the valve guide causing the valve stem
burning of the fuel/air mixture for best economy and reduction to drag instead of moving freely. These contaminants should
of combustion-related contaminants. be removed by reaming the guide to the size specified in the
Lycoming Table of Limits (SSP 1776). The procedure to be used
Having touched on fuel management and maintenance items
when reaming to remove valve guide deposit buildup is found
required to keep an engine clean internally, the final factor
in Lycoming Service Instruction 1425. Known as “the old rope
affecting potential valve sticking is engine operating tempera-
trick” to many A&P mechanics, this valve guide reaming pro-
ture. Some operating procedures already discussed also have an
cedure restores valve stem to guide running clearance and can
effect on engine temperature. Prolonged engine ground run-up at
be accomplished without removing the engine from the aircraft.
high-power settings, for example, can cause engine overheating
or hot spots since cooling airflow is not always adequate when To summarize, procedures to reduce valve sticking will also
the aircraft is stationary. reduce the probability of additional engine damage which may
cause loss of power and the need for costly repairs. These proce-
Since proper engine operating temperatures fall within a min-
dures may be reduced to relatively simple terms: The maintenance
imum and maximum range, it is important to consider all aspects.
and operational procedures necessary to avoid sticking valves
It must be emphasized that baffles designed to direct cooling
air over the cylinders must be maintained in good condition. are those that keep the engine clean internally and which cause
They play an extremely important role. If these baffles deteriorate it to run within proper operating temperature ranges. The items
or are installed so that cooling air is not adequately contained and discussed above should serve as a guide for A&P mechanics and
directed, hot spots which promote a lead or carbon buildup may for pilots.
occur. During hot weather in particular, those baffles or ducts that
direct cooling air through the oil cooler must also be maintained
in good condition.
The pilot, as well as maintenance personnel, will play an impor-
tant role in ensuring that engine operating temperatures do not
promote valve sticking. As mentioned earlier, ground running These are some of the more common questions asked at our
far in excess of the time necessary for engine warm-up should service hanger:
be avoided. Also to be considered is continuous operation at very
QUESTION: Do your new, rebuilt or overhauled engines
low aircraft speeds that may not generate the most efficient flow
require a break-in period that consists of cruise at low-power
of cooling air over the engine. This lack of effective cooling air
settings?
may cause some areas of the engine to be excessively hot, and
therefore have an effect on any contaminants that are in the oil. ANSWER: Definitely not. Fly them as you would a high-time
The formation of deposits is promoted, with the exhaust valve engine. In fact, so-called “slow” flying may have harmful
guide area the most likely to be affected. The result of these effects. The rings may not seat properly resulting in higher
deposits may be a stuck or sticking valve. than normal oil consumption.
The other end of the spectrum controllable by the pilot is exces- QUESTION: At what rate of oil consumption does continued
sively rapid cooldown of an engine that has been running at operation of the engine become a hazard?
normal operating temperatures. Lycoming engines are made ANSWER: Generally speaking, when the oil consumption
with various metals that expand and contract at different rates reaches one quart per hour, corrective action should be taken.
when exposed to heat or cold. It is poor technique to “chop” the However, maximum permissible for each particular engine is
power from cruise or higher power settings to idle and then start listed in the engine operator’s manual.
a rapid letdown which develops excessive cooling airflow over
the engine. It is always best to reduce power in increments so QUESTION: What are the dangers of operating an engine with
that engine temperature changes will occur gradually. It is also high oil consumption?
beneficial to continue the engine cooling process after landing ANSWER: When excessive amounts of oil get past the rings,
by ensuring that several minutes of engine operation at 800 to there is danger of the ring sticking or breaking with a dramatic
1200 RPM are allowed before shutdown. At large airports, this rise in oil consumption. Then oil soaked carbon forms at a
is usually accomplished by the time taxi to the parking area fast rate. At the same time, the presence of oil in the combus-
is completed. At airports where clearing the runway puts the tion chamber has the effect of lowering the octane rating of
aircraft in the parking area, a short period of additional operation the fuel. Operating temperatures go up. We have now set up
in the 800 to 1200 RPM range prior to engine shutdown will allow conditions inviting detonation and/or preignition.
temperatures to stabilize.
QUESTION: If I can’t get aviation fuel, may I use automotive
A logical question after this long series of things to do and things fuel if octane rating is equal or higher?
not to do might be this, “Is there any way to tell if a valve is
sticking before serious damage occurs?” There are sometimes ANSWER: No. As an engine manufacturer, even the use of
warning signs that should be investigated. Although there may automotive fuel where an STC has been issued is considered
be other causes, an intermittent hesitation or miss in the engine risky and is not recommended. There are 4 or 5 good reasons
and all are important. They can be summed up in three words may be pumped overboard due to a faulty vacuum pump or faulty
— potential engine failure. automotive-type fuel pump.
QUESTION: What is the most common cause of premature QUESTION: My dealer advised me to use straight mineral oil
engine wear? in my new engine until it’s “broken in.” How do I know when
ANSWER: Dirt in the air entering the engine through the it’s “broken in”?
carburetor or injector due to worn-out air filter, torn induction ANSWER: When oil consumption has stabilized. Example:
hoses or broken air boxes, and then being carried through the After continued checking of oil consumption, you have deter-
engine by the oil. mined the engine is consistently using one quart in a known
QUESTION: Does the spacer between the propeller and the number of hours. This period should not exceed 50 hours of
engine serve any purpose other than streamlining the nacelle? operation.
ANSWER: Yes. In many cases, moving the propeller forward, QUESTION: I have problems with lead fouling of spark plugs.
which increases the clearance between propeller and cowl, What can I, as a pilot, do about it?
increases propeller efficiency and reduces nacelle vibration. ANSWER: Several things. See that you have the correct
QUESTION: In some cases, we note a minor discrepancy spark plugs that are recommended by the engine manu-
between the engine operator’s manual and the airplane Pilot’s facturer’s charts, not oddballs recommended by some
Operating Handbook. Which one should be followed? well-meaning friend. Avoid prolonged idling on the ground.
ANSWER: The airframe Pilot’s Operating Handbook. For various Avoid power-off descents. Lean out at cruise and even on short
reasons, after the engine is installed in the airframe, operational cross-country flights. Rotate plugs from bottom to top every
techniques may be altered or certain restrictions may be placed 50 hours — or 25 if necessary.
on the engine. A simple example would be a placard restricting
continuous operation in a certain RPM range.
QUESTION: I fly an aircraft equipped with a fixed-pitch
propeller. During cruise, I’m told to keep increasing the RPM
as my cruising altitude is increased. Since I fly pretty high, in
order to hold 65% power, I find the RPM is mostly at 2550 to Combined with “Turbocharging — A Brief Refresher”
2600. Won’t this high RPM reduce the engine life?
Turbocharging has been a part of everyday operations for some
ANSWER: No. The higher RPM won’t harm the engine or pilots and A & P mechanics for many years. The science of adding
reduce service life. Remember, you are increasing the RPM a turbocharger to an aircraft engine and making that system pro-
only to hold the same power you had at a lower altitude at vide a bonus in operating capability has been well established.
say, 2350 RPM. The purpose of this combined and rewritten article is to share
QUESTION: Is there really any difference between good our experience and give a thorough rundown of what the General
automotive oil and aviation oil? Aviation pilot should know about turbocharged flat-opposed
piston engines. Through a sound basic knowledge, the pilot can
ANSWER: Yes, indeed there is! Don’t ever use automotive realize more efficient use of his or her turbocharged engine.
oil in your aircraft engine. These oils are now blended for
use with unleaded fuels, and the additives in auto oil cause
WHY TURBOCHARGE?
problems in an aircraft engine that operates at much higher
temperatures than the automobile engine. We have encoun- Experience has taught us that flying high and fast is most
tered engines with holes burned in pistons due to the use of desirable on cross-country flights, and the small, lightweight
automotive oils that have an ash deposit causing preignition. and relatively inexpensive turbocharger makes this possible.
It seems awfully hard to convince people who have had great Turbocharging the flat-opposed cylinder aviation engine has also
success with the oil used in their car that it may not be used allowed cabin pressurization in general aviation aircraft.
in their aircraft engine. The turbocharger has made it possible to climb above most
NOTE — Since we have had several questions on fuels and of the undesirable flying weather instead of banging through
oils, it might be well to mention that we can’t think of a the poor visibilities, bumpy air, icing and slower speeds of the
quicker way to void your engine warranty than by using altitudes below 10,000 feet. The rare loss of an engine in a
anything other than the recommended and FAA-approved twin will not necessarily result in the airplane being forced to
aviation fuels and oils. descend into the weather, but will mean merely slower flight while
QUESTION: What are some common causes of excessive still maintaining the desired, safe altitude with the turbocharger
oil consumption other than the burning of oil due to high helping the engine to produce the needed power.
engine time? With greater flexibility in choice of altitude, it is possible to take
ANSWER: Building up of crankcase pressure due to “blow-by” better advantage of favorable winds and avoid turbulence.
caused by ring wear may result in oil being blown out of the Much safer flight for general aviation aircraft is now possible
breather. The same thing can result from broken piston rings. Oil over high mountains.
