A World of Gangs. Armed Young PDF

A World of
Gangs
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A World of
Gangs
Armed Young Men and Gangsta Culture
john m. hagedorn
foreword by mike davis
university of minnesota press

minneapolis london
Globalization and Community Series, Volume 14
Dennis R. Judd, Series Editor
Additional information about the author and his work can be found at
http://gangresearch.net.
The Rose That Grew from Concrete reprinted with permission of

International Creative Management, Inc. Copyright 1999 by Tupac Shakur.
Photograph of favela at the opening to Part I by Joo Roberto Ripper

courtesy of Imagens do Povo Image Bank, a project run by Observatorio de Favelas
do Rio de Janeiro. Photograph at the opening to Part II, One Way,
courtesy of the photographer, James F. Short Jr.
Maps in the book were created by Patti Isaacs, Parrot Graphics.
Copyright 2008 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Published by the University of Minnesota Press

111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290
Minneapolis, MN 55401-2520
http://www.upress.umn.edu
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hagedorn, John, 1947-

A world of gangs : armed young men and gangsta culture /
John M. Hagedorn ; foreword by Mike Davis.
p. cm. (Globalization and community series ; v. 14)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-8166-5066-8 (hc : alk. paper) isbn 978-0-8166-5067-5 (pb : alk. paper)
1. Gangs. I. Title.
HV6437.H34 2008
364.106'6dc22
2008000082
The University of Minnesota is an equal-opportunity educator and employer.
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to Bobby Gore
and the brave men and women
of Lawndales 1960s Conservative Vice Lords
History has the cruel reality of a nightmare, and the grandeur of man
consists in his making beautiful and lasting works out of the real
substance of that nightmare.
o c t a v i o p a z , The Labyrinth of Solitude

CONTENTS
foreword Reading John Hagedorn Mike Davis xi

Acknowledgments xix
introduction Why Are Gangs Everywhere? xxiii
I. Globalizing Gangs
1. Ghetto, Favela, and Township: The Worlds Gangs

Live In 3
2. Street Institutions: Why Some Gangs Wont
Go Away 11
3. The Problem with Denitions: The Questionable
Uniqueness of Gangs 23
4. From Chicago to Mumbai: Touring the World
of Gangs 33
II. Race, Space, and the Power of Identity
5. No Way Out: Demoralization, Racism, and

Resistance Identity 53
6. A Tale of Two Gangs: The Hamburgs and the
Conservative Vice Lords 65
7. Reconsidering Culture: Race, Rap, and Resistance 85
8. Street Wars: Hip-Hop and the Rise of Gangsta
Culture 93
9. Contested Cities: Gentrication and the Ghetto 113
conclusion A Rose in the Cracks of Concrete 131
Notes 145
Index 181
foreword
Reading John Hagedorn
Mi k e Da v i s
Symptomatic of a more profound fallacy, the Library of Congress biblio-

graphic system makes the subject street gangs a subset of social pathology,
when the accurate classication should be urban history, street politics.
Gangs, in the most straightforward sense, mint power for the otherwise
powerless from their control of small urban spaces: street corners, slums,
playgrounds, parks, schools, prison dormitories, even garbage dumps. For
poor youth lacking other resources, these informal spatial monopolies, if
successfully defended and consolidated, provide some measure of entre-
preneurial opportunity as well as local prestige and warrior glamour. Gangs
also frequently act as neighborhood militias to police public space, enforce
(or resist) ethnic and racial borders, and, thereby, control access to jobs and
housing. Although most gangs are ephemeral alliances, a few endure as
charismatic icons of local identity; membership then becomes an inter-
generational rite of passage, resonant with patriotic pride (military service
for the hood, same as my daddy, an LA OG once told me). If some gangs
are vampire-like parasites on their own neighbors, others play Robin Hood
or employer of the last resort; most combine elements of both predation
and welfare.
The genealogy of gangs, broadly construed, is almost coeval with the
history of the big city; despite the current identication of street gangs as
the sinister seeds of organized crime and terrorism, they have also been
the building blocks of urban machine politics from Republican Rome to
Prohibition-era Chicago. The great gangs of the Roman hills, who controlled
xi
xii foreword
the citys grain supply, were a plebeian power to which even Caesar had to
defer. In the city-states of Renaissance Italy, artisan gangs, the custodians
of popular rights, were always ready to rollick, riot, and, if necessary, revolt.
The famous ghting gangs of New York in the 1840s and 1850s (along with
their doppelgngers, the volunteer re companies) constituted the grass-
roots of Jacksonian democracy in the city and provided street armies for
both Tammany Hall and their Know Nothing opponents. Indeed, Amer-
ican gangs were often the proletarian equivalents to Skull and Bones and
Beta Theta Piwith some alumni ending up at city hall as well as on death
row. The most powerful political boss in modern U.S. history, hizzoner
Richard J. Daley, began his inexorable ascent in the Chicago Democratic
machine as a gang chieftain and racist provocateur during the 1919 riots.
Gangs, in other words, are as ancient as the hills of Rome and as Amer-
ican as the spoils system (if not apple pie). If they share a generic logic
the informal ownership of the street through a local monopoly of force
their actual histories and raison dtre across time and space are incredibly
diverse and unpredictable. Yet it has been the smug mission of modern
American criminology and allied social science subelds to reduce complex
realities and largely unexplored histories to simplistic pathologies. Despite
all the pseudoscientic mumbo-jumbo (survey questionnaires, regression
equations, behavioralist models, and the like), gang research in the post-
war era, with a few honorable exceptions, only embellished the stereotypes
originally brought to the slum by the charity reform movement of the
1850s: a fundamentally moralistic critique of poor peoples supposed pre-
disposition to crime and disorder. If the 1950s burnished classic studies
with new theories of teenage rebellion and the 1960s shifted that emphasis
to deviant subcultures, the overall methodology of gang studies through
the early 1980s remained rooted in Victorian values, obsolete social science,
and self-reproducing paradigms that ignored dramatic structural changes
in urban life.
Although this traditional criminological approach saw itself as scrupu-
lous and empirical, it was hopelessly entangled in mythology and wishful
thinking, especially in its fetishism of laws and norms in lieu of any real-
istic theory of urban politics and intergroup conict. Research on gangs
was largely driven by episodic, media-incited outbursts of public hysteria
over sensational killings or outrages; consequently, research budgets and
agendas were (and are) heavily shaped by the priorities and biases of law
foreword xiii
enforcement and youth services organizations. The a priori consensus was

that most street gangs were the urbanized equivalent of primitive tribes,
recruited from broken families and disturbed psyches, pursuing essentially
nihilistic objectives.
Sociological generalization supplanted any investigation of gangdoms
complicated evolution since the nineteenth century. By the late 1970s,
library shelves were groaning under the weight of monographs purporting
to reveal the mysteries of adolescent street culture and la vida loca, yet most
of the research was entirely ahistorical and wildly ignorant of the integral
roles previously played by gangs in big city politics and European-immigrant
economic mobility. Although race was prominent in psychological explana-
tions of delinquency (damaged Negroes, underprivileged Mexicans), few
studies paid any serious attention to institutional racism, the continuous
warfare over neighborhood boundaries, or the oppressive function of the
police in minority areas. With the exception of William Whytes famous
participant-observer study of a North Boston street corner in the 1940s,
most researchers depended on interviews with cops and probation ocers,
newspaper stories, welfare and school surveys, and, occasionally, the testi-
mony of informants. In the latter case, the typically anonymous gang
member was briey quoted to substantiate one of the researchers conten-
tions or generalizations, but never allowed to expound an opinion or present
a point of view at any length. As with other primitive peoples, inner-city
youth were not deemed to possess a rational eloquence.
All the more striking, then, when in 1988 John Hagedorn published his
revelatory study People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a Rust-
belt City in coauthorship with Perry Macon, a founder and top dog of
the Milwaukee Vice Lords. The book began with a blistering critique of
the geriatric authority of academic gang experts, some of whom had not
done any real eldwork in decades yet still claimed a privileged understand-
ing of the culture of the streets. As Hagedorn put it, there was too much
theory, too few facts, and he implied that gang studies had become part
of obscurantist law-enforcement discourse that impeded any objective analy-
sis of the destructive social forces at work in American inner cities.
The immediate occasion of People and Folks was national hysteria about
the supposedly epidemic spread of Los Angeles and Chicago-based super-
gangs into their respective western and midwestern hinterlands. According
to Time magazine, ABC News, and the National Association of Chiefs of
xiv foreword
Police, big-time gangsters were systematically colonizing African Ameri-

