The Journal of Egyptological Studies IV 2015

The Journal of Egyptological Studies
IV (2015)
Editor in Chief: Prof. Sergei Ignatov
Editorial Board and Secretary: Prof. Sergei Ignatov, Assoc. Prof. Teodor Lekov,
Assist. Prof. Emil Buzov
All communications to the Journal should be send to:

Prof. Sergei Ignatov
e-mail: [email protected]
or e-mail: [email protected]
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Montevideo 21, New Bulgarian University,
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Department for Mediterranean and Eastern Studies,

Bulgarian Institute of Egyptology,
New Bulgarian University, Sofia
ISSN 13124307
Contents
Sergei Ignatov
The Deserted King...
in Egyptian Literature....................................................................................5
Teodor Lekov, Emil Buzov

Preliminary Report on the Archaeological survey
of Theban Tomb No. 263 by the Bulgarian Institute of
Egyptology, seasons 20122013..................................................................14
Teodor Lekov
The Role of the Ka in the process of Creation and Birth...............31
Emil Buzov
Notes on Egyptian Wisdom texts..............................................................49
Yordan Chobanov
A New Interpretation of The Dialogue of aman and his Ba........84
Svetla Ilieva
The Ritual of the Four Torches and Four Bricks
according to BD Chapter 137A from Papyrus of Nu...........................98
Silviya Kremenska
The Egyptian god Seth in his role
as a fighter and protector of the solar bark...................................126
Mladen Tomorad
The two unpublished shabtis from Krk (Croatia)............................141
Mladen Tomorad
The end of Ancient Egyptian religion:
the prohibition of paganism in Egypt from the middle
of the 4th to the middle of the 6th century A.D..............................147
Emil buzov Notes on Egyptian Wisdom texts 49
Notes on Egyptian Wisdom texts
Emil Buzov
From the Old Kingdom until the Ptolemaic period there are around 20 pre-
served texts, which have common specific characteristics. They all have the same
subject and stylistics, which dustings them from the other texts in the ancient Egyp-
tian literature. Based on some formal marks, as title, author, recipient, content,
common ideas modern scholars place them in a separate genre. (Lichtheim 1973,
5). These texts called with different names such as wisdom texts, wisdom litera-
ture, didactic texts, Teachings, Instructions etc. are the most valuable source
for restoring the way the ancient Egyptians used to think. They are also the first
documented attempt of humans to understand their place in the world and to build
their own value system in order to run the whole society.
The present study aims to sum up all studies of the scholars for the past years,
by pointing the achievements in the modern understanding of this part of the an-
cient Egyptian literature. It also tries to give and answer to some of the most im-
portant questions about these texts what is the reason for their creation and how
they were used back then.
1. Instructions as a genre
Instructions are a genre of the ancient Egyptian literature, because they have
specific features, which differs them from all other texts. The general marks of the
didactic genre can be divided in two basic groups. Relations concerning the form,
that is title, authorship and recipient and connections about the main subject and
stile of presentment. (Parkinson 1996, 298).
1.1 Title
The most characteristic mark of didactic texts is their title. All literary works,
belonging to the period in question are called sbAjt instruction [Schott 1990, 299
302 nos. 138493, 3457; mo. 1552]. sbAjt means Lehre, Unterweisung (Wb. IV.
50 JES IV (2015)
8586); instruction, teaching, wisdom (F.D. 219). The word comes from verb sbA
teach, hence the name of the genre Teachings, Instructions, Lehres. Since the
time of the New Kingdom the tittle of these teachings has changed. To the word
sbAj they added mtrw, meaning witness (Wb. I. 172; F.D. 121). mtrw comes from
mty straightforward, precise FD. 120 and mtr testify, instruct FD. 121. As we
will see mtj along with aqA precise, accurate FD. 50, can be considered synonyms
and appear as basic terms in the didactic literature. With the adding of mtrw a
combination of words is formed sbAjt mtrw, which is translated instructions for
guidance. This is the tittle of two of the New Kingdom instructions (Teaching of
Amunnacht and Teaching of Any): HAt-a m sbAjt mtrw Beginning of an instruction
for guidance...1. In the third text from this time, the Teaching of Amenemope, the
two words are used, not as a combination of words, but separately: HAt-a m sbAjt
m anx mtrw n wdA Beginning of the instruction for life, instruction for a good ex-
isting.... According to Quack sbAjt has more of a theoretical meaning, and mtrw
practical (Quack 1994, 83, n. 3). The example from the Teaching of Amenemope
shows that both words have close meaning, and since the time of the New King-
dom, probably become synonyms. As time passes the word mtrw gains wider use
and in the teachings of the Late Period the tittle is only (tA) mtrw... Guidance...
(Kitchen 1979, 244). The simultaneous use of both terms in the New Kingdom is
probably a striving of the authors to continue the tradition of the Old and Middle
Kingdom by using as a title the archaic word sbAjt. At the same time they wanted
to follow the tendency of their own time by adding mtrw.
The tittles of the teachings, which belong to the didactic genre, have been
gathered by Luft (Luft 1973). Later Kitchen comes back to the topic to examine
the structure of this kind of texts in Egypt and Mesopotamia. (Kitchen 1979). Ac-
cording to him a difference is noticeable in the formation of the tittle as time passes.
He says that the earliest one is sbAjt nt Instruction of..., and after this comes the ti-
tles, duties and the name of the author, as is the case in the Teaching of Ptahhotep
from pap. Prisse: sbAjt nt imj-rA niwt TAty PtH-Htp Instruction of the mayor and vizier
Ptahhotep... In its later copies the beginning is consistent with the model from the
First Intermediate Period, which Kitchen calls classical formulation: HAt-a m sbAjt
ir.t.n... Beginning of the instruction, made by... (Kitchen 1979, 244). This formula-
tion becomes polite expression for all texts, which bear the marks of the instruc-
tions until the end of the Middle Kingdom. The verb iri in this case is in relative
verb form and immediately after it are the titles and name of author. If Kitchen is
right then the earliest version of a teaching would be the Teaching of Ptahhotep
from pap. Prisse. In spite of the fact that the papyrus is dated from the dyn., it
1
In addition to this title it could be added: Ts.w n wAt n anx Sentences for the path of life.
(Teaching of Amunnakht) (Dorn 2004, 40).
may have been copied from an older monument. The only surviving copy of the
Teaching for Kagemni is also written on it, but its beginning is missing.
The works of the ancient Egyptian literature usually do not have tittles. Thats
why the presence of one, written by the author himself, is extremely interesting. On
one hand, it implies that even for them these texts are a separate part of the literary
tradition, which contrasts with everything else. On the other, putting a tittle shows
a desire for his text to be added to the group of the so-called wisdom literature. In
order to call their work sbAjt, the ancient Egyptian had to conform to the require-
ment of this group of texts. This complying, as we will see later, is connected not
only with the tittle, but also with the whole content of the text.
According to some scholars the presence of the title sbAjt in the literary works
does not mean that we can separate them in an independent genre. Except for the
didactic works, there are some other texts that bear the same title, such as auto-bi-
ography texts from tombs (the tomb, 97, of the first prophet of Amun Amen-
emhat, who lived in the time of Amenhotep (Gardiner 1910)), some onomastic
(onomastic from the Ramesseum papyrus Berlin 10495; onomastic of Amene-
mope: papyrus Golenishev from the Pushkin museum in Moscow; 10379;
10202 (Gardiner 1947)), calendars with happy and unhappy days and students ex-
ercises (Williams 1981, 7; Fox 1986, 303).
The writing of the title sbAjt is not the only criterion, used to define a text to the
genre in question. As we will see, it is only one of the components, which build its
formal marks. As for the text from the tomb of Amenhotep, even though it is not
considered to be a wisdom text it has all formal and thematic marks of the genre
and can in fact be regarded as an instruction.
1.2 Authorship
The biggest interest, undoubtedly, raises the fact that the authors of these lit-
erary works are known. This interest is justified, because there is no information
about the authors of the other texts from the ancient Egyptian literature. We are
familiar only with the names of the scribes who copied them, but not the writ-
ers themselves. From the time of the Old Kingdom we are aware of the fact that
Imhotep, Djedefhor (the son of Khufu) and Ptahhotep (the vizier of king. Djed-
kare Isesi) wrote instructions. The author of the Teaching for Kagemni remains
unknown. Most probably that is the father of Kagemni, who was also a vizier.
During the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom, the people who
wrote instructions are the father of Merikare king Khety; founder of dyn.
king Amenemhet and the scribe Khety. The so called Loyalist instruction and
the Teaching of man to his son are anonymous. These are the only teachings
52 JES IV (2015)
that have no author. According to the scholars, both texts are part of a subgroup
of the didactic texts, which they call Loyalist texts. Both texts are made at the
same time the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. As we will see, both texts are
distinguished from other wisdom texts by their content. Their main purpose is
to emphasize the high role of the Egyptian king for the existence of the visible
world and the necessity of every person to be loyal to the king and to fulfil his eve-
ry command (Lichtheim 1996, 251252). The nature of these texts and the time
of their creation do not necessary require the presence of an author. The advices
given in them are common to their time. In spite of the fact that there is no author
of the texts they are undoubtedly part of the wisdom literature of Ancient Egypt.
This is visible by their title: HAt-a m sbAjt Beginning of teaching. For instance the
Egyptian who wrote the Teaching of a Man to His Son had to put an author to the
text in order for it to be a part of the genre of wisdom texts. Thats why he named
it the way he did: instead of a name a man and instead of a recipient his
son. Thus, in spite that the text remains anonymous it sticks to the tradition of
teachings. The Loyalist instruction also shows this tendency. The beginning of
the text is known from the stela of Sehetepibre who is not the true author of the
teaching. Despite that in his stela from Abydos he is the one named an author of
the teaching and the recipients are his children. In other words, in spite that the
real authors are not written, the people who made them did not break the tradi-
tion of the didactic literature.
All instructions dated to the New Kingdom have an author. One of their char-
acteristic features is that only people who were on lower positions in the adminis-
tration wrote teachings scribes and priests. This tradition is preserved until the
Roman period.
For the ancient Egyptians, there is no doubt the names given at the beginning
of the texts are indeed the authors of the instructions. Their names were perpetu-
ated thanks to their works and centuries later we pronounce them with respect. In
later tradition they are named rxw-ixt knowing something, wise men (Brunner
1966, 30; Fox 1980, 127). In the Teaching preserved in papyrus Chester Beatty V,
the names of those wise men are listed: Djedefhor, Imhotep, Neferty, Khety, Pta-
hemdjehuty, Haheperraseneb, Ptahhotep (Kairsu2):
The names of Imhotep and Djedefhor as wise men are written in the so called Harpers
2
songs, song of Intef from pap. Harris 500 (British Museum 10060) V, 2 V, 3 and partly
in the tomb of Paatenemheb from Saqqara (presently in Leiden) from the time of Akhenaten
(Lichtheim 1945, 192). Another monument is known where the names of some of the wise
men in Egypt are listed. This is a relief from a tomb in Saqqara from the time of dyn.
The names of Imhotep, Kaires, Khety and Khaheperraseneb are mentioned (Simpson 1973,
pic. 6).
in iw wn di mj @r-Ddf Is there anyone like Djedefhor?