The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain sufficient In simple terms, the turbocharger provides an air pump that
cruise power at high altitudes where there is less drag. This allows us to supply the engine with dense air (and the oxygen
means faster true airspeeds and increased range with better needed for combustion) not only at sea level, but also when oper-
fuel economy. At the same time, the power plant has flexibility ating in the thin air at altitude. The pump used in a turbocharger
and can be flown at a low altitude without gulping fuel like may be described more accurately as a centrifugal air compressor
a thirsty turbine. that is mounted on a shaft. To power the compressor, the hot
exhaust gases that are discharged as wasted energy in a normally
The turbocharged power plant is a blessing at high-altitude airports.
aspirated engine are now harnessed by directing them through
The normally aspirated engine may be marginal from these fields,
a turbine wheel that might be described as a very sophisticated
but turbocharging will provide sea level power and remove the
windmill. The turbine wheel is mounted on the same shaft as
aircraft from the marginal category at high-altitude airports.
the air compressor so that during operation the compressor and
The turbocharged piston engine offers the advantage of turbine will turn at the same speed. Therefore, as more exhaust
high-altitude flight without the high cost of a turbine-powered gases (energy) are directed over the turbine, both wheels will
aircraft. The added utility and economy make it popular with turn faster and the density of the air supplied to the engine by
small businesses and also with some individuals. the compressor will increase. This allows the engine to produce
more power. These two wheels mounted on a shaft are enclosed
WHAT IS TURBOCHARGING? within housings that separate and contain the two functions just
At the risk of insulting the intelligence and experience level discussed; this is the turbocharger.
of some readers, we should nevertheless review, for anyone
interested in the basic principle involved in turbocharging, and THE FACTORY TURBOCHARGED ENGINE
answer the question — What is turbocharging? When turbocharging first became popular, some companies used
This review will be a nontechnical explanation of what turbo- conversion kits to add turbochargers to a standard normally aspi-
charging does for the reciprocating engine. As you know, the rated engine. These installations required a Supplemental Type
aircraft engine derives its power from the burning of a mixture of Certificate (STC) issued by the FAA. The add-on systems did
fuel and air. Assuming that this fuel/air mixture retains a constant meet with some success, but the pilot flying with these systems
ratio, the amount of power the engine develops will be directly could easily cause serious engine damage with just a little care-
proportional to the total mass of air pumped through the engine. lessness. Damage caused by these add-on systems would not be
Climbing to altitude in an aircraft equipped with a normally covered by engine manufacturer warranty.
aspirated engine provides a very realistic example; as the air Engine manufacturers have been providing a mated turbocharged
becomes less and less dense with altitude, the engine is capable of engine package for both rotary and fixed-wing aircraft for many
producing less and less power as indicated by the decreasing rate years. When the engine manufacturer certifies such a package
of climb and eventually the total inability to climb higher. (either carbureted or fuel injected), it will have several turbocharge-
oriented design features, and manufacturer warranty will apply.
An engine that produces more than normal sea level mani-
fold pressure for take off and climb will have been beefed up
with a heavier crankshaft for this additional power requirement.
Combustion chambers are protected by using a lower compression
ratio compared to normally aspirated engines.
As our turbocharged aircraft is flown higher, the compressor
wheel must run faster to compensate for the thinner air. One
problem in compressing air is that it gets hotter. Therefore, the
higher we fly, the faster the compressor must turn. This produces
a hotter charge to the cylinders, usually reflected in higher cyl-
inder head temperatures.
These higher engine temperatures must receive careful consid-
eration. Engine manufacturers install exhaust valves and guides
of special heat resistant metals to cope with these temperatures.
Special oil squirts in the crankcase direct a stream of oil on
pistons to help cool critical areas.
Now has ma ny t u rbocha rged engine models wh ich
are FAA certified. With the added features incorporated to com-
pensate for additional heat and stress, the factory turbocharged
engines have proven to be very reliable power plants.
58 Lycoming Flyer

CONTROLLING TURBOCHARGER SPEED tion, all elements of the control system must stabilize following
Turbochargers in use today may run at speeds up to 110,000 RPM. any movement of the throttle. Good advice is “Move the throttle
controls slowly and wait.”
Since the speed at which a turbocharger must operate is dependent
upon the power desired from the engine and the density of the 2. This advice is also good when leaning the mixture since the
air at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying, it is necessary mixture setting has a great effect on engine operating tempera-
to provide the pilot with the capability of adjusting turbocharger tures. The operating temperatures of a turbocharged engine will
speed. This is accomplished by controlling the amount of exhaust be somewhat higher than those of a similar normally aspirated
gas that is directed to the turbine side of the turbocharger. In those engine because the intake air is heated as it is compressed; this
cases where air of increased density is not needed from the turbo- is particularly true at higher altitudes where the compressor must
charger (low altitude or low power required), a wastegate in the work very hard to supply dense air to the engine. Cylinder head
exhaust system is allowed to remain open, and the exhaust gas is temperatures may average 30˚ F higher at altitude, and smooth,
vented around the turbine wheel and through the wastegate to the steady operation of the mixture control will ensure that turbine
atmosphere, very much like the normally aspirated engine. As the inlet temperature (TIT) limitations are not exceeded.
demand for dense air increases, the wastegate can be closed to a 3. Power sequence is very important with the turbocharged
position that will force the proper amount of exhaust gas into the engine.
turbine and therefore speed up the compressor to meet the cur-
rent demand for denser air. Adjusting turbocharger speed to meet To increase power — Enrich mixture, increase
changing power requirements is a matter of providing necessary RPM, then MP
controls over the wastegate, and therefore the flow of exhaust gas. To decrease power — Decrease MP, then RPM
4. High-altitude flights mean higher turbine speeds and hotter
AUTOMATIC VS. MANUAL CONTROLS
cylinder head temperatures. Observe these temperatures, and stay
Control of the wastegate for factory-installed turbochargers within the limits prescribed for best engine life.
is accomplished by two basic methods. These are manual
control or automatic control. Manual control is also divided into 5. Cruise control at altitude is in accordance with the specific
two types; the fixed-bleed system and the throttle/wastegate instructions in the airplane Pilot’s Operating Handbook.
interconnect. 6. Turbocharged power plants require 100 octane aviation grade
Those engines utilizing manual control over the wastegate fuel as a minimum.
require much more pilot attention than installations with
automatic control. Pilot workload is reduced with a turbocharger THE MANUALLY CONTROLLED TURBOCHARGER
that utilizes an automatically controlled wastegate unit. The simplest form of manual control is the fixed-bleed system.
It does not incorporate a wastegate, but allows some exhaust
The automatic controller adjusts for temperature or pressure or
gas to continuously escape through an orifice of predetermined
both, depending on the various applications, and permits the
size. Size of the orifice establishes the critical altitude of the
turbocharger to be controlled by normal throttle movements.
engine. The remainder of the exhaust gas is used to turn the
The automatic control feature is normally set at the factory and
turbocharger mechanism anytime the engine is running. In
should not be tampered with in the field.
this system, engine power is adjusted by the position of the
throttle plate in the carburetor or fuel injector, and the amount of
OPERATION
exhaust gas available to turn the turbocharger is a result of the
Both the mechanic and the pilot must know how to operate the power developed at any particular throttle setting.
specific turbocharged system he works on or flies, so this infor-
mation is not intended as a substitute for the Engine Operator’s Lycoming developed a second manual system to be used primarily
Manual or the Pilot’s Operating Handbook. The treatment here in single-engine installations. The throttle/wastegate interconnect
is more general. But we can augment those basic references with system uses positioning of the cockpit throttle control to actuate both
explanations from the pilot’s point of view. the throttle plate and the turbocharger wastegate. The design of this
mechanism causes a programmed movement of the throttle plate
The most practical consideration of operation is to treat the auto- and wastegate; the throttle plate starts to move toward the full-open
matic and manual systems separately. However, before we do that, position before movement of the wastegate affects any change in the
there are a few basic handling or operational requirements that exhaust bleed which will cause turbocharger speed to increase. At the
apply to both systems. fully advanced position of the throttle control, the throttle plate is at
1. The throttle or throttles must be operated smoothly or the full open and the wastegate is closed to its maximum design limit.
engines will surge, which is hard on the turbocharger and the A pressure relief valve is normally included in the factory
engine. Those pilots trying a turbocharged installation for the developed system of each manually controlled turbocharger
first time should be aware of throttle sensitivity and the need for installation. The purpose of this valve is protection of the engine
very smooth throttle movements. In case of the manual systems, in case of inadvertent excessive throttle opening (overboost) by
the turbocharger requires time to follow throttle movement since the pilot. With a manually controlled turbocharger system, the
it may operate at speeds up to 110,000 RPM. The automatic pilot is the controller, and must limit throttle movement to keep
control systems experience this same phenomena and, in addi- manifold pressure within the limit specified for the engine.