can and Latino neighborhoods in smaller cities as part of a rapacious quest
to build national markets for crack cocaine and other narcotics. Authori-
ties warned that the spores of these outside gangs tended to grow in hot-
house fashion, quickly overwhelming local law-enforcement resources;
Milwaukee was often cited as a prime example of a peaceful city invaded
in the early 1980s by teenage imperialists from Chicago.
In fact, as Hagedorn and Macon convincingly demonstrated in their
reconstruction of the genealogy of Milwaukees gangs, the outside agita-
tor or export theory of gang growth was mostly bogus. Although some
former Chicago gang members did arrive in the Wisconsin metropolis
during the early 1980s (usually because their families were desperately try-
ing to move them out of harms way), the real impetus for gang growth
was indigenous: an unemployment rate of 28 percent for blacks, soaring
poverty, broken families, failing schools, persistent racial discrimination,
and a brutal, bigoted police department. The cross-town busing of black
and Puerto Rican students (supposedly in the name of desegregation) also
inadvertently fostered gang aliation by casting kids adrift in hostile schools
far from their old neighborhoods. If the early 1980s breakdancing cliques
and school-based gangs dubbed themselves Vice Lords or the Cobras, it
was not because they had been recruited as franchises of the Chicago super-
gangs but simply because they wanted to appropriate some of the latters
subcultural celebrity. The urban anthropologist Mercer Sullivan later cor-
roborated a similar phenomenon in New York City: what the press and
police hyped as a gang invasion by LA Bloods and Chicago Latin Kings
was primarily a re-labeling of existing local rivalries.
In the same iconoclastic spirit, Hagedorn and Macon reexamined the
contrasting stereotypes of gangs as irrational cabals of damaged children
or highly lucrative drug maas. What they found in Milwaukee were the
ruins of once cohesive blue-collar communities: a postindustrial misery of
unemployment and frustrated ambition living in the shadow of yuppie
greed and conspicuous consumption. In the wake of deindustrialization,
it was increasingly dicult for inner-city youth to graduate from their
teenage associations into traditional working-class bread-earner roles; gang
membership, as a result, tended to become more like a permanent voca-
tion than a social phase. Gangs, in turn, more intensively cultivated sub-
sistence crime, especially drug hustling, but the neglected neighborhoods
foreword xv
and housing projects of Milwaukee evinced little of the fabled narco-wealth

celebrated in the boasts of Compton rappers or depicted in movies like
New Jack City. Drug sales for most gang members, observed Hagedorn,
are just another low-paying jobone that might guarantee survival, but
not much more. And unlike those classical foot soldiers of machine pol-
itics, the violent Irish gangs in turn-of-the-century Milwaukee or Chicago,
pariah black and Puerto Rican gangs had no access to traditional spoils or
patronage resources.
The gang renaissance of the 1980s, in other words, was less a vast crim-
inal conspiracy or epidemic of antisocial values than a spontaneous but
shrewd adaptation of ghetto survival strategies to the hard, cold realities of
the Reagan era. Certainly the Chicago and Los Angeles supergangs provided
postHoratio Alger status symbols to an aspiring grassroots, but, as Hage-
dorn and Macon repeatedly emphasize, the key preconditions for the gang
resurgence arose out of local histories of economic restructuring and com-
munity defeat. (Law enforcement and penology also rapidly adapted to the
same bleak topographies, but with much more lucrative results; indeed,
their vested interests in the overlapping wars on drugs, gangs, and terror
have become almost as entrenched and unreformable as the military-
industrial complex.)
Twenty years on (and in a revised edition in 1998 that takes account of
the radical impact of soaring cocaine sales on Milwaukee gangs), People and
Folks remains an essential guide to clear thinking about street culture and
the wages of injustice. It founded what might be called critical gang stud-
ies and gave new hope to all of us who despaired at the lurid caricatures
and urban myths passing for social science. Hagedorn and Macon also gave
inspiration to that minority current of American documentarists and writ-
ers who have tried to represent inner-city people coping with life in our
postindustrial cities as rational actors and disenfranchised citizens rather
than demons from the hood or romanticized outlaws. Watching an episode
of David Simons series The Wire on HBOthe closest thing to mile Zola
on the tubeis often like rereading People and Folks.
While Macon spent most of the 1990s entombed in something misla-
beled a correctional institution, Hagedorn was ghting for reform inside
the Milwaukee County child welfare bureaucracy; his compelling account
of his experiences, Forsaking Our Children (1995), countered a mountain
of lies about welfare reform and Clinton-era compassion. Likewise, his
xvi foreword
edited anthology with Meda Chesney-Lind, Female Gangs in America (1999),

challenged hoary clichs about girl gangs through fascinating case studies
of gender politics in dierent inner-city subcultures. More recently from
his new base at the Chicago campus of the University of Illinois, Hage-
dorn has worked with Bobby Gore, the legendary leader of the Lawndale
Vice Lords in the 1960s, to reconstruct the sinister story of how the Daley
machine and ultimately the Nixon administration sabotaged every eort
by radicalized Chicago gangs to transform themselves into legitimate com-
munity organizations.
These remarkable studies of the impact of economic restructuring and
postliberal social policy on communities of color in the Midwest clearly
deserve the same scholarly laurels as those awarded to such works as William
Whytes Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum (1943),
St. Clair Drake and Horace Caytons Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro
Life in a Northern City (1945), and William Kornblums Blue Collar Com-
munity (1974), but many criminologists regard Hagedorn as too danger-
ous a gure to be allowed to sit at the high table of academic honor. Their
recoil from his work, of course, is quite understandable, since he prefers
to consort with street kids instead of cops, runs a famous grassroots Web
site (gangresearch.net) that averages more than two million hits per month,
and excavates social histories that refute law enforcement dogma. On the
other hand, anyone interested in urban issues from a progressive perspec-
tiveespecially activists and academics who are tired of post-this-and-that
jargon and yearn for serious, well-researched ground truthwill nd an
intellectual feast in this cycle of work.
A World of Gangs: Armed Young Men and Gangsta Culture transcends
any academic genre. This is a book, quite frankly, that everyone needs to
read and discuss, especially those, like my thirteen-year-old son, who are
inheriting a divided world that my generation failed to reform or make
more just. Hagedorn provides us with the rst synoptic view of the myr-
iad warrior nations and street governments that have arisen in the concrete
deserts of neoliberalism. The globalization of gang lifestyles to the ends of
the earthfrom the frozen housing projects of Nuuk, the capital of Green-
land, to the mean streets of Ulan Bator and Vladivostokis one of the
most striking and misunderstood phenomena of our time. Since the rst
edition of People and Folks was published, the debate about the gang
problem has migrated from the front page of the local newspaper to the
foreword xvii
columns of Foreign Aairs, from the neighborhood police station to the

Pentagon. In the past year, gangs staged an extraordinary semi-insurrection
in So Paulo, Brazil; ercely battled United Nations troops in Port-au-
Prince, Haiti; were massacred by the police in Nairobi and Buenaventura,
Colombia; and provided an excuse for the mayors of Los Angeles and New
Orleans to demand federal intervention. Similarly, the violent specters of
two huge LA-born but now transnational gangs, MS-13 and 18th Street,
haunt a dozen cities in both North and Central America.
Hagedorn argues that the global gang is part of the continuum of crime
and revolt that denes the new horizon of geopolitics in the twenty-rst
century. Indeed, from the standpoint of the abandoned and betrayed youth
in our ghettos and favelas, we are all living in failed states, and we should
not be surprised by the angry social combustion that accompanies the
economic polarization of the new gilded age. His careful case studies high-
light numerous social fractures and historical inequalities that have con-
verged to create a world of gangs, but savage capitalism (i.e., the kind of
ruthless, untrammeled marketplace celebrated in both the Wall Street Jour-
nal and gangster rap) remains the decisive substratum. Street gangs mir-
ror the inhuman ambitions and greed of societys trendsetters and deities
even as they ght to the death over scraps from the table of the interna-
tional drug trade. But Hagedorn, characteristically, also nds hope in the
contradictory values of outlaw youthselessness, solidarity, and love amid
cupidity and directionless rageand he maintains hope that a culture of
resistance will ultimately prevail over the forces of juvenile self-destruction.
Whether one shares his optimism or not, he makes an eloquent case that
the future of the world will be determined on the streets of our cities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
What makes a book? A World of Gangs is an expression of powerful and

contradictory inuences on my life over the past ten years. While I have
spent many hours reading and thinking about social theory, many of my
deeper insights come from the streets or from home, not from my books
or the university.
The idea for this book began with my dissatisfaction with the way the
social sciences, including my own earlier book, People and Folks, had framed
gangs. In many ways, Mac Klein started me on this journey through his
invitation for me to participate in the Euro-gang Workshop near Frankfurt
in 1998. I was repelled by the blatant exportation of U.S. gang research
into Europe and began looking at the much more varied gang experience
in the third world. What I saw there looked to me a lot more like what I
was seeing in Chicago. Luke Dowdneys invitation for me to take part in
the ten-nation study neither War nor Peace was one of the most decisive
events in my intellectual journey. The groups of armed young men I learned
about rsthand from researchers in Africa, Asia, and Latin America taught
me that a global framework would be quite dierent from the stale o-
cial denitions of U.S. criminological reality. The Social Science Research
Councils workshop Youth in Organized Violence in Pretoria reinforced
this notion.
Among those I have learned the most from internationally are Luke
Dowdney in Rio de Janeiro; Francisco Gutirrez from Medelln; Moham-
med Ibrahim of Nigeria; Surren Pillay from Cape Town; Elana Zilberg and
xix
xx acknowledgments
Philippe Bourgois, with their U.S.Central American comparative focus;