in iw kj mi Ij-m-Htp Is there somebody like Imhotep?
bw xpr m hAw n.n mi Nfrti There is no one like Neferti,
$(A)ti pA.sn tpj (or the same like) Khety, who is above all of
Di.i rx.k rn n PtH-m-DdDdHwtj them.
#a-xpr-Ra-snbj I give you to know the names of Ptahemdjehuti
in iw ki mi PtH-Htp and Khakeperraseneb.
KAirs m-mitt Is there anyone like Ptahhotep or Kaires?...
[Chester Beatty verso 3,57
[Gardiner 1935, pls. 1819]]
Of all names, mentioned so far, only this of Ptahemdjehuty cannot be connect-

ed to a certain text. The works of Neferti and Khaheperraseneb do not correspond
to the formal marks of the genre of the instructions and are not part of it. Despite
this, the content of both texts is similar to the best examples of the didactic litera-
ture. The rest of the wise men are known as authors of instructions.
In the modern literature there is no unified opinion on the question whether these
are the true authors of the teachings or they are merely authorities, chosen to make
the text more popular. The problem is mostly connected to the dating of these liter-
ary works, because for most of them we only have later copies, which are written in
the language of their own time not from the time of their creation. Thats why some
scholars agree with the thesis that the authors mentioned in the texts never are the real
one (Helck 1970a, 159). For Katznelson, in view of authorship, every teaching should
be examined separately and he is extremely skeptical about the texts that give kings or
high dignitaries as their authors. (Katznelson 1973, 317). It is interesting to note, that
for the time of the Old Kingdom all three instructions that have survived until now
were written by viziers. We should also add the teaching of Imhotep, which is unpre-
served today. Then only the highest dignitary in Egypt who had the skills and abili-
ties to create such texts makes all didactic texts from the mentioned period. Scholars,
who claim that a high dignitary does not write them, point the argument that neither
of these texts mentions anything about the nature of duty. That is true, but the office
itself includes multiple sides of life, so many of them described in the instructions
(hearing requests, passing sentences and so on). We also should not forget that the
copies of the didactic literature that we have now, are texts that have gone out of use
only for the successor of the vizier and turned into a universal wisdom.
As for the instructions written by kings, it should be noted that for the whole
history of Ancient Egypt there are only two Instruction for Merikare and Instruc-
tion of Amenemhat I3. Very much has been said by scholars about the abilities of
3
According to Antes the teachings wrote by Egyptian kings are three: for Merikare, from
Amenemhat I and one from the king Khety, which is not preserved (Anthes 1957, 176).
54 JES IV (2015)
the Egyptian king to read and write4. The two teachings in question are connected
only with a certain moment of the history of Egypt and are quite specific. It is pos-
sible that their authors are indeed the two rulers. The question, whether Khety and
Amenemhet I made the teachings themselves or scribes did them on their behalf,
is still controversial. It is generally accepted that the real author of the Instruction
of Amenemhat I is the scribe Khety, who also wrote a wisdom text. It is quite pos-
sible that this royal instruction was made after the death of the king.
O. D. Berlev makes an observation on the subject that is very interesting. He
draws the attention to the fact that only in the Instruction of Khety and that of
Amenemhet I we have both the names of the authors and those of their fathers. He
thinks that precisely these texts were written by the given authors while the others
are just authorities (Berlev 1984, 27). During the process of examining six wisdom
texts Herman reaches the conclusion that they are made of separate parts in differ-
ent time and most probably by different people. He presumes that they were gath-
ered by one person who proclaims himself an author (Williams 1981, 6).
Without new versions of the text it would be extremely hard to give a synon-
ymous answer to the question of who is the actual author of every text. Most of
the scholars nowadays unite around the idea that the names, written in texts are
merely authorities. But then comes the questions if they didnt write the wisdom
texts how did they become so famous and why are these particular texts assigned
to them. Now its time to mention the special treatment of the ancient Egyptians
towards the name. According to them it is not an interpretation, which separate one
object from another or some abstract category. In Ancient Egypt it is considered
that the name expresses the essence of human personality and while the written
name exists so will its carrier. (Lekov 2004, 117120).5 Taking into consideration
this it is hard to imagine that the names, written at the beginnings of the teach-
ings do not belong to the authors, but are merely well known people authorities.
Information about the literacy of the kings we find first in Pyramid texts. There the king
4
is called scribe of divine books (PT 1146). From the Prophesy of Neferti it is known
that Snefru himself wrote down the wise words of Neferti. It is said for Djedkare-Isesi
that sS Hmw.f Ds.f m Dba.w.f his majesty writes with his own fingers. (Urk. I 60 , 8). King
Neferhetep ( dyn.) is famous for spending long hours in bookstore (Pieper 1929). For
the education of the ancient Egyptian king see Baines (Baines 2007, 8283).
5 The most appropriate example for illustrating this notion is the myth about Re and his
secret name, which the goddess Isis wants to know: Dd.n.i rn.k it nTr anx s dm.twHr rn.f Tell
me your name father-god, because a man live when his name is pronounced. (Pap. Turin
= Pleyte/Rossi. 18691876, 131138).
1.3 Addressee
Unlike the works of other genres of the ancient Egyptian literature, which
dont specify who is the text intended to and whom it should serve, the instruc-
tions have a recipient. These texts are a synthesized knowledge, which the author
has and wishes to pass forward. In all teachings where the beginning is preserved
right after the title and the name of the author there is the addressee the son of
the author. According to the ancient Egyptian concept the pupil (or apprentice)
of every tutor (or teacher) is his son. Thats why we cant tell for sure whether the
named recipient is actually the son of the author. From the Teaching of Ptahhotep
we understand why it is so important for ancient Egyptians to pass on the gained
knowledge to their pupil through a teaching:
Permit your servant to appoint a staff of old age.
Let my son become of my position. (Pt. 2829).
Staff of old age [Wb. II. 178, 11 Stab des Alters vom Sohn als Gehulfen
(und Amtsnachfolger) des Vaters; FD. 122 staff of old age = supporter of an aged
parent]6 should be comprehended not as an assistant, who must always be with
the old vizier to help him, but as a pupil who will be there for his tutor until the
end of his life and who will be taught by him in his craft. A good example for what
exactly the expression mdw n iAw means is an inscription from Theban tomb 97
(tomb of Amenemhat):
wn(.i) m wab mdw n iAw m-a I was a wab priest staff of old age to my father
it(.i) m wn.f tp tA until he existed upon the earth.
(Urk. IV 1409, 310; Gardiner 1910, 92).
After the death of his father (teacher) his son (pupil) must take his position.
This is visible from an inscription from the tomb of Amenemhat in Beni Hassan
(tomb 2) in the time of Senusret :
I was going upstream (to the north) as a son of hereditary prince, bearer of
the seal of Lower Egypt, general m idn s it(.f ) iAww as a person who inherit the
place of his old father. (Urk.VII.14,12; Lefebvre 1940, 364).
The expression has been studied by Blumenthal and Brunner (Blumenthal 1987; Brunner
6
1985). For a translation of examples in New Kingdom see (McDowell 1998, 201203). For a
parallel of the expression see: Berscheh I 33,5 m st ntt wmt sw mdw iAw pw n it.f pn ; P. Kah.
2.11,18 mdw iAw xft ntt wi tn.kwi; Kairo 583,13 mdw iAw m sA mr.f.
56 JES IV (2015)
The expression aHa m st (FD. 47 stand in the place of = succeed someone) is