The pilot should carefully read the Pilot’s Operating Handbook executed a go-around without first advancing RPM. Thus he
on this equipment, and also get a good checkout by a competent could be pulling maximum manifold pressure (to red-line) at low
pilot qualified in the aircraft. Pilot technique cautions against RPM. This would produce a definite overboost condition, with
sudden movements of the throttle, and recommends instead slow resulting heavy detonation and undesirable compressor surge.
deliberate movements. For takeoff, this requires very smooth The engine manufacturers have service bulletins and service
application of the throttle until manifold pressure indicates about instructions for reference if this should happen. A severe over-
two inches below the maximum for which the engine is rated. boost could require a major overhaul of the engine and replace-
As the turbocharger speed builds up, the manifold pressure will ment of the crankshaft.
increase slightly to the maximum limit. During climb at a fixed-
throttle condition, manifold pressure will decrease at the rate of Of course, the nice feature of the automatic system for the busy
approximately one inch for each thousand feet. As engine power pilot during climb is that once the throttles are set, there is a
deteriorates, the pilot slowly advances the throttle to maintain minimum of adjustment required. Cruise handling is similar to the
the desired manifold pressure until the full-throttle position is other systems described earlier. During letdown, there is no worry
reached at the critical altitude. about high MP because the pilot merely retards his throttles, and
the automatic system does the work for him.
The pilot should be alert to the reaction of the manifold pressure
in this type of engine when leaning at cruise power. At a fixed Since the turbocharger is operating during takeoff, all takeoffs at
RPM and throttle setting, the manifold pressure will increase as any altitude require full-rich mixture because the turbocharger
the mixture is leaned to Best Power, and decrease when further provides full-rated horsepower, and full-rich mixture is required
leaned to Best Economy. The recommended procedure is that at for that amount of power.
the completion of the leaning procedure, if the manifold pres-
sure is more than one inch from the beginning MP value, it is MAINTENANCE
recommended that the mixture be returned to full rich and the Maintenance for all the turbo systems covered here is rela-
MP adjusted accordingly so that the leaning procedure produces tively simple. The daily preflight merely calls for a visual
the desired manifold pressure. inspection prior to the first flight. Look at turbo mountings and
connections for security, lubricant leakage or air leakage. There
THE AUTOMATICALLY CONTROLLED SYSTEMS are the usual 50- and 100-hour inspections that are brief in what
Owners of engines that call for more than field-level manifold they recommend. Mechanics should not tinker with the system
pressure to produce rated power should know that the turbo- unless they have been specifically schooled. A very important
charger is operating at all times when the engine is running. requirement is the necessity to avoid dropping any loose items in
These engines usually have turbochargers that are controlled by the induction system. They will be sucked up and go through the
automatic systems. turbine wheel damaging it and also possibly damaging the engine
as well. This could become very costly.
The automatic systems used to control turbocharger operation
utilize devices that sense differences of air pressure at var- Any overboosting should be entered in the logbook by the
ious points in the induction system, and utilize any changes to pilot. The mechanic must then refer to the manufacturer’s
adjust the oil pressure that controls the position of the wastegate. service publication for the necessary action to take. When the
Not all of these systems are exactly the same and, therefore, it is engine is exchanged or overhauled, the turbocharger should
very important that the pilot understand exactly what manifold also be exchanged or overhauled.
pressures to expect when full throttle is applied for takeoff.
SUMMARY
Engines such as the Lycoming TIO-541 and TIGO-541 have
controller systems that are set to provide red-line manifold pres- Turbocharging the flat-opposed cylinder piston engine was an
sures when the throttle is full open for takeoff. Other engines, innovation that improved and expanded the utility of the General
many of those in the Lycoming TIO-540 series, utilize a density Aviation airplane. Combining cabin pressurization and engine
controller that will maintain a set power output at full throttle turbocharging from the same compressor included as part of
regardless of variations in altitude and in temperatures above or the engine package, provides simplicity, which leads to low
below standard; as a result, manifold pressures at full throttle cost and light weight. The turbocharged piston engine had a
may indicate several inches above or below that specified for great impact on the helicopter industry, particularly for use
standard day conditions. in mountainous areas. Altitude test flights and field experi-
ence have indicated excellent fuel economy and range with the
Although the systems with controllers automatically protect accompanying higher true airspeeds.
against overboost at all normal RPM and MP settings, it is pos-
sible to overboost a turbocharged engine nevertheless. Any sudden The turbocharger has been quite compatible with Lycoming
straight-arming of the throttles, particularly on cold engines, can piston engines. We have tried to give information on all
cause an overboost condition that would exceed the red-line. But aspects of turbocharging in an effort to aid pilot understanding
overboost can also take place even though the red-line MP has not of the subject. There is no substitute for a good checkout by
been exceeded. This occurs where the pilot may have a low RPM an experienced pilot; and for specific knowledge about
and very high MP. An example of this has been observed when your aircraft, be sure to read the airplane Pilot’s Operating
the pilot has let down with low RPM, then on the final approach Handbook. Give the power plant and turbo the maintenance
60 Lycoming Flyer

they require and the careful operation they deserve, and they b. Avoid rapid acceleration after any cold start-up, and make
will give you performance with a long and satisfactory life. every effort to maintain a constant speed of about 1000 RPM
for several minutes during the initial warm-up period.
c. Adhere to the lubricating oil recommendations for the
average ambient air temperature, as listed in the latest revi-
sion of Lycoming Service Instruction No. 1014. Note that SAE
15W-50 or 20W-50 all-temperature oil (MIL-L-22851 Spec)
is approved for use in TI0-540 series engines.
Airline deregulation has caused changes. Many aircraft powered d. Oil temperature indications should register on the aircraft
by Lycoming reciprocating engines are being used in the com- gage before takeoff is attempted so that problems associated
muter market. These aircraft operate under Part 135 of the Federal with unusually high oil pressure will be minimized.
Air Regulations and generally have a regular schedule which
must be maintained day after day. The engines of these aircraft, e. All power settings must always be accomplished slowly
like those operated for individual or corporate transportation, are and smoothly to minimize possible damage to the crankshaft
expected to reach the manufacturer’s recommended TBO when dynamic counterweight system.
operated and maintained as specified in the Pilot’s Operating f. Taxi at the minimum power setting required to get the
Handbook (POH) and appropriate maintenance publications. job done.
Many commercial operators have requested assistance and advice
on the subject of operating and maintaining their engines in a 3. Takeoff:
manner that will assist in meeting regular schedules and achieving a. Part throttle takeoffs should be avoided. The fuel injector
recommended engine TBO. In response to these requests, a series metering jet is a two-hole unit, which is interconnected
of operating tips has been developed to emphasize that a slightly with the throttle. The secondary jet is fully opened only
more conservative and cautious mode of operation will help to at full-throttle conditions. The richer fuel flow supplements
increase expected engine life. These tips are directed specifically engine cooling and deters engine damaging detonation.
at TI0-540-J series engines, but they may be applied to other The turbocharger control system automatically seeks to
Lycoming engines as well. maintain a constant density air charge at the fuel injector
Individual or corporate operators may also find these tips beneficial entrance. The density controller setting should be checked
for ensuring long, reliable engine operational life. Considering routinely with a temperature probe in accordance with
this, it seems appropriate to print these suggested operating tips Lycoming Curve Number 13225-C, as described in detail in
for the benefit of all Lycoming TIO-540-J series engine owners the latest revision of Lycoming Service Instruction No. 1187.
and operators. These tips are applicable where maximum engine It is normal for the takeoff manifold pressure level to vary sig-
service life rather than maximum aircraft performance is the nificantly as daily ambient ground level temperature changes.
primary consideration. Never attempt to set rated manifold pressure based upon ambient
temperature comparison and interpolation with the various rated
“Tips from Fred” were outlined in a memo which is reprinted below: power levels shown on Lycoming Curve Number 3216-C. That
curve is intended only as an explanatory curve and should not be
1. Introduction: used for setting manifold pressure at rated conditions below crit-
This memo was originally directed at Part 135 Commuter usage, ical altitude. Items such as a dirty air filter, alternate air door not
but any operator of Lycoming turbocharged engines where completely shut, loose rag or similar foreign object blocking the
long engine service life is a major consideration may benefit. air filter will affect the rated manifold pressure level. The correct
Power settings and procedures within the normal range, but density setting can only be obtained by monitoring compressor
more conservative than the maximum allowable limits specified discharge temperature and manifold pressure simultaneously.
in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH), may be helpful in
b. The RPM should be at 2575 RPM for takeoff, and a full-rich
achieving this extended engine life. The following suggestions
mixture must be utilized.
deal with the engine areas that lead to the necessity of overhaul by
attempting to minimize wear rates and potential cylinder prob-
4. Climb:
lems, and to maximize turbo system and wastegate life through
changes in operational procedures. Economic or performance Climb should be accomplished with engine cooling in mind. Cowl
considerations may require deviation from ideal recommendations flaps should always be open for climb. A higher than normal climb
with the possible attending loss of some of the maximum possible speed of 140 MPH is recommended to aid cooling. Maximum
engine service life. normal operating power of 2400 RPM, 40" Hg manifold pressure
with partial leaning, in accordance with the POH, is permissible
2. Ground operation: where terrain or conditions permit. A conservative climb power
setting of 2400 RPM, 35" Hg manifold pressure is also recom-
a. In extremely cold weather (20˚ F and colder), engine
and/or oil preheating should be utilized to minimize acceler- mended while maintaining cylinder head temperature as cool as
ated cold wear rates during the engine warm-up period. 400˚ F by manual leaning. For maximum engine service life, an
exhaust gas temperature of 1,400˚ F should not be exceeded.