Agnes Camacho from the Philippines; John Pitts from London; Cameron
Hazlehurst of New Zealand; Siri Hettige from Sri Lanka; and my student
Nixon Camillien from Haiti.
Back in Chicago, these global inuences were fed through the prism of
my local research. For reasons that will appear obvious to readers, funding
for my research is not likely to ever come from the U.S. Department of
Justice. I am therefore extremely grateful to Karen Colvard and the Harry
F. Guggenheim Foundation for funding my study of variation in homi-
cide in Chicago and New York City and for supporting me as I reconcep-
tualized my understanding of gangs. David Perry, director of the Great
Cities Institute, provided both space and support for many years. His notion
of contested cities and the urban planning course we held simultaneously
via videoconference in Chicago, Belfast, Jerusalem, and Berlin were enor-
mously inuential in helping me look at cities through fresh lenses. At Great
Cities, Nacho Gonzalez and Paul Goldstein are among my most trusted
comrades, and I cannot thank Christiana Kinder of the GCI sta and Mary
Austin from Criminal Justice enough for their loving help and concrete
assistance. Lance Williams, Xavier Perez, and David Stovall have been gen-
erous in helping me understand Chicagos twenty-rst-century streets.
My break from criminology has been slowed down on more than one
occasion by Jim Short, who was always ready to question my more extreme
conclusions and force me to think about them some more. Diego Vigil and
Carl Taylor have been inspirations from within the U.S. academic gang
squad; Loc Wacquant and Saskia Sassen from without. Paul Elitzik is still
my best friend even though he is no longer my publisher; my critique of
the left was sharpened through our discussions.
The two people who shaped my thinking most were Bobby Gore and
Dennis Judd. Bobby Gore was the spokesman for the 1960s Conservative
Vice Lords. From Bobby, I learned about the exibility of the form of the
gang and how its negativity can be turned positive. Bobby and Chuck Spru-
ell, Mac Herron, Noonie, JP, and so many of the other guys from 16th and
Lawndale showed me both the power and the pathos of their shattered
dream. Bobby Gore is without question one of the most decent human
beings I have ever met. It is no exaggeration to say that his unjust incarcera-
tion at the end of the 1960s was a principal reason why Chicagos gangs were
not able to stay on their prosocial path and eventually reverted to the streets.
acknowledgments xxi
Dennis Judd provided intellectual encouragement for me to write this

book and cosponsored an international working conference at UIC in
2002 on rethinking traditional criminology. Once I completed a rst draft
of about half of this book, he engaged me in what was one of the most re-
markable critique sessions I have ever experienced. He urged me to be true
to my voice and allow the inductive process, rst taught me by Joan
Moore, to speak. This book would not have been possible without Denniss
critical guidance. Pieter Martin simply convinced me that the University
of Minnesota Press really wanted this book and was the best place to pub-
lish it.
This book is not just about gangs: it is about unnecessary suering. For
me, like Richard Wright, the meaning of living came only when one was
struggling to wring a meaning out of meaningless suering. While I wrote
the entire book during a sabbatical and residence at UICs Great Cities
Institute, I began writing while evacuating my wifes parents from New
Orleans in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. My preoccupation with nihilism
may have had some immediate, personal origins. I especially want to thank
my late father-in-law, Dr. John Devitt, for his comments and insights on
my work during that long drive north.
Tupac Shakurs poetic raps and the world of hip-hop were as inuential
in shaping my thought as any academic text. Iris Rivera and my daughter
Tracey gave me important insights on hip-hop and gender. My daughter
Katie and her husband Pat and their two kids, Eli and Rio, my son Marty
and his son, Oscar, and my still-at-home sons Zach and Jess all taught me
about life through their struggles and comments on my thinking. They
have never stopped reminding me that I too often put work before fam-
ily. For that failing of mine, I am truly sorry.
Then there is my debt to what I have read. The citations in the book
display my respect for the intellectual shoulders on which I stand. Derrick
Bell, bell hooks, and Cornel West convinced me to refocus the study of
gangs within a racial lens, and Manuel Castells and Alain Touraine grounded
my work within an overarching, noncriminological framework. But even
a book of nonction like this owes much to the worlds great literary works.
Many writers have compelled me to look deeper and deeper into the human
soulGabriel Garca Mrquez, Joseph Conrad, James Baldwin, Jean-Paul
Sartre, Herman Melville, Susan Sontag, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Mark Twain
. . . I cannot list them all. I believe the insights of social science badly need
xxii acknowledgments
to be complemented by the far richer exposition of life, love, and mean-

ing in literature.
Finally, my deepest debt is to my partner, Mary Devitt. She has been
my soulmate through this books entire ten-year pregnancy. She has again
and again oered me both the clarity of her thought and the caring of her
support. She is the love of my life. I hope, despite the stolen hours of writ-
ing this book, I am still the love of hers.
introduction
Why Are Gangs Everywhere?
The brown current ran swiftly out of the heart of darkness, bearing us down
toward the sea . . .
j o s e p h c o n r a d , Heart of Darkness
Vigrio Geral, a poor neighborhood, or favela, in Rio de Janeiro, appeared calm

and peaceful. A small boy, no more than four years old, ran up to me and grabbed
my hand and would not let go as my colleagues and I walked around. Shouts
from happy kids playing soccer lled the background. Wires ran from the shanties
to nearby power lines, siphoning electricity. It was hard to imagine that just a
week before, seven people had been gunned down in the very alley where I was
standing. Terceiro Commando, the gang in the next favela, had been allowed
to slip into Vigrio Geral, probably by police, and had opened re. When I
looked carefully, I could still spot one or two patches of faded brown blood.
Violence by gangs and other groups of armed young men is a worldwide
phenomenon. Gangs today play a signicant role in all kinds of violence,
from ethnic riots to drug market conicts, even to working for local tyrants
in enforcing law and order. While there have always been gangs, todays
urbanizing world is producing them faster than ever and in myriad forms
and shapes. High levels of violence by nonstate actors like gangs or ter-
rorists have been an unsettling aspect of globalization. The evidence I pre-
sent in this book leads to the uncomfortable conclusion that gangs are not
going away soon, no matter what we do.
Like my rst book, People and Folks, this study is fundamentally induc-
tive, listening critically to the voices of gang members themselves and try-
ing to understand the world as they see it. Their voices demand respect and
recognition and are often deant in the face of racism and oppression. They
xxiii
xxiv introduction
can also be destructive and threatening, and many gangs are no longer bit
players in the life of cities. Gangs are unmistakable signs that all is not well
and that millions of people are being left out of the marvels of a globalized
economy.
People and Folks began by asking, what do we know about gangs? This
book comes after more than twenty years of studying gangs, a move of my
research from Milwaukee to Chicago, and participation in several inter-
national comparative studies. While much of what follows builds on what
has been handed down by criminology, I also had considerable unlearn-
ing to do. Much of what I thought I knew did not hold up when I looked
at gangs outside the United States and Europe. Many of the classic socio-
logical theories seemed to be just plain wrong or no longer applicable.
Rather than update orthodox criminology, I turned to Manuel Castellss
work on the information age to inform my project. I chose to sequester
myself these last few years from the entrenched thinking of many of my
academic colleagues and to avoid most academic meetings as I reexamined
my own thinking. The results surprised me and led to this book, which has
three main points.
Gangs are not a unique form but one of many kinds of armed groups that
occupy the uncontrolled spaces of a world of slums. Institutionalized gangs
and other groups of armed young men have become permanent xtures
in many ghettos, barrios, and favelas across the globe and are an ever-pre-
sent option for marginalized youth. Globalization is not the cause of gangs;
their unprecedented growth results from massive urbanization, immigra-
tion, poverty, and weakened states. As todays gangs proliferate, they often
morph into ethnic militias, drug posses, vigilantes, mercenaries, political
parties, or even religious police. Gangs and similar alienated and angry
groups are a fundamental and long-term characteristic of the global era.
Gangs are shaped by racial and ethnic oppression, as well as poverty and
slums, and are reactions of despair to persisting inequality. While gangs can
be of any ethnicity, I have found that they cannot be fully understood
without analyzing the history of racial or ethnic oppression and the resis-
tance to it. In the past several decades, many marginalized people and eth-
nic groups have consciously or unconsciously lost their faith in progress,
as they are confronted by the cold permanence of racism and oppression.
In response, millions of young people have turned away from secular, West-
ern identities and toward nationalism, ethnicity, or militant religions. Many
introduction xxv
young people have also been attracted to the nihilistic power of the gangsta
persona and the street ethic of survival by any means necessary.
It is in this power of identity, including the more life-arming currents within
the hip-hop lifestyle, where we can nurture a cultural counterforce to youths
nihilism, misogyny, and self-destructiveness. Encouraging cultural resistance
identities and linking them to social movements, like those in the United
States opposing gentrication, police brutality, or deportations, may pre-
sent the best opportunity to reach out to our alienated youth. Some gangs
have shown the ability to overcome their violent tendencies and may be
brought into broader movements for social justice, though this task is admit-
tedly daunting.
Globalizing Gangs
My challenge to criminological gang research begins with its method. Rather
than lead o with the local, this book looks rst at gangs around the world
and the uncertain conditions they live in. The proliferation of gangs in
Africa and Latin America is clearly related to familiar economic and social
changes now associated with globalizationurbanization, immigration, and
social marginalization. In many ghettos, barrios, and favelas where the state
is more an idea than a reality, gangs and other groups of armed young men
have ourished. But cities of all sizes in the United States and Western
Europe, where the state is unquestionably more than an idea, are also home
to a growing number of gangs. Gangs are not new in Africa or Latin Amer-
ica, and many predate globalization. Chinese Triads and the Sicilian Maa
have been around for centuries. No simple explanation exists to understand
such disparate phenomena.
The gangs of this book, unlike those of criminology textbooks, are not
stable, clearly dened entities. Todays youth gang might become a drug
posse tomorrow or, in some places, even transform into an ethnic militia
or a vigilante group the next day.1 The changing shapes of gangs pose prob-
lems, but, I argue, also present opportunities for reducing violence and
drawing some gangs into social movements.
Gangs, in other words, are one of many kinds of groups that are social-
ized in the prisons and streets and not by conventional institutions. In
these turbulent times, members of gangs are angry, potent actors, armed
young men (and sometimes women) who exercise power over areas or
xxvi introduction
ethnic groups. The state, Castells points out, still relies on violence and
surveillance, but it does not hold their monopoly any longer.2
Gangs and other armed groups are often in control of one or several
neighborhoods, and sometimes even larger localities in cities of all sizes.
While such powerful gangs are mostly found in Africa and Latin America,
some U.S. gangsnotably the long-lasting ones in Chicago and Los Ange-
lesare more similar in many respects to their third world cousins than
they are to American gangs of yesteryear or troublesome youth groups
in Europe.3 U.S. ghettos, like their sister slums in Africa, South Asia, and
Latin America, are all part of what Castells calls a Fourth World of extreme
poverty, resentment, and brutal, day-to-day struggle for survival.
Gangs in Chicago and Los Angeles are important for another reason.
These gangs have institutionalized, or persisted for generations, and show
no signs of going away. The United States is not the only place such insti-
tutionalized gangs are found: Cape Town and Rio de Janeiro are among
the cities that have produced such gangs, as I discuss in chapter 2. While
not all cities have institutionalized gangsNew York City does not, for
exampleconditions in many cities worldwide are ripe to produce more.
The Power of IdentityRacism, Rap, and Culture