particularly interesting. Giving the duty (or position) from a father to his son sA.f
aHa m st.f His son took his place (Urk. IV. 59, 16), is considered compulsory for
the existence of maat. In other words the institution of mdw n iAw may be per-
ceived as coregency like the common practice from the time of the Middle King-
dom (McDowell 1998, 203).
The use of this expression in wisdom texts shows that one of the reasons for
creating an instruction is for a pupil to be taught, who will in time take the place of
his father. This is clear even from the title itself sbAjt an instruction. Thats why
it is absolutely obligatory for the text to have a recipient. He is the person the wis-
dom text is written for.
The beginning of the Teaching for Kagemni is missing but from its end we see
that the text is for him. In the Instruction of Djedefhor his son is named Aui-
bre. In the variant of the Teaching of Ptahhotep from Papyrus Prisse it is only said:
Dd.in.f xr sA.f And then he (Ptahhotep) said to his son... [Pt. 51], but in the copy of
BM 10409 it is added: Dd.in.f n sA.f PtH-Htp-Sri And then he said (Ptahhotep) to his
son Ptahhotep junior.... The two royal instructions are addressed to the future kings
Merikare and Senwosret whose names are written in cartouches. The Instruction
of Khety is written for his son Pepy: HAt-a m sbAjt ir.i.n s _wAf sA $tj rn.f n sA.f Ppj
rn.f Beginning of the instruction, made from the men form Sile , son of Duaf, Khety
is his name, to his son whose name is Pepy. (-b). Both loyalist texts have no author
and because of that we cant expect to find the name of the recipient. During the
New Kingdom this tradition is carried on. The Teaching of Amenemope is aimed,
as the text says to: for his son, the youngest of his children, the least of his fami-
ly, initiate of the mysteries of Min-Kamutef ...Horemmaakheru is his true name.7
(menemope , 13- , 2). The son of Amunnacht to whom the text is written is
called Hor-Min: sbAjt mtrw Ts.w n wAt anx ir.n sS Imn-nxt (n) Xrj-a.f @r-Mnw Begin-
ning of the teaching for instruction, sentences for path of life which the scribe Amun-
nakht made for his pupil Hor-Min (Brunner 1988, 232; Dorn 2004, 40). Unfortu-
nately the beginning of the instruction from papyrus Ramesseum has not been
preserved. Thats why we dont know the name of the author, nor that of his pupil.
The Teaching of Any is the only example among the all mentioned so far (without
the two Loyalist instructions) where neither the name of his son in mentioned, nor
to who is the text addressed to: HAt-a m sbAjt mtrw tA HAw.tj n tA sbAjt mtrw ir(.t).n sS
Inj irj sS Inj n tA Hwt Nfr.t-irj Beginning of an instruction for guidance, made from
the scribe Any from the home (palace) of queen Nefertary.
W. K. Simpson. The Literature of Ancient Egypt. Yale University, 2003, 225.

7
1.4 Content and style

By examining all the texts, belonging to the genre of instructions, we find out
that a study about understanding the nature of a person is implicated in them. They
also show his connection to God and how one should keep it. This theme is valid
for all the texts and due to that it may be considered a characteristic for the genre.
According to most of the scholars the content of the ancient Egyptian wisdom
texts can be reduced to two basic trends:
Explaining the principles of maat and its execution.
Pointing out the person who knows (rx), who is respectful (snDw), accurate
(mtj), quiet (grw) and calm (hrw). He achieves these states of existence
through dAr-ib control over his heart. The modern scholars call this person
the perfect person. As opposed to the person who knows stands the one
who does not know, who is called a fool (wxA). A fool because he neglects the
advices of his forefathers and does everything the wrong way. As a result of
that he has no luck in his endeavors and is spurned by society (Brunner 1988,
1117; Lichtheim 1996, 244247; Allen 2000, 258260).
According to the ancient Egyptians gaining knowledge (rx) is made through

the heart ib. It is not by chance that the study (or to be more precise teaching/in-
struction) of king Akhenaten is called: sbAyt Hmw.f m ib.f Instruction of his high-
ness, (which is) in his heart. This instruction he places in the hearts of all his sub-
jects (Hornung 1999b, 52). In other words, Akhenaten shares his wisdom with his
people and when they put it in their hearts they perceive it and live according to it.
The path toward knowledge passes by understanding and controlling the heart. For
this path it is said: anx wDA pw n.s ib.f Life and stability of a person are his heart.
[Pt. 548 552].
It is interesting to note that the mastering of the skill happens through listen-
ing (sDm): ir sDm.k nn Dd.n.i n.k wnn sxr.k nb If you are listening to this, which I said
to you, your every plan will exist. [Pt. 5078]; sbA s pw r Dd n imj-xt sDm.f st xpr m
Hmww sDmw nfr Dd n iml-xt ntf sDm.f st Instruction for a man is this for him to talk
to the next. If he listens that he will turn into master who listens. Talking to the next
is great, (because) he will hear this. [Pt. 517519]; Dd.i wr.t di.i sDm.Tn di.e rx.Tn sxr
n nHH sSr anx mAaw sb.t ahaw m Htp I have something important to say, I give to you
to hear, I give to you to know the plans of eternity, the path of life, as it should be
and the passing of life in peace. [Les. 68, 11138]; imj anx.wj.k sDm iDdt imj HAtj.k
r wHa.w Ax pAdi.t.st m ib.k wgAj n pA wnw.st m-a hnw n Xt.k irjw pnat m ib.k ...ir irj.k
hAwAwj.k ir nn m ib.k gm.k sw m sp mar gm.k mdt.i m wDA n anx wDA Hat.k Hr tp.k Give
Loyalist teaching 37 in Poseners edition [Posener 1976, 5557].

8
58 JES IV (2015)
your ears and heard what is said, Give your mind over to their interpretation: It is
profitable to put them in your heart But woe to him that neglects them! Let them
rest in the shrine of your insides. That they may act as a lock in your heart; Now
when there comes a storm of words; They will be a mooring post on your tongue. If
you spend a lifetime with these things in your heart, You will discover mw words to
be a treasure house of life, And your body will flourish upon earth. [Amenemopet
3, 9 4, 2]9.
By hearing, the words of the wise ones enter the heart of man and he be-
comes one who listens meaning one who knows and all his actions are accord-
ing to these words: Ax sDm n sA sDmw aq sDmm sDmw xpr sDmw m sDmi nfr sDm nfr
mdt sDmw nb Axt Listening is beneficial for a son, who listens. (If) the listening enters
inside the one who listens, he becomes a judge, (because) listening is great, speaking
is great and the one who listens is master of what is good. [Pt. 534538]. All of this
is shown best in the last words of the instruction of Kagemni:
ir ntt nb.t m Ss Hr pA Sfdw sDm As for everything put down in this roll,
st mj Dd.j st listen to it as I sad!
m sn HAw-Hr SAAt Do not cross beyond of what is definite
wn.in.sn Hr rdj.t st Hr Xt.w.sn And then they gave it in his bodies.
wn.in.sn Hr Sd.t st mj ntt m Ss And then they recited it as it was in the roll.
wn.in nfr st Hr-ib.sn r xt nb.t And then it seemed good among them more then every-
ntj m tA pn r Dr.f thing in this land to its limit.
wn.in aHa.sn Hms.sn xft And then they lived according to it!
[Kagemni II, 59].
The same idea is found in the wisdom texts from the New Kingdom. The sage
Any says to his son:
ptr tw Dd n.k nAj sp.w mnx Look! I speak to you these benefit matters,
ntj ip m ib.k That you (must) examine in your heart.
iir sw xpr.k m nfr Do it and you will transform yourself in someone good;
wAi Dw nb ir.k And all the evil will be far away from you!
[Any 18, 45]82
All the cited examples show how the teaching of the words of the ancestors
happens. They are being read to the ignorant, who then repeats them. Thats the
reason why the role of listening is so important.
W. K. Simpson. The Literature of Ancient Egypt. Yale University, 2003, 227.