5. Cruise: identified as thieves of engine power, and how they can create
Conservative cruise power settings will also increase engine unsafe flight conditions. As an example, in most instances, the
service life. A power setting of 2200 RPM and 31" Hg mani- moderate engine power loss that occurs from attempting a takeoff
fold pressure is recommended for all cruise flight. A maximum at sea level where a pilot has inadvertently left the carburetor heat
1,450˚ F exhaust gas temperature and maximum cylinder head in full-hot position from the previous landing may cause a scare
temperature of 420˚ F is recommended. Slight enrichment or cowl but not necessarily an accident. But move the situation to a 5,000
flap opening should be utilized if the cylinder head temperature feet or higher (density altitude) small airport, again forget there
level cannot be maintained. The preceding conditions correspond is full carburetor heat, add a rich carburetor condition, and the
to a power setting of about 63% at standard conditions and sum total of these combined power thieves add up to a takeoff or
approximately best power mixture strength. It may be necessary go-around accident. Similarly, a review of accidents over the years
to increase the cruise manifold pressure setting on a hot day shows that in most cases it has rarely been one factor responsible
and to decrease the cruise manifold pressure on a cold day. As a for a crash, but rather one small item, added to another small
rule of thumb, modify manifold pressure by 1% for each 10˚ F item, added to a third; all of these small items finally add up to a
variation from standard altitude conditions. Note that this cruise total beyond the ability of the pilot to cope. This is how accidents
power setting is not recommended for new engines or engines in happen. So let’s identify several of these power thieves in an effort
service following cylinder replacement or top overhaul of one or to make flight as safe as we can.
more cylinders. Under those circumstances, to assure the proper
ring seating, cruise should be at 65% to 75% power for the first PREVENT POWER LOSS ON TAKEOFF WITH
50 hours of operation, or until oil consumption has stabilized. DIRECT-DRIVE ENGINES IN COLD WEATHER
In cool or cold weather, pilots should take extra care prior to
6. Descent: attempting to takeoff with a cold engine and cold oil, and thereby
Rapid cooldown during initial descent can damage the prevent a temporary power loss during a critical part of the
engine. Gradual cooldown is preferable. The descent power takeoff. Cold or heavy oil can and quite often does affect normal
reduction should be accomplished in several steps. Ideally, operation of the hydraulic lifters. Remember that aviation lubri-
the descent should begin by nosing the aircraft over slightly cants are heavier when cold than the commonly used automotive
while engine power and mixture remain at the cruise set- engine oils and require a little more time in warm-up to obtain
ting. The added speed will initiate a gradual cooldown. When normal flow in order to function properly throughout the air-
the CHT has stabilized, reduce the manifold pressure to 25" cooled aircraft engine.
Hg, and relean the mixture to maintain 1,350˚ F exhaust To prevent possible power loss, a proper warm-up should be con-
gas temperature, which will prevent rapid cooldown. After ducted. The engine is usually warm enough for pre-flight ground
a period of at least one minute, a further reduction of man- check in above-freezing temperatures after 2 to 3 minutes running
ifold pressure to 20" Hg and 2000 RPM can be made, at 1000 to 1200 RPM. Below freezing temperatures, the warm-up
if necessary. Again, mixture should be leaned to maintain period should be longer. With turbocharged power plants, cold oil
1,350˚ F exhaust gas temperature. Cowl flaps should not be used and cold engines require a longer warm-up period to assure proper
as an aid in slowing the aircraft during descent. Descent power controller operation and to prevent manifold pressure overboost.
settings at greater than 20" Hg manifold pressure should
be utilized for the greatest possible time to avoid accelerated After the above recommended warm-up period in cool or cold
piston ring wear. weather, including magneto and runup check, if the oil pressure
is consistently over maximum red-line, have a knowledgeable
mechanic adjust oil pressure so that it does not exceed red-line
7. Landing:
at takeoff or climb powers, and yet it is within the recommended
a. Following landing, the minimum necessary taxi power green arc area at cruise. Cold weather usually requires a longer
will aid in engine cooldown. Extending the ground-idle warm-up period.
cooling period reduces turbocharger temperature and
reduces the tendency of turbo coking following hot engine Another cause of power loss under these temperature and flight
shutdown. Ideally, a five-minute minimum cooling period is conditions has been the use of a heavier-weight viscosity of oil
desirable. Following landing, opting for the second turn-off than recommended for the ambient temperature flight condition.
can aid the cooldown. A heavier-weight oil than recommended in cool or cold weather
will help prevent the normal operation of the hydraulic lifters and
b. Higher than required power settings for ground operation thereby cause a loss of power.
increase the possibility of dirt ingestion into the engine.
Thus, to prevent power loss on takeoff with direct-drive engines,
select the proper weight of oil for your engine for cold weather
operation Make a careful run-up prior to takeoff with cold oil
and a cold engine and observe engine instruments. Extend your
warm-up period in cold weather until oil pressure is within rec-
ommended limits, or consult a mechanic concerning a compro-
Some General Aviation pilots may not be aware of the number mise adjustment. If in doubt about power output, a brief smooth
of detrimental influences on their aircraft engines which can be full-throttle check is recommended.
CARBURETOR HEAT OR ALTERNATE AIR HEAT We can create a practical flight problem for the pilot who is
AS POWER THIEVES faced with a high-elevation field takeoff. At Denver, Colorado,
In the opening paragraph, carburetor heat was used as an example where the field elevation indicated on the airplane altimeter
of a cause of power loss, but many pilots aren’t sure they under- is 5,000 ft., the pilot should consult the density altitude chart
stand the reason for it. Flight tests conducted with a precision for takeoff and must know that the published performance cri-
torque meter installed have measured fairly accurately a loss of as teria of an aircraft is generally based on standard atmospheric
much as 15% of engine power when full alternate air or carburetor conditions (temperature 59˚ F, pressure 29.92" of mercury
heat have been applied. As a specific explanation, there is a small at sea level). In checking the density chart and applying the
power loss when we use heat because the pilot has switched from ambient temperature of a summer day of 80˚ F, the careful pilot
the direct, colder ram air to an indirect carburetor heat muff, or will note that the density altitude is actually 7,500 feet, and the
a similar indirect source of warm air with an alternate warm air takeoff distance at this density altitude will be 2.3 times the
source from inside the cowling. This accounts for an average 3% sea level takeoff roll shown in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook.
power drop because of the loss of ram air. The major portion of the The same pilot flying to Laramie, Wyoming, for the next landing
engine power loss is caused by the carburetor heat or alternate and subsequent takeoff, might meet the following typical flight
air heat. Aircraft engines are checked for their horsepower output conditions.
at a corrected standard temperature of 59˚ F. Engineering has
provided a simple rule of thumb for the effect of heat on power, The field elevation is 7,276 feet, and with an ambient temperature
i.e., for every 10˚ F of heat above the standard 59˚ F, there is a 1% of 60˚ F, the actual density altitude will be 9,300 feet, with a
power loss. Since the average heat source on an engine provides takeoff roll 2.9 times the sea level takeoff. Furthermore, the pilot
at least 100˚ F of heat above standard, this heat condition causes must remember — the higher the ambient temperature indicates,
an average power loss of 10%. Our measurable total power loss the higher the density altitude becomes. At this elevation, the pilot
at sea level with standard conditions is already up to 13%. of normally aspirated aircraft engines should consider takeoffs in
the cool temperatures of early morning or evening hours, rather
When warm air is used by the pilot, the mixture becomes richer, than during the hot hours of the day.