So if gangs exist in strong states and weak ones, in advanced countries and
the third world, in cities large and small, and among nearly every oppressed
group, how can we explain them? First we need to recognize that the global
era is not just a time of increased economic exploitation and polarization
of rich and poor. Ethnic and religious violence has ared up everywhere,
particularly after the demise of the Soviet Union.4 The rise of nationalism,
Islamic fundamentalism, and other forms of religious, ethnic, tribal, and
racial identity are a nearly universal response of the socially excluded to a
hostile world. When the world becomes too large to be controlled, Castells
says, social actors aim at shrinking it back to their size and reach.5
This means that ethnicity, race, religion, and culture matter, and that
especially includes gangs.6 Today the resentments, alienation, and anger of
racial and religious discrimination can be found everywhere, as, for exam-
ple, in the 2004 uprising of youth in the banlieues of Paris. The alienation
in the worlds ghettos is so deep that Cornel West correctly labels this out-
look nihilism.7 Gangs are the paramount expression of this nihilism.
But gangs have not always been so intensely or permanently alienated.
introduction xxvii
In the U.S. industrial era, gangs were organizations of ethnic youth who
were as violent as any gangs today. One example is Chicagos Outt, a loose
collection of mainly Italian and Sicilian street gangs that unleashed an era
of violence during the 1920s that closely compares with the carnage of the
1990s drug wars. Today, the sons and daughters of the Outt are respectable
Chicago citizens who can play down their past (and for some, present) illicit
means of gathering wealth and power.8
An even better comparison, however, can be found in the conventional
success of Chicagos Hamburg Athletic Association (HAA), a gang whose
most famous member was Mayor Richard J. Daley. The HAA was formed
on the mean streets of Chicagos Bridgeport neighborhood more than a
hundred years ago, and its members clawed their way to political power
by combining street smarts, violence, and cronyism. Chapter 6 compares
the Irish American HAA with a similar gang, Chicagos African American
Conservative Vice Lords (CVL), to highlight how racism has led to unfath-
omable degrees of despair and alienation. I not only rely on historical doc-
uments but also present my own recent, unpublished research on the CVL
and personal anecdotes of my interaction with the HAA, both of which
are still active today.
To properly understand gangs, we need to grasp the depth of the alien-
ation among those who are left out. The studies that compare gang and
nongang, or measure degrees of group cohesion or social disorganiza-
tion, capture only a small part of a basically cultural reality. Starting with
the truly disadvantaged in neighborhoods where work disappears,9 Alain
Touraine argues that
those no longer dened by the work they do, largely because they are unem-
ployed, dene themselves in terms of what they are, and for many of them
this means their ethnic background. Those counter-cultures are embodied
in gangs, and often in forms of music, with a high ethnic content.10
In other words, its the music, stupid. Gangsta rap and the worldwide
embrace of hip-hop culture have been almost completely ignored by schol-
arship on gangs. Rather than revive musty academic notions of delinquent
subcultures or ethnically neutral cultures of poverty, I look at hip-hop
and gangsta rap as examples of resistance identities of youth. The gangsta
persona is a textbook glorication of gang culture, the very denition of
xxviii introduction
what West calls nihilism. It is in essence the tendency of the excluded to

direct their brutality against themselves and their immediate community
rather than against their structural oppressors.11 Understanding the cul-
ture of gangs, rst of all, means understanding their music.
Raps lyrics are often ludicrously violent and hypermasculine, reecting
hyperbole, traditional bad guys, and ribald fun. But the hatred of women
that permeates so many rap songs also exposes the insecurities of powerless
black men, seeking to exercise their will in a misdirected theater of misog-
yny. The worship of clothes, hos, and bankrolls by such rappers as N.W.A.,
bell hooks says, represents the same old song. Black men want to be in
chargein charge of the war, in charge of the women, in charge of the
world. . . . Gangsta culture is the essence of patriarchal masculinity.12
Within gangsta rap, as within gangs, women either conform to traditional
identities or rebel: ghting female, as Mary Devitt and I argued.13
But hip-hop is more than gangsta rap, and it is in its broader meaning
that its promise lies. The origins and heart of hip-hop are diametrically
opposed to the misogyny, violence, and drugs found in what can be called
corporate hip hop, as West has been tirelessly pointing out.14 The alter-
native rapper Guru says,
Yo, hip hop is a way of life. It aint a fad. It aint a trend. Not for those of us
who are true to it. . . . Its our way to release tension, to let out the frustra-
tion that young people face in the world today. Over the years hip hop has
evolved to represent what is happening nowthe reality of street life. Rap
is the oral expression of this. The tool, the literature. . . . it will still remain
for some of us the raw essence of life. Peace.15
Gangsta rap, as much maligned by the older generation as exploited by

multinational media companies, must be recognized as the tortured, angry,
often poetic rebellion of ghetto youth. Raps deeply racialized, black Atlan-
tic identity and message is so powerful that white youth, even in U.S. sub-
urbs, cannot help but see it as the denition of their own rebellion. The
MTV gangsta is nothing less than the Wild One of our generation, Ice
Cubes gold chains replacing Brandos leather jacket.
Like the favela youth I met in Rio de Janeiro, black youth in the United
States have a sober realization that poverty, racism, and oppression will not
go away soon. Many black people suspect that there is a permanence to
introduction xxix
racism that civil rights laws have not touched. They ght back, and not
always constructively. The fact that the powerful often win does not mean
that a war is not going on, says Tricia Rose in her insightful Black Noise.16
The face at the bottom of the well, to recall Derrick Bells powerful book,
is that of a black youth. And he is angry. And rapping.17
Hip-hop and its gangsta rap variant are cultural answers to the perma-
nence of racism and oppression, a resistance identity in Castellss schema.
It is the existential cry that no matter how bad things are, in Jesse Jacksons
well-known phrase, I am somebody. And that somebody is dened not
by schools, police, respectable citizens, or by you and me, but by young
people themselves through hip-hop and all too often gangsta rap. The real
hero of hip-hop is still Tupac Shakur, whose work straddles the tension
between thug passion and revolutionary ambition.18 He calls out lyri-
cally in the name of ghetto youth everywhere: Why am I dying to live,
when Im just living to die?
The culture of the streets has been called by Philippe Bourgois a cul-
ture of terror and Elijah Anderson the code of the street.19 In reality,
today this culture is dened by hip-hop, and this book challenges the not-
so-benign neglect by criminology of this central cultural characteristic of
the street and its gangs. I cannot forget what a young gang member on death
row tragically told me: Hip-hop is my life. To begin to understand the
searing anger that forms the cultural scaolding of gangs, download some
hardcore rap and carefully listen to it.
Return to the City