9
see aslo Instruction of Any 20, 45 iw.k sSA m sS.w aq m sS.w imj sn m ib.k xpr iDd.k nb.t mnxt.
10
By complying with his ancestors instructions a person controls his heart (dAir
ib), which is the first step towards purifying the link between him and god. This is
also the only way of gaining knowledge. Having control over your heart is partic-
ularly important because of the double-faced nature of a person who is willing to
do both good and evil11. From the Teaching of Ptahhotep it is known that the de-
cision to act the right or wrong way is made by the heart: in ib sxpr nb.f m sDm m
tm sDm It is the heart who changes his master into one who listen or one who is not
()
. [Pt. 550551]. Thats why it must be studied and controlled. It
is said frequently in texts that the heart should be supported: wAH ib.k tr n mdwj.k
Support your heart in while you are speaking [Pt. 624], which is a synonym of
controlling (dAr ib).
The knowledgeable person, according to the wisdom literature, is known for
his knowledge and his wisdom lives through the centuries. He sm bA.f m smn.t(w)
nfr.f im.f tp tA is helpful to his Ba with what is stable and Ba is beautiful in him up-
on earth. [Pt. 526527]. His thoughts are identical with the words he speaks and
his every action is a confirmation of maat: maxA.n ib.f ns.f aqA sp.tj.fj iw.f Hr Dd ir.tj.fj
Hr mAA anx.wj.fj twt Hr sDm Axt n sA.f irr MAat Sw m grg His heart equals his tongue.
His lips are precise when he speaks and his eyes until he sees. His ears are pleased
to hear what is profit to his son. (Because) one who is doing maat is free from false-
hood. [Pt. 528532].
A typical mark of the texts, which pertain to the genre of instructions, is the
inner order of the text or its style. After the title of the work comes the name of the
author and that of the recipient of the text. The narrative is led form the first per-
son singular and is aimed to the wise mans son, who shares his wisdom with him.
This opening part is present in all texts, which have their beginning. An introduc-
tion or a prologue is next and then comes the main part of the work. It may have
different length. According to Kitchen the prologue is extended with time and in
later instructions during the mil. BC the prologue is obligatory for all works of
the genre (Kitchen 1979, 248). An exception to the rule is only the Instruction of
Ptahhotep, which has a long introduction, but as we will see later it most probably
is a product of later times.
Kitchen thinks that the Instruction of Djedefhor and that of Merikare dont
have introductions. Thats the reason he puts them in a subcategory, called by him
Type A, unlike all other texts, which he put in the so Type (Kitchen 1979, 241).
We know the Instruction of Djedefhor only from versions written on ostraca from
the time of the New Kingdom. It is possible that due to the lack of space the intro-
duction was not written and the student went on directly with the gist of the in-
see also CT 1130.

11
60 JES IV (2015)
struction. On the other hand, the Teaching for Merikare, being the first royal teach-
ing was probably purposefully made without a prologue as a distinctive feature of
the text. Of course, it is possible that the distinctions of both texts were not planed
in advance, but is a product of the individual style of their authors. The content of
the prologue is in the context of the idea of the importance of hearing the state-
ment, which is about to be done.
The prologue of the text proceeds, to the essential part of the instruction, or
as Kitchen calls it Main Text (Kitchen 1979, 249). In accordance with it all teach-
ings can be separated into several groups. He differentiates three instructions,
which main part is entity; instructions with main part that is divided into two or
three separate parts; and the last group is where the main text is divided into many
themes. The last ones Kitchen calls multi-segment texts. The main text in them is
divided into chapters or maxims. Some of the best representatives of this group
are the Instructions of Ptahhotep and Amenemope. The number of texts belong-
ing to the first group is the biggest. There the authors pass on from one subject to
another without a definite order and often they repeat a certain theme, which has
been examined earlier. The lack of clearance of the inside order of these texts is due
on a big extend, to our misunderstanding of the rhythm of the work. In the case of
the second group each part of the text examines one subject. Different themes can
be separated through a sub-title as in the instruction of Ani. These multi-segment
texts are a set of many clearly designated parts. Each part scrutinizes one topic. It
is possible for a theme to turn into several segments without being changing and
the difference is only in the point of view. Maxims 2, 3 and 4 from the Instruction
of Ptahhotep are a typical example, where the proper attitude to a superior, equal
and one to the lower strata is shown. The separate segments are visible and desig-
nated as subtitles just like its done in the teaching of Amenemope or they could be
divided by red ink and same beginning The instruction of Ptahhotep.
After the basic part all texts end with an epilogue. As Kitchen points, it has no
definite structure, but depends on the preferences of the author. Basically the in-
structions from the III and beginning of the II millennium BC have an epilogue.
At the end of millennium BC it is usually omitted and during the whole millen-
nium it is a compulsory element of each and every text (Kitchen 1979, 251). The
longest epilogue is that from the Instruction of Ptahhotep. There the vizier of king
Isesi repeats briefly the basic deductions from his teaching. The colophon of the
wisdom texts is a standard one and does not differ from those of the other literary
works from Egypt.
2 Representatives of the genre of teachings

Set in a chronological order of the time of their creation the teachings are:
Old Kingdom:
The Teaching of Imhotep(?)12
The Teaching for Kagemni
The Teaching of Djedefhor
The Teaching of Ptahhotep
First Intermediate Period:

The Teaching for Merikare
Middle Kingdom:
The Teaching of Amenemhat I
The Teaching of Khety
The Teaching of a Man to his Son
The Loyalist teaching
The Teaching from pap. Ramesseum
New Kingdom:
The Teaching of Any
The Teaching from Pap Chester Beatty V
The Teaching of Amunnakht
The Teaching of Amenemopet
Late Period:
The Teaching of Ankhsheshonq
The Teaching from pap. Louvre D 2414
The Teaching from pap. Insinger
These are the texts, which have the formal and thematic marks of the genre. In
this group there are subgroups, which are characterized by some additional marks.
These are the royal instructions, written by kings and the so called Loyalist texts
(Instruction of a Man to his son and Loyalist instruction). They have their own
This instruction has not been found yet. The vizier of king Djoser Imhotep is mentioned
12
as an author of an instruction in the time of the New Kingdom (Gardiner 1935 l.1822)
and also in the so called Harpers songs: pap. Harris 500 and the tomb of Paatenemheb
(The Antef song) (Lichtheim 1945, 192; Katznelson 1973, 318).
62 JES IV (2015)
marks, which distinguish them from all other texts, but in their nature they are still
part of the wisdom literature.
The number of instructions is not final yet. Some new texts can be added to
the enumerated ones. Similar in content, but having different characteristics from
those in the genre are: The Prohibitions, Instruction from Oxford, Instruction
from papyrus Amherst, The speeches of Renseneb and Sasobek and the so on. They
have not been included in the list of didactic texts due to their fragmentariness and
unclear use. Some of them certainly are wisdom texts, but because of the short
parts which are preserved form them we cant fully comment them.
According to Kitchen, the text of Michaelides 16 ostracon is also a part of a
wisdom text, which hasnt been recognized by this moment. Fifteen lines of the
text are partly preserved, so by their content they can be added to the didactic lit-
erature. For Kitchen this text is dated to the time of dynasty (Kitchen 1970).
A big number of fragmentary texts from the Late Period can also be added to
the instructions. In Papyrus Brooklyn 47.218.135 we find a long, but fragmentary
text, which according to some scholars is a teaching. It dates to the time between 650
and 350 BC and hasnt been published yet. There are two other demotic texts partly
preserved Papyrus Louvre 2377 verso and Louvre 238013. They were written by
the same hand and are dated to the time between 163 159 BC. A translation of Pa-
pyrus Louvre 2377 verso that has 13 lines is made by Williams and Lichtheim (Wil-
liams 1976; Lichtheim 1983, 100103). The text from Papyrus Louvre 2380 is badly
damaged and has never been translated. The only translation has been made by Wil-
liams (Williams 1976 2689). He also translates 7 sentences from an ostracon from
Deir el-Bahri, which starts with Here is a copy of a teaching that a [scribe of House
of Life] gave them... (Williams 1976, 270). In Papyrus Michalidis another text is pre-
sent and it probably is an instruction. Eighteen lines from it are preserved but only
two are readable (Lichtheim 1983, 103). The text was published in 1963 (Bresciani
1963, Pl. I). Some fragments from papyri from Cairo museum (Pap. Cairo 30672)
and from Berlin (Pap. Berlin P 15658) are also waiting to be published. The latest
text, which can be added to the genre of wisdom texts, is in a fragment from a papy-
rus from Tebtunis (pap. Tebt. Tait 15) dated from the III century (Williams 1981, 3).
Lichtheim considers that to the genre of instructions (divided in three sub
groups: real, royal and loyalist) the so called Laments must be added. These are
the texts of Ipuwer, Neferti and Khaheperraseneb as well as another sub group
where the The Man Who Was Weary of Life and The Eloquent peasant are includ-
ed. All these 5 groups of texts, according to her, form the ancient Egyptian didactic
literature (Lichtheim 1996, 243). In the present study it is accepted that only those
Versions of this text are also found in an ostracon from the British museum . 5067
13
[Williams 1976, 270271].

texts, which have all the enumerated formal and characteristic marks, are part of
the didactic literature. The so-called Laments, as many other texts, have features
in common with the instructions but they do not correspond to the formal marks
of the genre so they are not part of it.
During the examination of the texts of the differentiated genre of the instruc-
tions all scholars come across some problems. Dating some of them is uncertain.
The multiple copies of texts we have now are only parts of a particular text and
very rarely are the whole literary text. The ostraca we have with parts of texts are
exercises of young scribes and they are full of errors. Word play, based on similar
meaning and sounding is pretty common in them, but is also missed due to the fact
that the young scribes did not speak the ancient Egyptian language fluently. All
these problems are not to be viewed here. They could be subject to a different study.
3. Reason for creating teachings