and the engine may roughen with another slight power loss as
a result. In addition, the higher the altitude with its less-dense Summing up the specific flight condition just discussed, the
air, the greater the enriching effect because the fuel-metering pilot must remember — when the temperature becomes higher
device will become richer at altitude and the engine less efficient. than standard (59˚ F), the density of the air is reduced and
Thus, there will be another small, difficult to measure, power loss aerodynamically affects overall airplane performance. The
to be added to the 13% loss already accumulated. horsepower output of the engine is decreased because its fuel
air mixture intake is reduced. The propeller develops less thrust
With full carburetor heat applied, most float-type carburetors
because the blades are less efficient. The wings develop less lift
react very sluggishly or inefficiently on a straight-arm throttle
because the less dense atmosphere exerts less force on the wings
technique during a touch-and-go landing or an aborted landing.
as airfoils. As a result, the takeoff distance is increased and the
In some cases, the float-type carburetor may refuse to accept
climb performance reduced.
the throttle when it is applied in this manner. A gradual, steady
application of the throttle is always the best approach. In order to cope with high-elevation airport takeoffs with nor-
mally aspirated engines, whenever the density altitude is 5,000
We should also remind the pilot that when using carburetor heat
feet or higher, the pilot must compensate on the ground before
or alternate air heat at cruise power, to adjust the mixture lean,
takeoff. With a direct-drive engine and a fixed-pitch propeller,
otherwise the mixture will be rich. If the heat causes an undesir-
able power loss at cruise, and there is throttle available, the pilot run the engine up to takeoff RPM and lean the mixture until
may bring the manifold pressure up at least to the power reading a maximum RPM is noted; leave mixture at that position and
before application of heat; and if additional power is needed and accomplish the takeoff. If the engine has a governor, run it up
available, add a maximum of two inches of MP, or 100 RPM (fixed- to takeoff RPM, and then lean until the engine smooths out and
pitch prop) above the previous power, and then adjust the mixture. gives the indication of maximum power. At 5,000 ft. density
It is possible to compensate for the horsepower loss due to heat by altitude or higher, the available horsepower has been reduced so
means of the latter technique if throttle or RPM are available. that leaning as described will not damage a healthy engine. If an
EGT system is available, lean to +100˚ F on the rich side of peak
EFFECTS ON POWER AT A HIGH-ALTITUDE AIRPORT EGT on a direct-drive normally aspirated Lycoming engine.
ON A HOT DAY All turbocharged or supercharged engines must use full rich for
To fly safely at a high-altitude airport (5,000 ft. density alti- takeoff at any elevation airport. This includes either manually
tude and above) on a warm weather day, we must consider the operated turbos or the automatic type.
aerodynamic loss of efficiency on the airplane and propeller
under these conditions, and the power loss effect on the engine. IGNITION SYSTEM POWER ROBBERS
A good “rule of thumb” for the pilot to remember is — for There are several possibilities whereby the ignition system can
each thousand feet above sea level, the takeoff run increases be the cause of power loss in the engine. There is a power loss of
approximately 25%. In the case of normally aspirated engines approximately 3% with a single dead magneto or running on one
(not turbocharged or supercharged), at an altitude of 10,000 mag. In fixed-wing aircraft, if the pilot lost a magneto in flight
feet, about one-half of available engine horsepower is lost.
it might not be a serious situation to complete the flight safely BLOW-BY AND COMPRESSION LOSS
provided other power robbers didn’t begin to add to the problem. Another power loss condition is that of blow-by — or oil blowing
But in the case of the rotary-wing aircraft, it could be serious by the piston rings and getting into the combustion chamber in
during takeoff, hover, or landing because there are the regular more than desirable amounts. It occurs with broken or worn
inroads on power — such as operation of the tail rotor, the cooling piston rings, scored cylinder walls and bell-mouthed exhaust
fan, the alternator, the transmission and also power loss from any valve guides. Oil in the combustion chamber fouls spark plugs
excessive rotor blade trim tab position beyond the manufacturer’s and reduces their efficiency. It also lowers the octane rating of the
recommendation. Therefore, magneto maintenance really is a fuel and causes a loss of power, particularly at takeoff or climb.
critical item on rotor-wing aircraft. If the engine is not close to its normal overhaul life, then a top
Other power loss influences in the ignition system include worn overhaul would be in order if more than one cylinder showed
or fouled spark plugs that tend to provide a weak spark. Likewise, this condition.
deteriorated magneto points will have some power loss influence. Power loss from valve leakage may not be noticeable to the
We have also learned the difficult way that old, worn or cracked pilot while in flight. If an exhaust valve becomes burned and
(insulation) ignition harnesses can cause a loss of power, particu- deteriorated at the edge of the head, it may cause an engine
larly at altitude. If this is suspected, it can be checked by means miss in flight. But leaking intake valves are difficult to detect
of a harness tester. during flight. The latter either get irregularly seated and cause a
We know that magneto timing, either early or late, has a compression loss, or they can also cause a loss if they get tuliped
detrimental influence on power. Sound maintenance can from preignition. A good differential compression check will
eliminate these problems. But coming back to spark plugs, the pick up most of these discrepancies except for some occasions of
correct plug is most important for efficient engine operation, and broken rings. However, any oil in the combustion chamber from
Lycoming Service Instruction 1042 is the official reference broken rings would, in addition, call for a visual inspection with
source. Maintenance must also be careful that long-reach plugs a borescope or a gooseneck light.
are used only in those cylinders designated by an area of yellow SUMMARY:
paint in the fin area between the spark plug and rocker box.
Cylinders designed for short-reach plugs may be either gray, blue We can’t list all the many power-robbing factors here, but we have
or unpainted in this area. If the wrong length plug is used in the tried to list the important ones, along with recommendations on
cylinder, it will cause a loss of power and perhaps preignition or how to cope with them. Again, we want to remind all concerned
detonation. of the dangerous difference between an engine problem where
both spark plugs fail to fire in a cylinder, which is immediately
Champion Spark Plug Company published a bulletin warning obvious, as compared with the small power loss problem that is not
that one dirty harness terminal (cigarette) or contaminated plug as obvious. The power thieves take power away in small quantities
barrel can rob an aircraft engine of two horsepower during per cylinder until several of them happen to occur at the same time,
takeoff. When dirt and moisture are allowed to accumulate on the reaching serious proportions and a definite unsafe flight condition.
cigarette or spark plug barrel insulator, connector well flashover Be aware — don’t become a victim of power thieves!
can occur resulting in plug misfire. The high-voltage current
will take the easy path to ground rather than spark between the
firing-end electrode gap. Cigarettes, harness terminals, seals
and spark plug barrels should be kept clean and dry. When ciga-
rettes are clean, do not touch them as the moisture on fingers is
enough to contaminate them again. Replacing these parts and
pieces at reasonable periods is inexpensive insurance against The FAA has published a pamphlet entitled “Wet Air” that
power thieves. When the latter are at work, sharp performance enlightens the pilot concerning this potential danger to engine
and economy are lost. power. Scientists state that we can dismiss any appreciable
effect of dampness in the air on the efficiency of the wing in lifting
INDUCTION SYSTEM LEAKS and the propeller in thrusting. But they say the effect of water
If the intake pipes are loose at either end, leakage that leans the vapor or high humidity on engine power output can be significant,
mixture will take place and cause a power loss. It could be critical and should be taken into consideration when planning takeoffs in
in the takeoff or climb power ranges. In most engines, the leakage muggy or highly humid weather.
can be detected by observing fuel dye evidence at the leakage area. The pamphlet explains the power loss by pointing out that with
Any time this condition is discovered, it must be remedied before water vapor present, there is less air entering the engine. Secondly,
the aircraft is flown again. this creates an excessive enrichment because the fuel amount is
In those engines using a carburetor, we have observed power loss the same, but the amount of air is less. Furthermore, the water
effects from worn air boxes where the carburetor heat flapper vapor slows the burning which slightly affects power, but offers
valve in the air box remains partly open. When the outside air no cooling value to the engine.
temperature is above 59˚ F, this malfunction can create a sneaky FAA recommends a rough rule of thumb is to keep high-moisture
power loss, particularly at higher than cruise power. content in mind, and suggests the pilot consult his Pilot’s Operator
Handbook for takeoff distances, and add another 10% for the possible
effects of engine power loss due to water vapor on a muggy day. The statement at some time. Is it a true statement? We will venture a
pilot can easily identify a high water vapor condition by the muggy, guess and say that perhaps it may have been at some time in the
hot, sticky feeling in this kind of weather. The higher the ambient distant past.
temperature, the greater the water vapor content in the air, i.e., at 96˚ Several years ago, this question was asked of me and it led to
F, the water vapor content will be eight times as great as at 42˚ F. The questioning some FAA employees and a number of other pilots
write-up also states that the effect of water vapor on supercharged, about where the justification for this statement might be found.
fuel-injected piston engines is substantially the same as the effect on After several weeks of poking into this subject, it was finally
other piston engines. “Fuel-injection systems meter fuel on the basis necessary to conclude that we could find no justification — that
of a given volume of gas entering the combustion chamber, whether it was simply an “Old Wives’ Tale.”