In this era of the global city, an understanding of the redivision of urban
space and political economy is essential. Gangs, I argue along with Saskia
Sassen, have a ubiquitous presence in polarized and uncertain urban land-
scapes.20 Today, in our majority urban world, there are more of these un-
certain landscapes than ever. UN-Habitat chillingly reports that more than
one billion people now live in slums. In sub-Saharan Africa, three-quarters
of urban dwellers live in such deteriorated conditions. China alone has 166
cities of one million or more. Lagos has become a city teeming with more
than ten million people. Medelln, until recently the city at the top of the
homicide charts, now has nearly as many people as Chicago.
It was industrialization and urbanization that saw the owering of im-
migrant gangs in 1920s Chicago and prompted the rst U.S. gang studies.
xxx introduction
A similar, but more extensive, migration and urbanization process is now

sweeping the third world, as I show in the rst section. While the new
economy is producing Gold Coasts in city after city, it is also producing
countless slums and their inevitable gangs.21
Gentrication and the redivision of space are accompanying this urban-
ization worldwide. While the rhetoric on gentrication calls attention to
falling rates of crime and increased security, replacing poor dark people by
rich white ones is seen on the street as a domestic form of ethnic cleansing,
a secret war, in my parlance. The racialized spaces of the ghetto, barrio, and
favela are being redened as places of connement for the socially excluded
and dangerous other. Prison, as Loc Wacquant argues, has become spa-
tially and conceptually linked to the ghetto in a continuum of domination.22
For gangs today, prison is part of the neighborhood and vice versa.
Gangs are a normal feature of todays contested cities, physically and sym-
bolically divided by race, religion, ethnicity, gender, and income. As long as
the new globalized economy and polity produce inequality and prolong suf-
fering, gangs will be one of a panoply of angry, and often armed, responses.
The War on Terror, Social Movements, and Gangs

The most common public policy response to gangs is, of course, repression.
The U.S. Department of Justice is not like Western criminologistsit does
think about gangs globally.23 The U.S. government has basically grafted the
war on gangs and drugs onto the war on terror, the twenty-rst-century
version of our 1950s anticommunist crusade. A media-driven tsunami of im-
plausible tales of dirty bombs and improbable alliances between Mara Sal-
vatrucha and al-Qaeda has panicked Congress into supporting ill-conceived,
draconian policies,24 much like in the McCarthy era.25
Branding gangs a national security threat or new urban insurgency
is consistent with a bipartisan Washington attitude that divides the world
into good and evil.26 These scare tactics divert us from understanding real-
life gangs and the human beings in them and the reasons for their alienation.
Such one-dimensional thinking is diametrically opposed to the logic and
method of social science. This means research like A World of Gangs is likely
to get short shrift in Washington, since it contradicts ocial denitions
of reality and many policymakers deeply held beliefs.27
This book seeks to remind the reader that gang members are real people,
social actors, reacting, sometimes destructively, to conditions of poverty,
introduction xxxi
racism, and oppression. We should not romanticize gangs or underestimate

the creativity of young people in forming organizations of the street. While
most gangs remain unsupervised peer groups, others can be highly organized
or deadly violent.
Can we deal with such people and groups rationally? Can we recognize
ourselves in the other? Israelis and Palestinians had thought it inconceiv-
able to sit down with each other, and the British government had sworn
never to meet with the terrorist Irish Republican Army. Why cant we
listen to the tortured voices coming from the ghetto and seek to nd com-
mon ground? The popularity of gangsta rap is unmistakable evidence that
the alienation of our youth is at a dangerous level.
This alienation cannot be overcome by government antigang programs,
a few jobs, better schools, or zero tolerance police tactics. Some of these
policies produce good eects, some bad, but most are irrelevant to solving
the real problems of the underclass. As Diego Vigil says, Basically, the
street gang is an outcome of marginalization, that is, the relegation of cer-
tain persons or groups to the fringes of society, where social and economic
conditions result in powerlessness.28 Vigil has it just right. And given the
entrenched nature of inequality worldwide, I repeat, todays gangs are not
going away soon, no matter what we do.
The response I favor lies in bringing gangs and those on societys mar-
gins into broader social movements, while demanding they take steps to
shed their violent, antisocial skin. This is a dicult task and, for most gangs,
may prove impossible, as well as raise the eyebrows of many of my readers.
However, one historical lesson of this book is that the gang is not a frozen
form, unchangeably violent or terminally hostile. We either bring gangs
and the underclass into the polity or run the risk of living in a permanent
fortress society. The lessons of the 1960s, as I show throughout this book,
suggest that the failure to include the underclass in social movements
forecloses any possibility of signicantly reducing inequalities and human
suering.
Those gangs that in the past have successfully transformed themselves
into prosocial organizations, like Chicagos 1960s Conservative Vice Lords
or New York Citys 1990s Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation, have left
a lasting impression on their communities. Their memories must be kept
alive. However, criminology as a whole, with notable exceptions, does not
even theorize the possibility of gangs as participants in social movements.29
xxxii introduction
The discipline of criminology today mainly produces research and evalu-

ation for the state that are little more than studies in safe logic that leave
untouched the racism and alienation that reproduces gangs.30
Research, Not Stereotypes

A World of Gangs is based on my research in Chicago and other U.S. cities
as well as around the world. It is derived from my experience teaching and
doing research in Chicago this past decade; from comparative research I
have done through the Great Cities Institute at the University of Illinois
Chicago and discussion among the fellows and scholars;31 from my research
on the history of gangs in Chicago;32 from an international working con-
ference I hosted that produced the volume Gangs in the Global City;33 from
my participation in the early stages of the Eurogang research;34 from re-
search in Chicago as part of neither War nor Peace, a ten-nation study of chil-
dren in organized armed violence;35 from membership in the Social Sci-
ence Research Councils workshop on youth in armed conict;36 from my
research for a New York CityChicago comparative study of violence for
the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation;37 from many fruitful hours
of collegial discussion with scholars from Brazil, Colombia, Haiti, South
Africa, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Ger-
many, among other countries, as well as with my students; and nally from
my own experience as an activist. I am also continuously learning through
research for my Web site, http://gangresearch.net. A World of Gangs is both
a product of my research contradicting previously trusted theories and a
search for how to better reach our endangered youth.
Nearly one hundred years ago, Robert Park, a journalist turned sociolo-
gist, looked out at Chicagos gangland and led social scientists in a sus-
tained eort to humanize the hobos, juvenile delinquents, and other socially
excluded residents of the slums. The Chicago school studies were aimed
to humanize, but they also explained why crime and violence occurred in
specic areas of the city. Park argued that while the people who lived in
slum areas were marginal to the citys workings, it was absolutely nec-
essary for the city to include them as a part of society. This book, follow-
ing in Parks footsteps, if not walking in his shoes, aims to understand gangs
in the global city as social actors whom we ignore or attempt to eradicate
only at our risk.
i
Globalizing Gangs
chapter 1
Ghetto, Favela, and Township:

The Worlds Gangs Live In
The township was desperately overcrowded; every square foot was occupied
either by a ramshackle house or a tin-roofed shack. . . . Life was cheap.
Gangstersknown as Tsotsis . . . were plentiful and prominent; in those
days they emulated American movie stars.
n e l s o n m a n d e l a , Long Walk to Freedom
I begin with a seldom-asked question: why do gangs in some cities come

and go, as in New York, London, or Buenos Aires, while in other cities,
such as Chicago, Cape Town, or Rio de Janeiro, they become permanent
xtures of the landscape? There have always been gangs or groups of armed
young men who have persisted over decadeseven centuries, like the Tri-
ads or Maa. But in this era of globalization such institutionalized gangs
may become more a norm than an anomaly.
While others, such as Mike Davis, have called attention to the disturb-
ing consequences of a planet of slums,1 less understood is the related
emergence, in these slums, of groups of armed young men. In many ways
the next few chapters can be read as a companion to Daviss article and
subsequent book Planet of Slums, emphasizing the ubiquitous reaction and
resistance of alienated, angry, and well-armed young men.
A main source for the present volume is the study neither War nor Peace,
in which my colleagues and I discuss gangs in ten dierent countries.2 One
of our most important ndings was that in each country the presence of
armed groups was an open invitation to successive cohorts of neighborhood
youth to nd in their local gangs a family, job, or identity, as well as thrills
3
4 ghetto, favela, and township
and excitement. The present chapter explores the concept of institutionali-

zation, describing how gangs begin and grow and why they endure despite
determined eorts of authorities to exterminate them.3 However, my start-
ing point for understanding persisting gangs is not a review of dierent
kinds of U.S. gangs.4 Rather, this brief chapter explores how urban con-
ditions produce a deep alienation that, in certain circumstances, leads to
institutionalized gangs.
Global Urbanization and Gangs