After we have distinguished the texts, which are part of the genre of teachings,
it is time to pay some attention to their creation. Here we will examine the modern
interpretations for their meaning and the ancient Egyptian notion of them.
3.1 Modern concept

about ancient Egyptian teachings
After the first translations of some wisdom texts in the beginning of the cen-
tury many attempts have been made by scholars to give an explanation about their
meaning. The great number of difficult terms, the ambiguity of some passages and
the disparate concepts of the ancient Egyptians toward the world around them lead
the modern scholars to misunderstanding of the essence of these texts. In spite of all
the publications and studies, dedicated to these literary works, some authors contin-
ue to view the instructions as merely a set of practical advices for behaving in society,
combined with worldly wisdom, which aim is quickly to climb up the ladder (Quirke
1992, 127131, 134; Hornung 1999a, 37). This, along with the many passages, which
are hard to comment, is one of the reasons that the ancient Egyptian wisdom texts
are still not very popular and are not included in the anthology of the human wisdom.
It is to be noted that along with the mentioned interpretations of the ancient
Egyptian authors, there are some scholars, who consider these texts as the first
documented example of social thinking (Hertzler 1933, 174) or as fundamental
sources for Egyptian ethics (Shafer 1991, 159) and try to find in them a reflection
of the social relations and principals, which used to guide the Egyptian society.
64 JES IV (2015)
In spite all that, none of the previous studies answers the question of what is
the reason for the creation of these texts and how did the residents of the Nile val-
ley use them. Are they a product of the kings administration aiming to manipulate
the population and obligate them to behave or they are a synthesized knowledge,
gained by individuals in the ancient Egyptian society, who want to pass it on to the
next generations? Were these texts read, listened or copied for pleasure because
nothing new was said in them and the interest towards them is only thanks to the
eloquence of the author or were they used as a starting point for everybody who
dared to get to know themselves, the world he lived in and the principles that run it?
Finding the answer to these questions and understanding the didactic litera-
ture is possible only if a person crosses beyond the modern notions of state, wealth,
superior, master, kind and so on. One should search for the point of view of the
ancient Egyptian people. It should be taken into consideration that they were not
familiar with the division of art, politics and religion. They did not feel separated
from the god, but on the contrary they were plunged in a world full of divine.
The ancient Egyptians were part of him and they did not need to search for a lost
link with the god (Lekov 1999, 23). At the head of the state there was a king who
was conceived by the Creator and in his nature was a god. By serving in this social
hierarchy, in which everyone knows their place, the ancient Egyptian knew they
served the god. For people nowadays it is hard to imagine this mechanism, which
by a great extend is a description of the Underworld.
3.2 The ancient Egyptian concept

The ancient Egyptians themselves, unfortunately, did not specify what their
understanding of the word sbAit was. In the instructions it is pointed out frequent-
ly that it is best if these texts are read so they can enter the heart of a person and
this way he may live and act according to them. Then he will be successful in all of
his endeavors: ir sDm.k nn Dd.n.i n.k wnn sxr.k nb If you listen to what I said your
every plan will exist. [Pt. 5078]; ir iryw.k hAw.k iw nn m ib.k r nAj.k mswt ptr sn If
you live with these (words) in your heart, your children will respect them (lit. see).
[Amenemope 17, 1516]. From the so called Loyalist instruction we find out that
the words, which were put into the literary work represent the plans of eternity
and their keeping will give a man the opportunity to live his life in peace: Dd.i wr.t
di.i sDm.Tn di.i rx.Tn sxr n nHH sSr anx mAaw sb.t ahaw m Htp I have something impor-
tant to say. I give you to hear, I give you to know the plans of eternity. The acts of life
as they should be. The passing of life in peace. [Les. 68, 1113].
Hearing and studying these texts changes the ignorant person into one who
knows. According to the ancient Egyptian ideas a person is born ignorant and must
learn. Thanks to the instructions a person becomes wise. This is visible from the
final words of the Instruction of Amenemope:
ptr.n.k tAy 30 H(w)t Mark for yourself these thirty chapters:

st sDAy Hr st sbAy They please, they instruct,
st n HAty n Sfd nb They are the foremost of all books;
st di.t rx pA xm They teach the ignorant.
ir aSiw st m-bAH pA xm If they are read before an ignorant man,
xr ir.f twr Hr rA.sn He will be purified (of his ignorance) through them.
imH tw n imw imy st m ib.k Fill yourself with them; put them in your mind (lit. heart).
[Amenemope 27, 715].
The information in these texts is, on one side, the standard of behavior of the
Egyptian society and on the other is a teaching of self-control and self-knowledge
an obligatory stage towards gaining knowledge of the world and the Creator. In
view of the moral values, teachings emphasize the right method of behavior in
multiple worldly situations aiming to show the ideal person, carrier of all positive
human qualities. Examining this model of human behavior it is particularly impor-
tant to have in mind the nature of the ancient Egyptian state, which determines the
boundaries of relations of a person to the world around him. When someone stud-
ies the right behavior meaning the moral-ethical norms, he learns the principles
that lead the ancient Egyptian state the principles of the created world. Gain-
ing self-control, on the other hand, is the essence of the wisdom literature. It is ac-
complished through studying the nature of a person and his heart (ib). Acquiring
knowledge about the core opens the doors to a free communication with the Crea-
tor and fulfilling his plans. These two purposes of the instructions are expressed as
early as the introduction of the Instruction of Amenemope:
HAt-a m sbAjt m anx The beginning of the instruction about life;

mtrw n wDA The guide for well-being,
tp rd nb n aqwaqw sr.w All the principles of official procedure,
nt-a n smr.w The duties of the courtiers;
rx xsf wSb n Dd sw To know how to refute the accusation of one who made it,
r an smi n hAbw sw And to send back a reply to the one who wrote;
r saqA.f r mi wA.wt n anx To set one straight on the path of life;
r swDA.f Hr tp tA And to make him prosper on earth;
r rd.t hAj HAtj.f r kAri.f To let his heart settle down in its chapel,
irj Hmw r Dw As one who steers him clear of evil;
r nHm.f m rA n kAwj To save him from the talk of others,
smsm m rA n rxjt As one who is respected in the speech of man.
[Amenemope , 112].
66 JES IV (2015)
3.3 Studies on the genre of instructions