the gas is air or water vapor, just as the carburetor does. It cannot
discriminate between combustibles and noncombustibles.” A letter which recently came from a Flyer reader takes this one
step further. First, it appears that there are many who continue to
Pilots should be alert to the effect of wet air on the performance repeat this tale. This caused our reader to delve into the subject a
of their engine. little deeper — perhaps a little more scientifically than I did. Our
reader studied a computer readout which had data on incidents
of engine failure over a recent three-year period. Based on the
material in that report, this reader concluded that engine failures
during takeoff are quite rare, and that failures during cruise are
far more common. This does seem logical since the engines of
fixed-wing aircraft run a majority of their operating life in the
We have firm evidence that engines not flown frequently may cruise-power range.
not achieve the normal expected overhaul life. Engines flown Our reader also had a very believable theory about how this
only occasionally deteriorate much more rapidly than those that tale may have gotten started. He wrote, “It seems likely to me
fly consistently. Pilots have asked, “What really happens to an that this idea got started when twin-engine flight instructors
engine when it’s flown only one or two times per month?” An would simulate an engine out during takeoff — right about
aircraft engine flown this infrequently usually accumulates rust the time the student put his hand on the prop control to reduce
and corrosion internally. This rust and corrosion is often found power. Gradually, the idea was propagated that this was the most
when an engine is torn down. Some operators are running the likely time for an engine failure, when in reality it was a likely
engines on the ground in an attempt to prevent rust between time for an instructor to simulate a failure.”
infrequent flights. This may harm rather than help the engine
if the oil temperature is not brought up to approximately 165˚ From these two searches for justification — with none
F, because water and acids from combustion will accumulate being found in either case, I believe it is fair to conclude
in the engine oil. The one best way to get oil temperature to that “the idea of an engine failure being most likely to
165˚ F is to fly the aircraft. During flight, the oil normally gets occur at the first power reduction after takeoff” is, in
hot enough to vaporize the water and most acids and eliminate fact, an old wives’ tale. For the sake of safety, lets stop
them from the oil. If the engine is merely ground run, the water repeating this false tale and start promoting the idea that
accumulated in the oil will gradually turn to acid, which is also we should be ready to deal with power failure at any time.
undesirable. Prolonged ground running in an attempt to bring A second old wives’ tale is still being promoted by some indi-
oil temperature up is not recommended because of inadequate viduals. This tale involves the constant-speed propeller and goes
cooling that may result in hot spots in the cylinders, baked
like this: “The RPM in hundreds should not be exceeded by
and deteriorated ignition harness and brittle oil seals which
the manifold pressure in inches of mercury.” Referred to as a
cause oil leaks. Pulling on engine through by hand if it has not
“squared power setting” (i.e., 2400 RPM x 24" of MP), it appears
been run for a week or more is NOT recommended, and can
that this tale may be the result of a carryover from some models
result in increased wear. Refer to Lycoming Service Letter L180.
of the old radial engines which were vulnerable to bearing wear
If the engine is flown so infrequently that it does not accumulate
at high power settings. Changes in engine design, along with
the operating hours recommended for an oil change (25 hours
improved metals and lubricants, permit changes in the operation
for a pressure-screen system and 50 hours for a full-flow filter
of modern flat, opposed-cylinder power plants.
system), then the oil should be changed at four-month intervals
to eliminate water and acids. Any pilot who believes that squared power settings continue to be
necessary should be urged to read and understand the information
in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH). While there are limits
to the power which should be taken from most engines, particu-
larly those which are turbocharged, the combinations of RPM
and MP listed in the power charts of the POH have been flight
tested and approved by the airframe and power plant engineers.
Tale Number One — “The most likely time for an engine For example, if the POH chart lists 2200 RPM and 26" of MP
failure to occur is at the first power reduction after take-off.” as an approved power setting, pilots should not be apprehensive
Every individual who pilots an aircraft has probably heard this about using that setting if it meets their needs.
Isn’t it strange that some bits of information come to be believed valve stems. Avoid rapid engine-speed changes after start-up, and
by large segments of a population even when they are untrue? use only the power settings required to taxi.
The two issues discussed above are good examples. Will it ever
5. After a flooded start, slowly run the engine to high power
be possible to get all of our fellow pilots to reject the two false
to burn off harmful lead deposits, then return the engine to
ideas outlined here? Let’s keep trying.
normal power.

6. Keep engine operating temperatures in the normal operating
range. Too many people think the lower the temperatures, the
better. Keep cylinder head temperatures in normal operating
Spark plug fouling in your aircraft engine may be a problem. range by use of normal power and proper leaning. Use oil cooler
Lycoming Service Letter L192 provides information that may be baffles to keep oil temperature up in winter.
very helpful in reducing spark plug fouling. To aid our readers, 7. Use normal recommended leaning techniques at cruise condi-
the entire text of the latest revision to Service Letter L192 is tions regardless of altitude and relean the mixture with application
printed here: of alternate air or carburetor heat. If aircraft is used as a trainer,
“In many cases, spark plug fouling resulting from the tetraethyl schedule cross-country operation whenever possible.
lead (TEL) in aviation fuels can be reduced or eliminated by
8. Rapid engine cooldown from low-power altitude changes, low-
proper operating techniques.
power landing approach and/or engine shutdown too soon after
“The problem of lead fouling arises when low engine-operating landing or ground runs should be avoided.
temperatures coupled with a rich mixture prevent the complete
9. Prior to engine shutdown, the engine speed should be main-
vaporization of the TEL. Under these conditions, lead deposits
tained between 1000 and 1200 RPM until the operating tem-
can form in the spark plug electrodes, causing misfiring. By
peratures have stabilized. At this time, the engine speed should
establishing and maintaining proper engine-operating tempera-
be increased to approximately 1800 RPM for 15 to 20 seconds,
tures, the TEL can be kept properly vaporized and pass out the
then reduced to 1000 to 1200 RPM and shut down immediately
exhaust system.
using the mixture control.”
“However, the Champion Spark Plug Company has designed
a spark plug which will reduce or eliminate the effects of lead
fouling. The spark plug REM-37-BY can be used in the following
engines: O-235; O-320; IO-320-B, -F, AIO-320; LIO-320-B; IO-
320-A, -D, -E; AEIO-320; HIO-360-B; HO-360; O-360-A, -C, -E,
-F; IO-360-B, -E, -F; AEIO-360-B, -H; O-360-B, -D; IVO-360;
VO-360-A, B.
“For operators experiencing lead fouling, the following Paul McBride, a former Lycoming employee widely known as
operating recommendations are made: “Mr. Lycoming,” likes to tell the story of the Mooney owner
1. By use of the spark plug recommendation charts, be certain whose preowned Lycoming IO-360-powered single wouldn’t
the proper plugs are installed. Do not simply replace the same get up to the specified maximum RPM setting of 2700. After an
part number of those removed. A previous mechanic may have adjustment at a shop, the engine did obtain 2700 RPM on the gage,
installed the wrong plugs. Reference latest edition of Service but the power plant failed in flight shortly thereafter.
Instruction No. 1042. After a safe emergency landing, Canadian authorities took over
2. Rotate top and bottom spark plugs every 25 to 50 hours. Top and found that a connecting rod had failed. Contributing to
plugs scavenge better than the bottom ones. the failure was a manifold pressure gage that was reading two
inches low — not an unusual error, according to McBride — but
3. Proper adjustment of the idle speed (600 to 650 RPM) fuel more importantly, the tachometer that was reading 500 RPM too
mixture, and maintenance of the induction air system, will ensure low. The error meant that the engine had been turning at 3200
smooth engine operation and eliminate excessively rich fuel/air RPM, a factor that ultimately led to the failure.
mixtures at idle speeds. This will minimize the separation of the
The point of McBride’s story is not to try to assign blame, but
non-volatile components of the high-leaded aviation fuels greatly
to accent the dangers of having blind faith in the accuracy of
retarding the deposition rate.
engine instruments. Many owners have such faith: McBride
4. The engine should be operated at engine speeds between 1000 recalls seeing engines that had been overhauled three or more
and 1200 RPM after starting and during the initial warm-up times, with owners reinstalling the original engine instruments
period. Avoid prolonged closed-throttle, idle-engine speed opera- each time. Lycoming “strongly” recommends getting engine
tion (when possible). At engine speeds from 1000 to 1200 RPM, instruments calibrated annually (see SI 1094D, Fuel Mixture
the spark plug core temperatures are hot enough to activate the Leaning Procedures, and SSP 400, Operating Recommendations
lead scavenging agents contained in the fuel which retards the for the TIO-540-AE2A engine). It’s important to note that engine
formation of the lead salt deposits on the spark plugs and exhaust gages are not considered part of the engine proper. In fact, FAA-
approved data covering the verification and calibration of the mulated in the oil. By consistently operating below the boiling
instrumentation is the responsibility of the airframe manufac- point, Visser says water and acid can build up in the crankcase,
turer, not the engine maker. leading to rust and corrosion and reduced engine life. Keystone
sometimes checks its oil temperature gages by immersing the
In between overhauls, it’s up to the pilot in command or the
sending units in boiling water to verify the gage reads 212˚ F.