In the 1920s sociologists in Chicago initiated research into gangs as part of
a study of urbanization and industrialization. The rich empirical work of
Robert Park and his colleagues described how the immigration of rural peo-
ples into the urban maze created a profound revolution in the psychology
of the peasant.5 This revolution was seen as the result of social disorga-
nization, as traditional institutions lost power and the peasant became reso-
cialized into an industrial order. It also seduced some of the children of those
immigrants, as Frederic Thrasher documented, into street corner gangs.6
I revisit the Chicago school periodically throughout this book, but today
urbanization has accelerated beyond the imagination of the scholars of Hyde
Park. For the rst time the population of the world is a majority urban, and
this process is radically changing the face of Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
Urbanization, along with the miseries of poverty, has created classic con-
ditions in poor communities for the growth of what Thrasher in 1920s
Chicago called gangland. In the world today, according to the inuential
Challenge of the Slums report, nearly one billion people live in what the UN
denes as slums.7 Three-quarters of Latin Americas half billion people
now live in cities, and nearly one-third of them live in slum neighborhoods.
Of the three hundred million urban dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa, more
than 70 percent live in shantytowns or other dilapidated urban areas. In
Asia, more than a half billion people live in desperate urban conditions.
The West is not left out either. In the United States alone, twelve million
people live in what the UN denes as slums. People in the third world
are ocking to cities as rural opportunities disappear, only to nd equally
bleak prospects. By the year 2020, the UN estimates, half of the worlds
urban population will live in poverty.8 Urbanization, says Davis grimly,
has been radically decoupled from industrialization, even from develop-
ment per se.9 Many urban areas are transforming into megacities of more
ghetto, favela, and township 5
than twenty million people. By 2025 Asia alone could have ten or eleven
such cities. Mumbai, India, is projected in the next twenty years to have a
clearly unsustainable population of thirty-three million.10
While the worlds urban population is growing, so is its youth popula-
tion, with 42.2 percent of Africas population under the age of fteen, twice
the percentage in North America. Almost sixty million Nigerians are under
twenty-ve years of age.11 In both Asia and Latin America, nearly one-third
of the populace is under fteen.12 There are now one billion youth between
the ages of fteen and twenty-four.13 What age constitutes youth is prob-
lematic, but, as Charles Green says of the black diaspora in the United States,
Caribbean, and East Africa,
The various age groups are linked by a common appreciation of hip-hop

clothing and their wavering maturity level. They hang out together, belong
to the same gangs, are without marketable skills, and are very likely to have
fathered or mothered one child or more outside of marriage.14
Urbanization has had as far-reaching eects on youth in the third world

as it did on second-generation Polish youth in 1920s Chicago. Gangs have
appeared in all major Latin American cities, South Asia, and Oceania.15
Youth gangs, as a subset of Africas thirty-two million street children, have
Size of Urban Population

5 million and over since 1950
5 million and over since 2000
5 million and over since 2015 (projected)
Cities and megacities since 1950. Source: United Nations, World Urbanization
Prospects (revised edition, 1999).
also become a major issue in the worlds fastest urbanizing continent.16

Migration + cities + poverty + slums + discrimination + youth = gangs.
Then and now.
Polarization, Social Exclusion, and the

Retreat of the State
In the United States, criminology has used the term social disorganization
to describe the conditions for the growth of youth gangs. In the global world
of today, however, the parallel concept is retreat of the state.17 The notion
of social disorganization has some intuitive charm. The concept is that gangs
form out of unsupervised peer groups, which are unsupervised because the
formal institutions of societyschools, church, familybreak down. When
large-scale immigration from the countryside to cities takes place, the immi-
grants traditional institutions are shattered, and the new urban institutions
are not yet strong enough to replace them, especially for the acculturating
children. Thus the Chicago school described gangs as the temporary prod-
uct of the second generation, its members on their way up the ladder of
ethnic succession.18
But such industrial-era concepts, intertwined with a belief in the inevi-
tability of progress, fail to capture both the varied conditions today in the
third world as well as the stubborn, dismal conditions in African American
ghettos of the United States. The term social disorganization always had trou-
ble explaining the myriad organizational forms within slums, and the soci-
ological concept is clearly inadequate to describe, for example, the warlord
politics of failed states in Africa.19 Rather than a temporary phenomenon
during a period of modernization, poverty and slums in much of the world
have become an intractable reality, spawning despair and angry young men.
Manuel Castells presents a devastating picture of the polarization and
social exclusion of the Fourth World in todays society.20 Castells points
out that industry has collapsed in much of Africa since the 1970s, and con-
tinentwide imports actually declined from 1980 to 1995. Since 1980, income
inequality increased throughout most of the world, including the United
States, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico, as well as most of sub-Saharan Africa.
Inequality is highest in Latin America, while in South Asia it has decreased
to some degree.21
Indeed, as Zygmunt Bauman chillingly points out, the 358 richest bil-
lionaires in the world have the combined income of 45 percent of the worlds
population. If these 358 Midases decided to keep $5 million each as pocket

change and gave the rest away, they could double the annual income of half
of the worlds people. And, in that unlikely scenario, Bauman wryly adds,
pigs would y.22
Castells ties the spread of social exclusion and income polarization
to the neoliberal, free market policies of globalization and the retreat of
the state. This term is widely debated, since, for example, in sub-Saharan
Africa there has never been much of a modern state to retreat from. But
in essence, the concept includes both the process of economic adjustment
by states in the third world and policies aimed at dismantling the welfare
state in the United States and the West.
In other words, in todays world, as the market gains inuence, the state
retreats from providing social welfare. It cuts back the safety net for the
urban poor, and alternative policies of austerity, privatization, and mili-
tarization take hold, often mandated by the World Bank or the Interna-
tional Monetary Fund.23 The state, particularly in the third world, cannot
provide adequate employment, services, or security for vastly expanding
poor urban neighborhoods; it exists mainly to enable the market.24 Castells
provides the transition I am going to explore in the pages ahead: When
and where there is no regulation and control by legitimate forces of the state,
there will be ruthless control by the illegitimate forces of violent, private
groups. Unfettered markets are tantamount to wild societies.25 In some
cities, gangs have exercised ruthless control of areas of cities for decades.
I call that persistence institutionalization, borrowing from theories of
organization.
Institutionalization and Gangs

Major gangs in Chicago, Cape Town, and Rio de Janeiro have been around
for more than forty years. These gangs have all spread outside their origi-
nal neighborhoods and have a history and an identity that go far beyond
wild peer groups. In other words, such gangs have institutionalized.26
The concept of institutionalization in organizations derives from Amer-
ican sociology and the work of Philip Selznick. He examined how the
Tennessee Valley Authority adapted to changing political conditions and
continued to ourish well after its New Deal origins.27 Departing from
classic organizational theory, Selznick found that an institutions main goal
was not just to rationally accomplish a specic task, but also to nd the
means for survival.28
In elevating survival, or unplanned adaptive change, over the task at
hand, Selznick argues, institutions acquire an identity that is shaped by the
need to adapt to changing conditions. These include rivalry with other orga-
nizations as well as power struggles by group leaders. As organizations insti-
tutionalize, they develop rituals and ceremonies that distinguish them from
other similar organizations, and come up with an apocryphal organizational
history. An organization produces a formal or informal structure with rules
and role expectations, its members identify with the organization, and it
gathers support from at least some elements of the broader community.
For example, the well-respected Lutheran churches in the United States
distinguish themselves not only from Methodists and Catholics but also
from one another, and have variations in liturgy, requirements for ordina-
tion, dogma, and sect-specic rituals. When I was growing up, it was con-
sidered morally questionable by my relatives for my family to forsake the
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod for the upstart American Lutheran
Church.
That same religious fervor applies to joining a Chicago gang. A college
student described his initiation as a teenager being blessed into the Black
Gangster Disciples, making clear the power of ritual:
After a long string of questions, including my concerns about the initiation