Researchers work on the instructions started in the mid century with the
publication of some papyri containing wisdom texts. The first text was published
in 1847. This is the only copy of the Instruction of Kagemni and the version of the
Instruction of Ptahhotep from pap. Prisse (Fac-simile dun papyrus egyptien en
caracteres hieratigues, trouve a Thebes. Donne a la Bibliothque royale de Paris et
publie par E. Prisse dAvennes. Paris 1847). Until the end of the century many of
the monuments containing wisdom texts were published: Instruction of Amenem-
hat (Griffith 1896); Loyalist instruction (Mariette 1880, 34, pls. 2426); Instruction
of a Man to His Son (Birch 1871); Instruction of Ani (Mariette 1871, pls. 1528);
Instruction of Amenemope (Virey 1886, 169; Renouf 1889). A key contribution to
studing the wisdom texts is the work of Wallis Budge, who in 1910 publishes a big
part of the collection of papyri stored in the British museum (Budge 1910). The
first decades of the century were a time when the first translations and studies
of the particular didactic texts appeared. (Gardiner 1914, 2036; Budge 1924; Bo-
eser 1925; Lexa 1926). In 1927 . an anthology with texts is published, with a great
number of instructions. This is the work of Adolf Erman (Erman 1927). Although
most of the texts included there were only partly translated and all the problematic
passages were missed, this remains the first attempt for a collection with ancient
Egyptian texts to be published in order to be popularized. In the two decades to
come many new translations appeared. With the work of Budge form 1924 the be-
ginning of monographic examinations on didactic texts was initiated (Budge 1924).
Ten years later . Suys published his work on the Instruction of Ani, which included
a hieroglyphic transcription, a translation, grammar commentary and a diction-
ary of the text (Suys 1935). Thanks to the studies of A. Volten, we have translations
of the Late Egyptian instructions. The Danish Egyptologist specializes in demotic
texts and publishes the papyri from the Carlsberg collection. To him the Egyptol-
ogy owes the first whole examination of papyrus Insinger. In 1941 he published a
study on demotic instructions which remains a standard for examining these texts
during the next 40 years. (Volten 1941). Volten also pays attention on/to the teach-
ings from the Middle and New Kingdom. In 1937 he published a translation and
commentary of the Teaching of Ani [Volten 1937] and 8 years later he examined
the two royal instructions and for the first time showed their political character
(Volten 1955). The zenith in monographic studies on teachings is the work of Z.
aba on the Instruction of Ptahhotep, issued in 1956 . (aba 1956). He compared
the all versions of the text known by that time and gave a translation with a com-
ment of all previous translations.
The excavation of the village of the workers, who build the royal tombs of the
New Kingdom Deir el-Medina, gives a new direction of the studies of the didactic
literature. Except information for the everyday life in that time it also gives scholars
a nice surprise a great number of ostraca made of stone and clay with texts, writ-
ten in hieratic. Thanks to the colossal work of Jaroslav ern and Georges Posener
these ostraca have been translated in the years from 1938 to 1977 and published in
three volumes. (Posener 1938; 1972; 1977). Due to the small surface of the mate-
rial, the inscriptions are fragmentary. The texts are parts of literary works, short
notes for purchasing different goods, information about the supplies of the village
and administrative documents. Among the ostraca with literary texts there are
new versions of already known texts as well as unknown parts of some teachings.
For example, the text of the Instruction of a man to his son was published in 1871.
(Birch 1871), but it turned out that it was merely a part of the didactic text. In 1950
Posener issued many ostraca from the village with parts of the text that completely
changes the meaning of the teaching. The ostraca contained only isolated sentenc-
es, but were analyzed by him and published as a whole text in 1979 (Posener 1979).
The new versions of the texts require reconsidering of the translations. The
natural next step is to compare the different versions in every different record and
to put a translation with critical notes. In the end of the 60s Wolfgang Helck start-
ed the project Kline gyptishe Texte. For almost two decades he has published
almost every didactic text (Helck 1969; 1970a; 1970b; 1977; 1984).
In the 70s with the works of W. K. Simpson and M. Lichtheim, Egyptology has
been enriched with new translations of all texts belonging to the genre of instruc-
tions takin into consideration the new versions (Simpson 1973; Lichtheim 1973;
1976; 1980). The authors of these studies, however, cautiously explain in the pref-
ace of their books that the aim of the material presented by them is merely to pop-
ularize the Egyptian literature and make no claim to have given a completely right
translation and comprehensiveness of the commentary. The last published anthol-
ogy with translations of texts from the Middle and New Kingdom written by Rich-
ard Parkinson also sticks to this model (Parkinson 1997).
Since the end of the 60s new critical studies of almost every didactic text have
been published. In 1967 Hans Goedicke issued a translation of the Instruction of a
man to his son (Goedicke 1967). Two years later Kitchen published a translation of
the same text (Kitchen 1969). The Instruction for Merikare has been examined con-
secutively by Mller and Donadoni (Mller 1967; Donadoni 1968). Seibert com-
ments some passages of the Instruction of Khety (Seibert 1967), and Lopez the
Teaching of Amenemhat (Lopez 1973). The studies on the didactic text of Amen-
emope also have increased their number (Posener 1968; Anthes 1970). All these
translations and studies have helped for the better understanding of the texts and
their interpretation. Unfortunately, there are no studies on all didactic texts, which
may show their common idea and the aim of their creation. One and the same com-
bination of words, used in different instructions are being translated in a differ-
68 JES IV (2015)
ent way by different scholars. Thus no common language and expressions can be
caught. This way, in spite of the new translations, the understanding of teachings
as a different genre of the ancient Egyptian literature remains obscure.
In 1981 Williams published his work, dedicated to the wisdom literature
known to that moment. The author gives bibliographical information for the texts
and makes an attempt to structure the basic marks of the genre and the problems,
which go along with their studying. That is the first specialized study on wisdom
literature. Williams defines the directions of future studies on the subject (Williams
1981). His examination may be considered as a continuation of the work of Fox,
which came out a year earlier (Fox 1980). M. Fox summarizes all studies on ancient
Egyptian teachings for the period from 1958 to 1977. He pays biggest attention to
some basic themes considered in wisdom texts: maat, god, ancestors/wise men.
In the begging of the 80s, thanks to the work of Miriam Lichtheim, attention is
paid once more to the late wisdom texts, written in demotic. The last critical study
on these texts is the work of Volten, published in 1941 (Volten 1941). Lichtheim,
who had dedicated her life to studing the ancient Egyptian literature, published in
1983 a complete publication on demotic instructions (Lichtheim 1983). Her work
was a continuance of the published translations of the Teaching of Anchsheshonk
and the Teaching from pap. Insinger in the third volume of her anthology of Egyp-
tian literature (Lichtheim 1980). In her study from 1983 she included a translation
of the third, partly preserved, instruction from this period Instruction from pap.
Louvre 2414 and two more fragments from similar texts14. She has also made an at-
tempt to reveal the inner structure and metrics of the texts. Lichtheim commented
their content and compared it to the earlier instructions and with ones from neigh-
boring cultures that have similar meaning.
At the end of the 80s H. Brunner has published the only full research on Egyp-
tian teachings. His work was issued in 1988 and for the second time, with some lit-
tle changes, in 1998 (Brunner 1998). The author makes a translation on all the in-
structions and added some biographical texts. He makes the attempt to explain the
basic concepts in didactic literature: god/gods, maat, ancestors and so on. Unfor-
tunately Brunner did not examine the inner structure and content of the texts. He
payed no attention to the so-called teaching for control of the heart, which is the
core of the ancient Egyptian teachings. Thats why he could not answer the ques-
tion: what is the meaning of these texts and why were they written.
In the 90s Egyptology has been enriched with new translations of the didactic
texts. A substantial contribution to examining the ancient Egyptian teachings are
the two works of Quack, dedicated to the Teaching for Mericare (Quack 1992) and
the Teaching of Ani (Quack 1994). The first work, even though it was a masters
14
Pap. Louvre 2377; Louvre 2380 and two ostraca from Deir el-Medina.
thesis, gives not only a translation and commentary, but for the first time a trans-
literation of the whole text. In his PhD dissertation on the Instruction of Ani he
repeated the method, which has become a standard for examining a literary text.
At the end of the century in 1999, the first whole study on the Instruction of
a Man to His Son has been published by Fisher-Elfert (Fisher-Elfert 1999). The au-
thor makes a reconstruction of the text, based on the newly found ostraca; he also
gives a transliteration of parts of the text, translation and a commentary. The last
published monograph about the genre of teachings belongs to Adrom and repre-
sents a new publication of the Teaching of Amenemhat with a lot of new copies
(Adrom 2006). In his work he has gathered all known papyri, writing boards and
ostraca with parts of the text, know to scholars until 2005. These two studies show
the necessity of new publications of literary works, which could include the newly
found variants of the texts, scattered in different museums. The books of Helck,
published in the 70s and 80s are no longer current and in the years to come more
monographs like this of Adrom probably will appear for all the other didactic texts.
In the begging of the century scholars publish translations of some parts of
the instructions in small collections, dedicated to the popularization of the ancient
Egyptian wisdom. Such a study is the work of Schlgl from 2001 (Schlgl 2001). In
2003 Burkard publishes a brief story of the literature during the time of the Mid-
dle Kingdom as he tries to summarize the basic studies known to him by that time
(Burkard 2003). None the less that the work looks more like a dictionary of the lit-
erary texts of that time, it is valuable with its attempt to systemize the literary works
by their plot and to draw attention to the characteristic features of every genre.
4 The ancient Egyptian ideology

according to the wisdom literature
Studing the sum of conceptions of the surrounding world, the social life and
their regularities through texts that we define as instructions, could be done by ex-
amine the main topics or by relations between them. In the basis of the first ap-
proach is situated the person. The aim is to study what the ancient Egyptian teach-
ings consider to be the right attitude, which a person should have towards the dif-
ferent objects. They are: god, the Egyptian king, the ancestors, the family (wife,
son), supervisors, subordinates, knowledge, property and so on. In view of the sec-
ond method, the accent falls not on the attitude of a person towards the different
objects, but toward the relations the connections between the objects.
The first method is used in the present study examining the point of view
and the value system of the ancient Egyptians according to the wisdom literature,
based on objects. Within the framework of showing the attitude of a person toward
70 JES IV (2015)
the different objects that surround him, the means of expression are differentiated
the combination of words and phrases. They have eventually turned into terms,
which the texts use to give a description of certain states of a person.
4.1 Attitude towards god

According to the instructions, god has created the world and everything in
it. He rises every day for the people and repeatedly destroys the enemies, who are
among them. He is the creator of temples so he can hear peoples complaints. He
has given them a ruler, who takes care of the weak and poor. And finally he has
given them a strong weapon magic, to oppose to whats happening. They should
learn (know) the advices of god (written in teachings), so they can clean their con-
nection with him. Then they will be able to know his plans and to foresee the fu-
ture. A persons duty to god is to serve the rites and to offer sacrifices. Besides that
a person should not oppose in any way to god and to the people, connected to him.
If a person fulfils all that then god will grant him with his mercy, satisfy his every
need and listen to him when he has a request towards god.
4.2 Attitude towards the king

Instructions give us both points of view towards the lord of the two lands.
On the other hand it is the attitude of a person towards the king, and on the other
the idea of the king for himself. The second standpoint is present in both roy-
al teachings, made at the end of the First Intermediate Period and the beginning
of the Middle Kingdom (Instruction for Merikare and Instruction of Amenemhat
I). In the Instruction for Merikare we find the most complete explanation of what
the Egyptian king is and what he must do daily. The role of the king in the created
world, designed by the Creator, is to lift up the spine of the weak. That lifting is
accomplished by keeping the principles of maat. This is the main task of the ruler.
God creates maat and gives it to the people. The king must keep a watchful eye on
its applying and every day he must give it back the gods. They feed on it they exist
only in the conditions of maat. With it being returned to the god, who created it,
the circle of the constant giving of justice, its making and returning on the hand of
the people and the king is completed. Then the world moves in its normal frames.
If maat is being done than everything will go the right way. The king is an example
for the people next to him as well as for the entire population. He must not kill or
judge wrongly. To keeping maat means that the people who cry will be quite and
the widows will be comforted.
The attitude of a person towards the king in the instructions is being shown
for the first time since the Middle Kingdom. In the texts that we place in the Old
Kingdom, there are no reference to the personality of the king and the attitude of
a person towards him. The reason may be found in the existence of a taboo about
the person of the king during that period. He is too distant from his people to be an
object of commentary. Since the beginning of the Middle kingdom there has been
a striving for an explanation of the meaning of the kings institution and the activi-
ties of the ruler. In the instructions this striving finds an expression in both Loy-
alist instructions (Instruction of Khety and Loyalist instruction). The obligations
of a person towards the king are best shown in the second one. They are to praise
him, to follow his orders and not to transgress them i.e. to be loyal. An additional
requirement is that people must keep the name of the king, to pronounce and re-
member it as well as to pay homage to all of his images. If a person complies with
all that he will have a good life on earth and existence in the afterlife.
4.3 The notion of maat