maintenance shop to spot calibration errors. Aviation maintenance
technicians, as part of a 100-hr. or annual inspection, should The arrival of solid-state integrated avionics and liquid-crystal
scan the gages for proper operation during a pre-inspection displays for the cockpit, while eliminating the ability to strike a
run-up. If there’s a problem, gages and/or sensor units line on a gage face, will undoubtedly boost reliability and read-
would likely be swapped out or sent out to an avionics shop ability of engine gages. Popular systems like Blue Mountain
or repair facility for recalibration or fixes. Once the system Avionics’ EFIS/One “glass” cockpit for experimental aircraft
is returned, Lycoming recommends that the gage, sensor and allows an operator to display as many as 16 different engine
interconnect wiring be calibrated by a qualified technician or gages on-screen, whether the input from each is voltage, differ-
agency before flight. ential voltage, resistance or thermocouple. Calibrating the unit is
Of the typical engine instruments — tachometers, oil tempera- relatively simple, too — it has a special screen that allows the
ture gages, oil pressure gages, cylinder head temperature gages, operator to view and modify the setup and calibration information
exhaust gas temperature, manifold pressure gages and for each sensor.
turbine inlet temperature probes for turbocharged engines —
tachometers are the most notorious for being out of calibra-
tion, says McBride. Calibration errors as small as 5% or 10%
in RPM reading “will greatly increase the load on the propeller
and the engine bearings during operation,” he says. Even off-the-
shelf instruments are not beyond reproach. McBride says one
maintenance facility owner told him that he’d once tested five
tachometers off the shelf and found that each was indicating about The flow of oil through a Lycoming reciprocating aircraft engine
150 RPM low. That’s an error of more than 5% of the cruise RPM is known to be a necessary function during the operation of the
of many engines. engine. Pilots are often not at all concerned about how this func-
An instrument expert with Keystone Instruments in Lock tion occurs, as long as the oil pressure and oil temperature indica-
Haven, Pennsylvania, says an installation error as innocuous as tors show a proper reading. A & P mechanics, on the other hand,
cutting a tachometer cable ¼-inch too long can cause the instru- often need to know how the system works and what parts control
ment to read 500 to 600 RPM fast; worse yet, using the wrong the flow of oil during various phases of operation. Because of the
cable can damage the tach. Usually though, he says problems large number of calls concerning this subject, which are received
arise when the inside of the gage gets dirty and needs to be by Lycoming Service Specialists, we can be sure that there are
cleaned. Either way, operators are required to send gages to many who do not have a good understanding of the oil system.
an authorized maintenance facility for repairs or recalibration, It is not surprising that many A & P mechanics do not have a
according to Keystone. firm grasp on the operation of the oil system. There is room for
Figuring out whether gages are calibrated correctly in the field is confusion since there are two basic systems and several variations
sometimes obvious, sometimes not — a la the Mooney mishap. on each of these.
An oil temperature gage, for instance, should read the ambient Except for the screens, filter and oilcooler, the flow of oil
temperature before the engine is started. Manifold pressure, too, through the engine is completely pre-determined by the designed
should match the ambient pressure before start. engine-running clearances and by the passages which are drilled
Some gages can be operationally verified on the cheap by a local in the crankcase and accessory housing during engine manufac-
maintenance shop. Ben Visser, an aviation columnist and former ture. This flow of oil serves three purposes. First, it lubricates,
Shell Oil chemist, recommends checking oil temperature gages but cooling the engine by carrying away the heat generated by
by placing the sending unit in a pan of oil sitting on a hot plate. combustion is a second purpose, which is often just as important.
Using a thermometer, Visser says to heat the oil to 180˚ F then to Many engines, particularly those which are turbocharged, have oil
mark the gage with a permanent marker, regardless of whether squirts in each cylinder which are designed to direct cooling oil on
the gage has temperatures printed on the face. the back side of the piston. And finally, the oil cleans the engine
by picking up dirt and depositing it in the screens or filter, or by
Why 180˚? Visser explains that the peak oil temperature in a
keeping that dirt in suspension until the oil is changed.
normally aspirated engine is typically 50˚ F higher than the tem-
perature of the oil in the sump, the location of the sensor. The peak The oil which has done its lubricating, cooling and cleaning
temperature in a turbocharged engine is about 70 to 75˚ F hotter flows by gravity back to the oil sump. From the sump, the oil
than the indicated temperature. He says the typical “green band” pump pulls the oil through the suction screen. This screen will
on an oil temperature gage ranges from 120˚ F to 245˚ F. filter out large particles of carbon, dirt or metal. The pump
then forces the oil through one of the two basic systems. In
By calibrating the gage and operating near the 180˚ point in
each of the two basic systems, there is a valve which forces the
cruise, Visser says the oil temperature at the hottest point in the
oil through the oil cooler when the valve is seated, or allows
engine will exceed 212˚ F, boiling off any water that has accu-
the oil to bypass the cooler when the valve is open. Lycoming possible variations. The housing for the pressure screen may
engines were originally equipped with a bypass valve which have one hole facing the rear of the engine. This housing is
was controlled by a spring. Referred to as a spring and plunger used on engines incorporating a spring and plunger to control
type, it functioned as a result of the amount of pressure in the oil oil flow, and the single hole will be used for oil temperature
system. The spring-controlled bypass system was superseded by probe. Another style of pressure-screen housing has two holes
a system controlled by a Thermostatic Oil Cooler Bypass which facing the rear of the engine. The small hole is used for oil
reacts to oil temperature changes. temperature bulb connection, and a Thermostatic Oil Cooler
Operation of the spring-controlled bypass system is the result of Bypass Valve is installed in the large hole.
thick oil which causes an increase in differential pressure across Even more attention to detail may be required when an oil filter
the bypass valve and causes the bypass valve to be open, thus is installed. The pressure-screen housing must be removed and
bypassing the oil cooler. As the oil warms up, oil viscosity and oil-filter adapter installed in its place. With the oil-filter adapter
pressure in the system are reduced, allowing the bypass valve installed, either a spring-controlled bypass valve installed in
to close and forcing oil flow through the oil cooler. Although the accessory housing just above the adapter, or a thermostatic
the bypass valve helps the engine to warm up more quickly bypass valve installed in the bottom of the adapter may be
by routing cold oil around the oil cooler, its primary function used to control oil flow to the oil cooler. Because of the better
is for system safety; should the oil cooler become plugged for oil-temperature control, use of the thermostatic oil cooler bypass
any reason, system pressure will rise and the differential pres- valve is preferred by Lycoming. For engines shipped from the fac-
sure across the bypass valve will again cause the valve to open. tory with an oil filter, and requiring an oil cooler in the aircraft
This by-passes the oil cooler and prevents a possible rupture of installation, it is standard procedure for Lycoming to supply a
the cooler and loss of the oil. thermostatic bypass valve. The hole in the accessory housing
The Thermostatic Oil Cooler Bypass Valve was designed to which is provided for a spring-controlled bypass valve is capped
provide better control of the engine oil temperature while also with a plug. A hole on the top of the adapter is provided for the
maintaining the safety of the oil system by bypassing oil around oil temperature bulb.
an oil cooler which is plugged for any reason. The thermostatic A possible variation to the flow of oil which may be found
oil cooler bypass valve may be used on engines which use the with a Lycoming engine. Some airframe manufacturers have
pressure-screen system and on engines which have a full-flow oil utilized small engine models without an oil cooler. At the
filter. For most engine models, an oil filter also requires an oil request of these airframe manufacturers, these engines are
filter adapter. While the oil is cold, this system allows oil to flow not machined to accommodate an oil cooler. Individuals who
through the oil filter without passing through the oil cooler. As acquire these engines for use in their home-built aircraft may
oil temperature rises to approximately 180˚ F, the valve closes and need an oil cooler to keep temperatures within operating limits.
forces the oil to pass through the oil cooler. The oil then returns This can be accomplished by utilizing an adapter – Lycoming
to the accessory housing where it is routed through the oil filter part number 62418. Utilization of this adapter will allow the
adapter, the filter and then again through the filter adapter, acces- engine to be used and the oil to be cooled, but there are limita-
sory housing and finally into the crankcase. tions. An oil filter cannot be installed, and only the one-hole
The oil filter is another part of the system where blockage could pressure-screen housing can be used. This limits the system to use
cause serious problems. For this reason, an oil filter bypass is as a spring-controlled oil cooler bypass valve which is installed
built into the oil filter adapter, or in the case of engines utilizing in the adapter.
a dual magneto, into the accessory housing. These bypass valves There are several bits of information which may be helpful to
are built-in safety features which activate as a result of excessive those who have now acquired a better understanding of the
pressure in the oil filter. The oil filter bypass is not adjustable. Lycoming engine oil system. Lycoming Service Instruction
Oil enters the crankcase of most Lycoming engines near 1008B gives instructions for installation of a Thermostatic
the top of the right rear cylinder where it passes through the Oil Cooler Bypass Valve on engines which have a pressure-
pressure-relief valve. There are three types of pressure-relief screen housing and no filter. Special Service Publication (SSP)
valve. With either the short or long dome valve, pressure is 885-2 gives instruction for the installation of engine-mounted oil
adjusted by removing the dome and adding or deleting washers filter kits. And finally, a kit (Number 05K21437) for a remotely
which are located under the controlling spring. There is also a mounted oil filter has been developed.
third style of pressure-relief valve which may be adjusted with The Service Specialists at the Lycoming factory receive many
the twist of a wrench or screwdriver. calls about the oil system and its many possible variations.