process, I agreed. It felt right, like magic. . . . The rst meeting I attended was
held during the evening hours in the park across from our high school. . . .
A circle was formed and all brothers crossed their arms right over left. I was
instructed to follow. We opened up the meeting with a GD prayer and creed,
which struck me as being amazingly poetic. I was informed that no disre-
specting was to occur during the meeting. Profanity was not tolerated and
mouth shots were to be allotted to the rule breakers. I was instructed to stand
in the center of the circle as Darren approached me. He was the brother with
the most rank at the time. I was ready for anything and kept my guard up
just in case any unwanted gestures were made. Darren asked me to uncross
my arms and grumbled prayers with a straight face as signicant emblems
were drawn across my chest with his index and middle nger, as would a
priest. Afterward he shook my hand and smiled and said Youre Folks.
These were my brothers now and I shook their hands lovingly.29
Institutions, Selznick found, are not in essence bricks and mortar, but
systems of belief that provide the individual with an ordered approach to
his day-to-day problems, a way of responding to the world consistently yet
involuntarily.30 Selznick here is drawing on an earlier tradition derived from
mile Durkheims and Max Webers studies of symbolic systems of author-
ity.31 What is important for the present study is that institutions create
rationalized myths about their structure and activities that have less to
do with accomplishing set goals than with maintaining and preserving the
organization.32 Gangs protect the hood in the same way as schools edu-
catetypically more myth than reality. Myth-making, Jack Katz and
Curtis Jackson-Jacobs argue, is one of the central activities of males in-
volved with gangs.33
Applying the concept of institutionalization to gangs, we can begin to
understand why some gangs persist for decades despite changes in leader-
ship and police repression. Institutionalized gangs are not merely an ex-
pendable tool . . . of dynamic leaders or sustained only by prots from
drug sales. These gangs are living organisms instilling in their members,
as well as the community, a belief in the organization itself.34 This belief
persists despite organizational performance,35 since it is essentially cultural,
not rational, and handed down as tradition through generations.
This is why police are unable to destroy institutionalized gangs, such as
Chicagos Black Gangster Disciples, despite jailing the entire leadership of
the gang, cutting o its head, then naively expecting the body to die.36
Q. If you cut o the head of the gang, will the body die?
A. Theres more than one head in everything. There aint no drug spot that
I know of thats only one person and thats the main person. You need more
than one person. Just because of a situation like that. What if he gets caught,
goes to jail, you cant do that. No, you need at leasttwo is good, but three
is better. . . . They take the man down. Its still going on. The man, he just
drops, he says okay, were going to miss him, but we still must go on. The
show must go on. Its like the circus. The show must go on.37
Institutionalization means that the gangs show goes on despite changes

in leadership (killed, incarcerated, or matured out); it has organization
complex enough to sustain multiple roles of its members (including roles
for women and children); it can adapt to changing environments (police
repression or civil war); it fullls some needs of its community (econom-

ics, security, services); and it organizes a distinct outlook of its members
(symbols, rituals, traditions, sometimes called a subculture).38
In ghettos, barrios, and favelas around the world, gangs are thriving.
While most are wild adolescent peer groups that incessantly come and go,
in some circumstances they do not go away but institutionalize and become
major players in the life of their community and city. These gangs are
nearly invulnerable to repression. To more thoroughly understand this con-
cept and in what kinds of conditions such gang organisms best grow, the
next chapter compares the history of long-lasting gangs in Chicago, Cape
Town, and Rio de Janeiro.
chapter 2
Street Institutions:
Why Some Gangs Wont Go Away
This is madness, Aurelito, he exclaimed.

Not madness, Aurelliano said. War.
g a b r i e l g a r c a m r q u e z , One Hundred Years of Solitude
Gangs in Chicago, Cape Town, and Rio de Janeiro have been operating for
decades. This chapter seeks to understand how and why such gangs persist.
The history of institutionalized gangs in these three cities, like that of
any organization, is highly mythologized. In Chicago, gang members mem-
orize the literature, laws, and prayers of their gang, and learn about past
warriors and leaders, often with titles such as kings or lords.1 Such his-
tories are memorized by gang members in prison and handed down from
veteran Original Gangsters (OGs) to eager young recruits. The Black
Gangster Disciples have even put their history into book form.2 In Rio de
Janeiro, children learn to idolize drug faction leaders as heroes who have
deed the state.3 Once they are members of the gang, Andre Standing
reports about the Americans gang in Cape Town, youngsters are taught
the gangs history and rules, are encouraged to have the gangs tattoos and
adopt clothing styles unique to the gang.4
Myths aside, the origins of gangs in all three cities can be found in the
social movements of the 1960s, a time that plays an important role in my
overall narrative. In both Chicago and Rio de Janeiro, the crushing of social
movements by the state resulted in the incarceration of political leaders and
gang members alike. But while the 1960s revolutionary movements were
smashed in Chicago and Rio, the gangs in both cities got stronger.
11
12 street institutions
During the same time in Cape Town, the anti-apartheid movement

alarmed the South African government, which initiated a major displace-
ment of the African and coloured population for security reasons. In the
displaced communities of Cape Town, coloured gangs, like Rashied and
Rashaad Staggies Hard Living Kids, would arise in the 1960s and not go
away, unlike more transient black African youth gangs in Johannesburg
and elsewhere.
Institutionalized Gangs in Chicago, Cape Town,

and Rio de Janeiro
Prison
While Chicago school theory stresses the centrality of neighborhood to the
growth of gangs, in todays world the prison also plays a crucial role in both
the origins and continuing activities of gangs. The spaces of the prison and
the ghetto coincide, as Loc Wacquant argues.5 In eight of the ten cities in the
neither War nor Peace study, street gangs had strong links to prison gangs.6
In Chicago, Mayor Richard J. Daley declared war on gangs in 1969
and followed a policy of suppressing both gangs and revolutionary groups
like the Black Panther Party. The major Chicago supergangs, the Black
Gangster Disciples and Black Disciples, the Blackstone Rangers, the Con-
servative Vice Lords, the Latin Kings and Maniac Latin Disciples, among
others, grew stronger in prison and saw themselves as political prisoners,
while the more political Black Panthers and Young Lords fell apart.7
Many of Chicagos supergangs had also formed behind bars, not in neigh-
borhoods. For example, the Conservative Vice Lords formed rst in the
St. Charles Illinois Youth Center, not Lawndale.8 At its origins, the Black-
stone Rangers, according to its adviser, John Fry, more resembled a pris-
oners organization than it did a gang or a community organization, and
the Stones too began in St. Charles.9 Gang leaders in Chicago today are
nearly all incarcerated, but most still maintain control of key gang func-
tions.10 For example, one leader of the Latin Counts told me that for him
to begin a new section in Bridgeport, he had to go to a federal prison to
obtain permission from their incarcerated chief. Rather than prison being
a place to send gang members in an attempt to break up the gang, gangs
have adapted and have used prison to advance their interests.11
In Rio de Janeiro, the military dictatorship deliberately locked up the
street institutions 13
gangs and revolutionaries together to discredit the political activists, but

found the same results as in Chicago. Bank robbers, like Rogrio Lengru-
ber (Bagulho), learned methods of organization from the incarcerated
urban guerrillas and adopted an organizational nameComando Vermelho
(Red Command)that suggests revolutionary inuence.12 On the streets,
the CV is often called the movement, as if it were a leftist group.
By the late 1970s, the new Rio prison-based gangs had transformed older
marijuana networks into cocaine operations with local hierarchical con-
trols and access to ample rearms. Replicated almost identically in dif-
ferent favela territories, local organization was based on military needs for
defense and invasion and simple division of labour for the bagging and sales
of drugs.13
Luke Dowdney goes on: The Comando Vermelhos most powerful donos
(leaders) are currently in prison from where they continue to control their
territories via cellular phones and visiting colleagues. In 2002, on the orders
of gang leaders in prison, all of Rio de Janeiros commercial and manufac-
turing concerns, schools, and buses were shut down for the day in a show
of gang power.14
Irvin Kinnes nds that in Cape Town in the 1970s prison gangs that tra-
ditionally operated inside prisons started to recruit outside members, espe-
cially those who belonged to street gangs. In turn, the wealth of the drug
economy allowed some street gang members to buy their way into the
more prominent, and feared, prison numbers gangs.15 Street gangs and
prison gangs became completely intertwined in Cape Town.
In all three countries, the incarceration of gang leaders after the repres-
sion of social movements coincided with a spectacular increase in the num-
ber and sophistication of gangs.16
Cocaine and Defensible Spaces