The divine principle maat (a right act in every life situation) is in the basis of
the wisdom texts. The ancient Egyptian point of view is built namely on this prin-
ciple. One of the aims of didactic texts is to reveal its essence. In the everyday life
maat is a certain behavior, which is the opposite of isefet. From CT spell 1130 we
see that a person is given certain opportunity to choose freely his behavior ac-
cording to maat or isefet, or in other words between the right model and the
wrong one. Here comes the role of the teachings. They show what is the right mod-
el of behavior, how a person should act in the variety of everyday activities without
violating the principle of maat. For that purpose both the right and wrong models
are designed maat with its consequences, and isefet with the result of its execu-
tion. If we enumerate some of the obligatory conditions for doing maat, accord-
ing to wisdom texts and autobiographies, then the following list or rules of con-
duct can be created:
praising god
giving offerings
following the orders of the king
strictly executing the official duties
passing judgement
praising the parents
helping the ones in need (giving food, clothes, ferry with a boat through the
river, burring the dead, who have no relatives).
being humble in the presence of your superior
72 JES IV (2015)
benevolence to the subordinate

friendly attitude toward your neighbors
silence (lack of complaining and boasting)
lack of lie
equality of words and deeds
striving towards knowledge
The presence of maat and crossing life according to its rules requires acting in
the frame of these commands in every life situation. If these regulations are being
followed, than making maat (keeping all these rules) means that a person is free of
lie. He is successful until he lives and possesses the property, which he will give to
his heirs. The man, who sticks to the right model of behavior maat accomplishes
success not only in his earth life, but in the Afterlife too. His name will be preserved
and remembered by the future generations.
4.4 The notion of a person

The role of the man in the created world is also the object of interest by the in-
structions. According to them god has created people and the whole world at their
own will. People and their surrounding world have been made in order for the evil
to be made quiet. They take an active part in the everyday making of the world.
They do it through multiple ritual practices, aiming to help the sun in its fight in
the Afterlife. Peoples responsibility is to maintain maat in the created world. Thus
they are not only a product of the Creation, but are also responsible to the creator
for their acts. This way the role of the man, according to the ancient Egyptians, is
raised from a simple creation to a supporter of the creation and a creator himself
in the everyday re-making of the world. The place of the person is raised to a point
when he could interact directly to the god. That could be accomplished since the
time of the New Kingdom and is called personal piety.
4.5 Attitude towards the profession

In wisdom literature there are no advices how to do a certain job. The only ex-
ceptions are about sending to work in the place of one dignitary to another and
having a high rank in the administration (the position of a superior). The lack of
recommendations for the behavior on the work place distinguishes teachings from
the so-called The Duties instructions (tp-rd) as those of the vizier. This is another
proof that these texts are intended to the form of communication between the man
and the surrounding world. These instructions represent directions for the right
communication between people.
The conscientious employee, according to the instructions, is quiet, calm and
silent. He does everything that is told to do without opposing his superiors and
subordinates. He is humble and shows his respect to his superiors; he is patient to
those who are under him.
4.6 The notion of gaining property

Throughout the whole history of Egypt an idea exists that wealth belongs and
depends only on god. For the time of the Old and Middle Kingdom a person may
gain wealth only thanks to his personal skills and the execution of the orders of his
superior or the king. According to the instructions during these periods gaining
fortune depended on the moral qualities of a person. Only the one who lives in ac-
cordance with maat can rise in the hierarchy of the state, to be on high post and
possess property. Since the New Kingdom the idea that a person may gain fortune
through fraud, begins to appear. The distribution of wealth no longer depends on
the will of the king. In New Kingdom instructions gaining property opposes the
moral values. During the Late Period, in the final phase of the tradition for writing
instructions, the notion of wealth in Egypt resembles the understanding of the an-
cient Israelites, written in the Bible god owns all wealth and may give it as a gift,
but the impious may also become rich. In other words there is a negative attitude
towards the wealthy man and the wealth itself. This idea brightly contrasts with the
time of the classic Egypt when only the moral person, who lives in accordance with
maat, possesses wealth. The reason for this essential change should be sought not
only in the dual nature of a person, keen on doing evil, but also in the gradually dy-
ing divine royal authority.
4.7. The concept of knowledge

According to the ancient Egyptian texts a person is born ignorant. Thanks to
the studying of texts he gains knowledge. Egyptians often emphasize that learn-
ing is the best thing that a man can do for himself. Spending the day in writing and
the night is reading is considered more pleasant than any other job or amusement.
From all the texts we see that gaining knowledge and the transformation of a per-
son into knowledgeable (rx) comes down to studying the principle of maat. The
knowledge of the cosmic order, on the other hand, is insufficient. A person should
also live in accordance with it so he can be called knowledgeable. Recognizing
74 JES IV (2015)
maat and living according to its principles also means understanding the essence
of a person, his nature and character. During the process of learning a person in-
evitably changes. Egyptians think that a persons character changes. For that rea-
son, in wisdom texts it is frequently said that the wise man that gives his knowledge
in the form of an instruction changes (lit. irj make) the character (qd) of those
he teaches. With the change of someones character, he does not only gain knowl-
edge for the world that surrounds him, but also the ability to control himself. This
doesnt mean suppressing the feelings and emotions, it means reaching the right
model of behavior maat. The essence, which must be controlled, is the organ
through, which knowledge is gained ib. Having control over it (dAir-ib) means
that a person has realized, studied his own nature and in every situation will act in
accordance with maat.
The man, who has knowledge who lives in accordance with maat is called
knowledgeable, whiles the one who transgresses this principle and dos isefet (the
opposite of maat) is called ignorant. In other words, the difference between the
righteous and the doer of evil is only the lack of knowledge, which could be gained.
The world, where the wisdom texts were created, was a world filled with di-
vinity. It was made by the Creator and ruled by his son. In this world the principle
of maat ruled and every people are equal in their nature. The existence of a deity
(i.e. king) at the head of the state means that the possibility for injustice is elimi-
nated. Rising in the bureaucratic system and gaining personal wealth can be accom-
plished only if the will of the king is fulfilled. His plans are conformed to the Crea-
tor and are given to people through his commands. For this reason the execution
of the orders by the person is considered an obligatory condition for justice. After
god has given the commands, then complaining and discontent about them would
mean opposing of the Creator himself. Such acts are despicable and rejected. The
right behavior of a person, according to the ancient Egyptian system, is to be qui-
et, calm and patient. The perfect person is the one, who obeys his superior, who
understands his place in society. He knows whats coming next and expects what
is about to happen. He is capable of controlling his heart (ib) and thats why he al-
ways makes right decisions. His plans happen, because they are equal with the pre-
determined. His family and all people around him love such a person. Also the king
praises him. His place in society is raised and his faith in the Afterlife secured.
5. Terminological apparatus basic terms and phrases