An individual looking for the pressure-screen housing may not The material presented here is intended to help answer many
find exactly what he or she is looking for since there are two of those questions.
68 Lycoming Flyer

5. With regard to the use of aviation gasoline, which statement
is true?
a. use of a lower-than-specified grade of fuel may result in a
reduced power output but is usually less harmful than higher-
Check your knowledge of aircraft engines with the rated fuel.
questions below.
b. use of the next higher-than-specified grade of fuel is
A. Multiple Choice. Circle the one best answer. permissible if the specified grade of fuel is not available.
1. In comparison to fuel-injection systems, float-type c. use of the next lower-than-specified grade of fuel is per-
carburetor systems are generally considered to be missible if the specified grade of fuel is not available.
a. equally susceptible to icing as a fuel-injection unit. d. use of a higher-than-specified grade of fuel usually
b. less susceptible to icing than a fuel-injection unit. results in lower-than-normal cylinder head temperatures.
c. susceptible to icing only when visible moisture is present. 6. If the grade of fuel used in an aircraft engine is lower than
specified for the engine, it will most likely cause
d. more susceptible to icing than a fuel-injection unit.
a. an increase in power which could overstress internal
2. The basic purpose of adjusting the fuel/air mixture control at
engine components.
altitude is to
b. detonation.
a. increase the fuel/air ratio for flying at altitude.
c. lower cylinder head temperatures.
b. decrease the fuel flow in order to compensate for
decreased air density. d. a non-uniform mixture of fuel and air in the cylinders.
c. increase the amount of fuel in the mixture to compensate 7. Which statement is true regarding aircraft engines that are
for the decrease in pressure and density of the air. equipped with a fuel-injection system instead of a carburetor?
d. decrease the amount of fuel in the mixture in order to a. vapor locks during ground operations on hot days are less
compensate for increased air density. apt to occur with fuel injection.
3. If the engine of an airplane is permitted to idle for a long b. a disadvantage of fuel injection is the difficulty
period of time while on the ground, experienced in cold-weather starting.
a. a hydraulic lock may develop in one or more cylinders. c. slow throttle response is one of the disadvantages of
fuel injection.
b. the lean mixture may cause the engine to miss or quit.
d. fuel injection provides better fuel management and fuel
c. the result may be an excessively high oil pressure.
distribution to the engine.
d. the spark plugs may become fouled.
8. The presence of carburetor ice, in an airplane equipped with
4. Assume that on your run-up at an airport where the elevation a fixed-pitch propeller, can be verified by applying carburetor
is 6,000 feet MSL, you note a slight engine roughness that is heat and noting
not significantly affected by the magneto check but grows
a. a decrease in RPM and then a gradual increase in RPM.
worse during the carburetor heat check. Under these circum-
stances, which of the following would be your most logical b. a decrease in RPM and then a constant RPM indication.
initial action? c. an immediate increase in RPM with no further change
a. check to see that the mixture control is in the full-rich in RPM.
position. d. an increase in RPM and then a gradual decrease in RPM.
b. reduce manifold pressure to control detonation. 9. If the engine oil temperature and cylinder head temperature
c. check the results obtained with a leaner setting of the gages have exceeded their normal operating range, you may have
mixture control. been
d. taxi back to the flight line for a maintenance check a. operating with higher-than-normal oil pressure.
b. using fuel that has a higher-than-specified fuel rating.
c. operating with too much power and with the mixture set
too lean.
d. operating with the mixture set too rich.
10. What change occurs in the fuel/air mixture when carburetor 16. If full carburetor heat is used during cruise for the preven-
heat is applied? tion of carburetor ice, some of the 15% of power loss incurred
may be regained by
a. the fuel/air mixture becomes leaner.
a. enriching the mixture.
b. the fuel/air mixture becomes richer.
b. squaring the power setting.
c. no change occurs in the fuel/air mixture.
c. applying one pump of the primer every 15 minutes.
d. a decrease in RPM results from the lean mixture.
d. leaning the mixture.
11. For maximum engine life and trouble-free operation, engine
break-in during the first 25 to 50 hours of engine operation should 17. The final authority regarding operation of the general
be accomplished by aviation aircraft engine is
a. limiting takeoff power to five minutes per flight and a. engine operator’s manual provided by the engine
using 65% power maximum for cruise. manufacturer.
b. running the engine continuously at 65% to 75% power b. Pilot’s Operating Handbook provided by the airframe
with full power or maximum power available for climb. manufacturer.
c. using less than 100% power for takeoff and cruising at c. aviation circulars distributed by the FAA.
75% power or below. d. your local fixed-base operator.
d. running the engine at 1200 RPM for at least 20 minutes 18. Use of partial heat to prevent carburetor icing is recom-
before the first take off of the day. mended only if the aircraft has
12. The full-flow oil filter is very useful in keeping an engine a. a carburetor air temperature gage — CAT.
clean, but it will not filter out b. a cylinder head temperature gage — CHT.
a. water. c. an exhaust gas temperature gage — EGT.
b. acids. d. an outside air temperature gage — OAT.
c. lead sludge. B. Supply the best answer to the following essay questions:
d. all of the above. 1. Explain why aerobatics or inverted flight should not be
13. For aircraft with an EGT gage, a good “rule of thumb” for attempted unless the engine has been modified for this type of
most general aviation engines at cruise is to lean to flying.
a. 50˚ on lean side of peak EGT. 2. List two purposes of engine oil.
b. Peak EGT. 3. What are the two FAA-approved oils for general aviation?
c. 50˚ on rich side of peak EGT. 4. When operating at the manufacturer’s recommended cruise
d. 100˚ on rich side of peak EGT. power, at what altitudes may leaning be accomplished?
14. With high relative humidity, carburetor icing may be expected 5. Of what significance is the 5,000 feet density altitude refer-
within which of the following ranges? ence point for normally aspirated engines?
a. 32˚ to 59˚ F. 6. What causes engine roughness when leaning an engine
using a float-type carburetor at recommended cruise power?
b. 0˚ to 15˚ F.
7. The Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) system is more precise
c. 20˚ to 90˚ F.
as a fuel management instrument with which of the following?
d. 0˚ to 59˚ F.
a. Float-type carburetor.
15. An aircraft engine which develops less and less power from
b. Fuel injection.
the point of takeoff to the service ceiling is said to be
a. supercharged. 8. How can damage to an engine take place as a result of
leaning?
b. normally aspirated.
9. What important consideration by the pilot for his engine must
c. turbocharged. take place with a normally aspirated engine at airports where the
d. super critical. density altitude is 5,000 feet or higher?
10. List two types of induction ice.
70 Ly c o m i n g F l y e r
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 5. It is a climb reference point for normally aspirated power plants.
A. Multiple choice response Climb from sea level through 5,000 feet (some Cessnas may use
3,000 feet) should be full rich. Continued climb beyond 5,000 feet
1. d 7. d 13. c (3,000 feet for some Cessnas) should use some leaning to improve
2. b 8. a 14. c engine efficiency.
3. d 9. c 15. b 6. The roughness is not detonation at recommended cruise power.
The leanest cylinder in the less-than-perfect distribution pattern is
4. c 10. b 16. d cutting out. Operation in the roughness area is not acceptable.
5. b 11. b 17. b 7. b. Fuel injection.
6. b 12. d 18. a 8. Damage to an engine from leaning takes place at higher than
B. Essay response recommended cruise power as detonation where an aircraft does
1. Loss of engine oil out the breather can cause engine damage not have the necessary engine instruments to indicate the power
or failure. plant is being abused.
2. a. Lubricate moving parts. 9. Requires proper leaning for safest, efficient performance
at takeoff.
b. Aid internal cooling of the engine.
10. Two types of induction ice:
3. a. Straight mineral.
a. Impact ice — typically on the air filter.
b. Ashless Dispersant.
b. Refrigeration ice — forms in the float-type carburetor.
4. At any altitude.
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