According to the ancient Egyptian notions the heart (ib), exept that is a physi-
ological organ is also an element of the human personality. It represents something
that is external to the person. The heart perceives and memorizes everything that
a person does and is his impartial observer. Due to that reason it may even be con-
sidered as a a second me of a person (Spiegelberg 1931; 2004, 49). As an
organ of thoughts, senses and emotions, his heart leads every act of a person. It is
what pushes its owner toward doing every action as does every deed of a person
leave a mark on his heart. The described in the previous chapter behavior of a per-
son shows exactly that. In every situation, depending on a mans understanding, his
heart is in a certain state, which dictates the persons model of behavior.
In wisdom literature the idea that human acts influence, build and form his
character (biAt, qd, irw), is widely accepted. Under character in Ancient Egypt it
was understood not only the initial form of a person, made in his birth, but also the
combination of qualities acquired during his life. The character of a person is that
part of his personality, which shows him to the people around him and through
which they perceive him. Depending on the behavior of a person in society and the
path that he has chosen to follow his character might be good (nfr), trusty, skil-
ful (iqr), profitable (Ax) or bad (bin) and evil (Dwt). Controlling the heart (dAir-ib),
which is the basic task of instructions, leads to perfecting the character of a man
and his turning into a good and excellent human being. The man who has power
over his heart is always with a good character, which is valued by his contempo-
raries.
A persons behavior is based on his thinking and deeds. The ancient Egyptian
system of thinking is based on the interaction between the heart (or to be more
precise the core/essence ib) and the character (biAt, qd, irw) of a person. The
mechanism of functioning of these terms gives us an opportunity to understand
the value system of the inhabitants of the Nile valley and to find the meaning and
function of didactic texts.
The information, which a modern scholar of Ancient Egypt uses, is a product
of only a little part of the countrys population the educated one. The point of
view and the value system of the lower strata, poor and uneducated people remain
unclear due to the lack of sources. On the other hand, during the different peri-
ods of the Ancient Egyptian history the value system and the way of thinking al-
so change. The ideas and conceptions of the people who lived during the Old and
Middle Kingdom, as seen in the literary works, brightly contrasts with the notions
from the time of the Late Period. Thats why the present study focuses on the time
until the beginning of the mill. BC.
The first stage of the thinking process of a person is perceives. According to
the ancient Egyptian texts a person perceives the environment and the objects in it
through his senses and especially through his ears (hearing) and eyes (seeing). In
texts the nose of a person, his tongue (taste) and touch are rarely mentioned as a
means of perceiving the world. We are aware that the ancient Egyptians thought
that they were breathing through their noses and their lives passes through it. But
76 JES IV (2015)
from the point of view of perception it does not raise any interest. The same can
be said about taste and touch. The next step in the thinking process is the process-
ing of what has been perceived and its rationalization. This process, as we have al-
ready seen, is being done in the essence/core of a person (ib). All that has been seen
heard and smelled, all that the separate parts of a person sense is being brought to
the heart. Through it a person perceives what his senses register as activities, hap-
pening around him. Thanks to his character, the essence reacts to that, which the
senses have perceived. There are two possible models of behavior, depending on
the preparation of the heart and the level of self-control, which a person possesses.
He might rationalize the situation negatively or positively according to the principle
of maat. The negative perception will mean that his essence will be in contradic-
tion to the principle of maat. That would be expressed through combinations of
words, which show a departure from the norm. The heart will be great i.e. greedy
(aA; wr), rashly (As), thirsty (awn), swallowed (am) and so on. The other mod-
el of rationalization is when the heart is in unison with the justice (maat). Then it
would be expressed through positive word combinations. It will be right, accurate
(mtj; aqA), kindly, patient (wAH), and discreet (kfA). Hence, rationalization of eve-
ry situation in life influences the heart of a person and might be described through
a change of this heart (it becomes tall, big, sinks, diverts). By acting this way for a
long time a man changes his character, thanks to the modification of his heart. In
other words, the heart (ib) of a person may be regarded as a prism, which illustrates
human deeds and changes his character. This rationalization, based on the kinds
of behavior, which a person may choose, reflects on the decision that he will take
for acting in a specific situation. Making a decision is the next step of the thinking
process of a person. It has been prompted by the state of his heart. Every deed of a
man is the result of the decision that his heart had made, based on the information,
which has been given to it by the organs of sense. Making a decision for every act is
the most important phase of mans thinking. It is this phase, indeed, that wisdom
texts are intended to. The role of a teacher is to show his student both models of
behavior in making a decision and the consequences of those acts. A teacher can-
not influence on the perception of a student. It is individual for every person. The
teachers function is to give the knowledge he possesses for the outcome of both
types of behavior and to show the right one. That is exactly that we see in the In-
struction of Ptahhotep. Each and every maxim begins with a description of a par-
ticular situation. The heart realizes the situation and depending on which model
it will choose it acquires a different definition. This definition determines the de-
cision that will be taken. Ptahhotep also shows the result of this decision in both
possible ends in accordance with maat and in accordance with isefet. All maxims
end with a deduction, which reflects the point of view of the wise-men toward the
right act in the current situation.
Knowing both models of behavior in every surrounding doesnt automatically

mean that the student will make the right thing. The aim of the teacher in not only
to represent the consequences of the decision and to show the model in accord-
ance with maat, but also to learn the student to control his heart so it can always
make the right decision.
Controlling the heart (wDA-ib) means that a person owns and dominates his
heart and therefore himself. He has power over his every act and reaction. Thanks
to this he always acts and talks the right way in accordance with maat. After the
end of the last stage of thinking comes the action. It is based on the rationalization
in the heart of the person and is a result of the decision that was made. A persons
action may be expressed in deeds or words. The whole process of perceiving, realiz-
ing, making decisions i.e. the process of thinking as well as someones actions influ-
ence on his character. This is the place for a gentle reminder that the human char-
acter, according to the ancient Egyptians, is a combination of qualities given to the
person from birth and skills acquired during the life. It is also important to say that
the actions, which a person decides to make based on decisions that he has taken
during the time of rationalization influence and build his character. But his char-
acter also outlines these deeds. In other words, there is a retroaction between the
heart of a person and his nature. Decisions made by the heart form the character of
a person, but the character itself predisposes his heart to make certain decisions.
6. 5. Summary
The ancient Egyptian wisdom texts represent a description of the moral phi-
losophy of the ancient Egyptian society. The principles of well-behaving and self-
knowledge are implicated in them. Being good and acting well is a conduct in ac-
cordance with the divine principle maat.
Describing and studying the divine principle cannot make a person do the right
thing in every situation. Thats why the main aim of the instructions is to change the
person himself and not only to represent the life in accordance with maat. Thinking
and making decisions, according to the ancient Egyptians, is made in the heart (ib) of
a person for these texts accent precisely on this organ of the human personality. Teach-
ings show the way the human mind and manners work. Their aim is to influence think-
ing and making decisions. For this purpose the study of controlling the heart has been
invented so it can always make the right (mtj; aqA) decision and the consequences
would not be in contradiction to maat. Controlling the heart is accomplished through
studying the influence, which every deed of a person has to his heart. Human actions
change the heart and form someones character. Good deeds the ones according to
maat, lead to positive states and qualities of the heart. These conditions and virtues,
78 JES IV (2015)
on the other hand, build ones character as turning him in a good one (nfr). Having
control over the heart allows a person to maintain clear (active) connection to the
Creator. Than he acts in accordance with gods design. His plans are consubstantial
with these of the deity and his actions are in unison with maat. A man who has mas-
tered his core and is knowledgeable (rx), his actions are effective (mnx), he is quiet (gr),
calm (wAH-ib), respected by the people around him and praised by the king.
The reason for the creation of these texts is rooted in the desire to preserve the
words of the authors for the future generations. Teachings from the time of the Old
Kingdom have originally been passed on verbally and many years after their author
had died they were edited and written on a papyrus. Until that time they were not
popular and were known only to certain people who used them. Probably that circle
of people was on the teacher-pupil chain, which led from the author of the instruc-
tion. The fact that they were not widely spread is visible by the lack of ideas and terms,
used in them in biographies from the Old Kingdom. During the years of the First In-
termediate Period, influenced by the chaos in the country, a desire appeared for these
verbal instructions to be written down. Then the words of the wise men from the Old
Kingdom were gathered, edited by unknown people and turned into literary works.
During the last years of the Middle Kingdom the number of the wisdom texts drasti-
cally increased and with that the popularity of the authors of instructions. The teach-
ings form the New Kingdom continued the tradition of their predecessors. The use
and meaning of the means of expression is preserved. At the same time the change
of thinking, prompted by the time of their creation, is visible. Egypt had now turned
into an empire, which controlled vast territories. The number of foreigners living in
the country has increased and with that the diversity of ideas. The ordinary Egyptian
communicated freely with gods without the need of a mediator. The role of the per-
sonal responsibility before god and the principle of maat began to have bigger instead
obeying the orders of the king. Thanks to this direct contact between a person and a
god, in the New Kingdom instructions we see for the first time what the direct obli-
gations of a man before god are. At the same time, we see a tendency toward weaken-
ing of the role of the ruler. He is turning from a god in flesh into an ordinary ruler.
As a means of teaching and guidance, instructions have exercised a great influ-
ence on their contemporaries. The moral norms, eminent in them are a reflection
of the way of thinking of the ancient Egyptians. Instructions describe the estab-
lished norms, but also expand them by creating new ones. The greatness of their
authors roots precisely in explaining the principle of maat, resulting in displaying
the right model of behavior. These way instructions do not merely describe the
moral norms, but create them as well. The influence that they have is attested best
in biographical texts and narratives from the time of Middle and New Kingdom. As
a mirror image of teachings, a biography influenced mostly. Since the time of the
First Intermediate Period terms and expressions from the instructions had begun
to penetrate/enter in biographical texts. They did not explain the meaning of these
terms. This is the role of the wisdom literature, and biographies merely use them
in order to describe the quality of the essence/core of a person and his character. A
comparison between these two genres shows that the direction of influence is from
instructions to biographies. The positive model of behavior that instructions had
built was considered a standard that every person strived for. In biographies nobles
described themselves as people, who are an example for such a behavior.
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Notes on Egyptian Wisdom texts

in iw wn di mj @r-Ddf Is there anyone like Djedefhor?

Of all names, mentioned so far, only this of Ptahemdjehuty cannot be connect-

The expression aHa m st (FD. 47 stand in the place of = succeed someone) is

W. K. Simpson. The Literature of Ancient Egypt. Yale University, 2003, 225.

1.4 Content and style

According to the ancient Egyptians gaining knowledge (rx) is made through

Loyalist teaching 37 in Poseners edition [Posener 1976, 5557].

W. K. Simpson. The Literature of Ancient Egypt. Yale University, 2003, 227.

see also CT 1130.

2 Representatives of the genre of teachings

First Intermediate Period:

[Williams 1976, 270271].

3. Reason for creating teachings

3.1 Modern concept

3.2 The ancient Egyptian concept

ptr.n.k tAy 30 H(w)t Mark for yourself these thirty chapters:

HAt-a m sbAjt m anx The beginning of the instruction about life;

3.3 Studies on the genre of instructions

4 The ancient Egyptian ideology

4.1 Attitude towards god

4.2 Attitude towards the king

4.3 The notion of maat

benevolence to the subordinate

4.4 The notion of a person

4.5 Attitude towards the profession

4.6 The notion of gaining property

4.7. The concept of knowledge

5. Terminological apparatus basic terms and phrases

Knowing both models of behavior in every surrounding doesnt automatically

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