A major reason why gangs in all three cities have adapted and grown was
an unintended consequence of the emergence of the drug trade, particularly
cocaine.17 In Chicago, like elsewhere in the United States, cocaine trans-
formed gangs into economic enterprises, xated on real and hoped-for
prots. Chicago was a distribution center for the U.S. Midwest, and the
gangs divided up the large Chicago market. In the 1960s the new black
and Latino street gangs had replaced the Outt as the main distributors of
drugs for their communities and were well positioned for a central role in
drug distribution.18
Both Cape Town and Rio de Janeiro had large domestic markets, con-
trolled by the gangs, but both were also important transit points for drugs
headed outside their respective continents.19 Jackie Lonte, leader of the
Americans gang, was credited with introducing crack to Cape Town after
a 1970s trip to Brazil.20 Fernandinho Beira-Mar (Seaside Freddy), a Rio
drug lord, was captured hiding in the Colombian jungles with the left-wing
guerilla group Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia in what police
called a guns for drugs pipeline.21
The importance of Rio de Janeiro as the major transit point of Colom-
bian cocaine, rather than Buenos Aires, played a key role in providing Rios
gangs with the wealth necessary to maintain their organizations, safely pro-
tected in the defensible spaces of the favelas. By comparison, gangs in
Buenos Aires have not persisted for generations or reached the organiza-
tional level of their Rio counterparts 1,200 miles to the north. As a port,
Cape Town, not Johannesburg, is the natural transit point for drugs from
South Africa, as well as from Latin America, and became the home for
South Africas institutionalized gangs.
Another reason why gangs in Chicago, Cape Town, and Rio de Janeiro
institutionalized, and gangs in other cities did not, was their ability to sell
drugs safely within defensible spaces.22 This concept was initially devised
to discuss ways to prevent crime, but a close reading of Oscar Newmans
work can show its relevance for criminal organization.
When I rst ew into Rio de Janeiro as part of the neither War nor Peace
study, I took a cab from the airport, and my rst glance at the favelas ll-
ing the mountainside hit me with dj vu. Out loud to my befuddled
Portuguese-speaking cabdriver, I said, My God. Its Robert Taylor Homes
writ large. Housing projects and favelas both provided defensible spaces
for gangs to institutionalize, safe from enemies and police.
Rios favelas, many of them built on the side of the mountains surround-
ing the citys exotic beaches and areas where the rich live, provide a true
defensible space from police and rival factions. Rapid urbanization in the
1980s led to overcrowding and a vast expansion and criminalization of the
informal economy.23 The drug factions, Dowdney says, use the favelas as
defensible and strategic sales points within the city.24 Police nd it nearly
impossible to locate suspects in Rios dense living quarters, with narrow
alleys and hostile population, just as gang members easily hid from police
in Chicagos public housing towers. The favelas are dierent in this way
from the spread-out villas miserias in suburban Buenos Aires.25
During an afternoon while I was in a Rio favela, a police invasion
occurred, but the residents did not appear to be unduly concerned. Child
lookouts shot o recrackers to warn residents of the impending invasion.
Gunshots indicated where the police were entering, and by the time the
police arrived anyone they were searching for was long gone or safely hid-
den. Perhaps because this time the police were not serious in their excur-
sion, they did not come in with armored cars and helicopters, guns blazing,
as they often do.26 Life in the favela went routinely on, before, during, and
after the police invaded. The power of drug tracking, said one non-
aliated favela youth, is greater than the governments power.27
Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh points out that within Chicagos black ghetto,
drug dealing in housing projects like Robert Taylor Homes was more pri-
vate and not usually subject to police action.28 The gangs saw the projects
as an easily milked cash cow. As one Black Gangster Disciple told me in
military terminology, Basically you control the area. If you controlled the
perimeter, you controlled the projects.29 Venkateshs history of Robert Tay-
lor Homes provides an unforgettable ethnographic description of the defen-
sible nature of housing projects that were built to contain Chicagos poor
black population, rather than allow spatial mobility.30 This had the unex-
pected result of creating public housing where, as the housing scholar Susan
Popkin says, the gangs had more power than the police.31 Dense and
crowded conditions, not only in public housing but within Chicagos poor
black neighborhoods, have been a dening characteristic of that citys ghetto
for nearly a century.32
In Cape Town, the Area Removals Act in the 1960s relocated tens of
thousands of coloured and African peoples into neighborhoods segregated
from white areas by law, highways, and violence, much like the history of
segregation in Chicago.33 White control was relaxed after the 1960s relo-
cation and again in 1994 when the African National Congress (ANC) took
power and security services became disorganized. Cape Towns gangs, not
the police, according to Ted Leggett, have been controlling the same turf
for generations.34 Defensible spaces appear to be important conditions for
the institutionalization of gangs.35
Racism and Ethnic Identity

In all three cities racism and ethnic identity join economic rationality, a his-
tory rooted in social movements and prison, and defensible spaces as cru-
cial factors in why gangs institutionalized in these cities and not others. In
Chicago, the black and Latino gangs formed during the 1960s social move-
ments adopted nationalist attitudes and were involved, in one way or an-
other, with social movement politics.36 The laws and prayers of all the major
African American gangs are lled with nationalist rhetoric and Muslim ref-
erences. Chicagos People and Folks alliances, now largely abandoned, were
adaptations that lasted decades and aimed at stabilizing dangerous intra-
ethnic rivalries.
Gangs in New York were just as prominent as Chicagos in the 1960s, but
faded in the 1970s, unlike Chicagos resurgent supergangs. New Yorks mayor
in the urban crisis era, John Lindsay, adopted a policy of outreach to the
gangs and even went out on the streets during the 1968 riots. At the same
time that gangs like the Black Spades were dying out, hip-hop was delib-
erately introduced by former gang members into New York neighborhoods
to combat gang violence. By contrast, in Chicago, the gangs stayed as the
dominant neighborhood forces.
Mayor Lindsays policies contrasted sharply with Chicago mayor Daleys
shoot to kill orders after Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s assassination, and
Daleys subsequent war on gangs. Rather than fade away, like their New
York cousins, Chicagos gangs all got stronger. By the 1980s the introduc-
tion of cocaine allowed now well-established Chicago gangs to reorganize
as ethnic enterprises,37 transforming turf into markets. However, in New
York City, since the old gangs were defunct, new drug crews, not long-
standing gangs, dominated the crack market. These gangs, with supercial
ties to neighborhoods, were easily dismantled by intense police repression,
while Chicago gangs could not be crushed.38
In Rio de Janeiro, the favelas are made up overwhelmingly of Afro-
Brazilian and Pardo, or mixed-race people, unlike the villas miserias in
more ethnically homogenous Buenos Aires.39 While Brazil is a supposedly
non-racial society,40 dark-skinned Brazilians have fewer opportunities, are
politically underrepresented,41 are disproportionately victims of violence,42
and, according to the International Labor Organization, are heavily con-
centrated in the informal and illegal labor markets. Afro-Brazilian identity
has a strong cultural presence within the favelas that have produced some
of Brazils most vibrant music.43
Cape Town Gangs Racial Identity Crisis

Cape Towns history of gangs, drugs, and ethnic identity provides a clear
example of how these combined factors have contributed to gang institu-
tionalization. In South Africa, it is mainly coloured, not black African gangs,
that have institutionalized.44 In Cape Town, the Hard Livings, Americans,
Sexboy, and other gangs were founded after the relocation of the coloured
and African communities in the 1960s into the Cape Flats. The newly
formed gangs were the descendants of earlier skollies, or street corner gangs.
These newer gangs took advantage of the introduction of cocaine as a prot-
able commodity in the early 1970s and added this new, lucrative product
to dagga (marijuana) and Mandrax sales.45 The gangs coexisted with the
countrys militant anti-apartheid movement, often giving support but also
maintaining a suspicious distance.
During the apartheid state, coloured people and members of Cape Town
gangs were both discriminated against and favored over black Africans, and
both hopeful and fearful of the black-led movement. As the liberation strug-
gle grew in intensity, the Americans gang, it was revealed in the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission (TRC) hearings, collaborated with South Afri-
can intelligence services and even assassinated anti-apartheid activists.46
Black gangs in Soweto, argued Clive Glaser, declined as the comrades
and other militant groups of black African youth gained in prominence.47
During the 1994 elections that ended the ancien rgime, the gangs
physically attacked ANC candidates, including Nelson Mandela.48 After
the ANC victory, conditions changed again. Gang violence persisted as the
economy in the Western Cape deteriorated. The vigilante group People
against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD) executed thirty gang leaders in
1998 alone,49 including the Hard Livings leader Rashaad Staggie, who was
pulled from his home, shot, and set alight.50 The gangs, which had already
united in a cartel called the Firm aimed at regulating drug tracking,
responded by building a coalition of gangs and community groups, the
Community Outreach Forum (Core). They called on the ANC to repay
them for what they claimed was their earlier political and nancial sup-
port. The ANC, however, in response banned gangs in the Prevention of
Organized Crime Act (POCA), a law based on Californias antigang Street
Terrorism Enforcement and Protection Act (STEP). No surprisethe gangs

did not go away.
The coloured community has long experienced unease with its racial her-
itage. If you want to know why we coloured have gangs, a local observer
told Standing, the problem is we coloured wish we were white. . . . we
dont know who we are or where we came from.51 Or wished they were
black, given the strong, racialized inuence of rap music in Cape Town.52
The disorientation under apartheid continued under new conditions in
the ANC-led South Africa. Feelings ran high in coloured communities that
conditions were better under apartheid. De bruinmense, or the coloured,
Bill Dixon and Lisa-Marie Johns conclude, are a race apart and deeply
disturbed about their role in the new South Africa.53 The Western Cape is
still South Africas most violent area, with rates of homicide highest for
coloured communities.
What is signicant in the Cape Town experience, as well as in the equally
complex histories of Chicago and Rio de Janeiro gangs, is that changing
conditions have not resulted in the demise of the gangs. Racism, inequality,
the drug economy, defensible spaces, and prison are all factors that com-
bined to form an ethnic identity that helped young men create a gang orga-
nization that could adapt to a changing environment and last for decades
despite repression and loss of leaders.
Are Institutionalized Gangs Organized Crime?

American law enforcement today often labels gangs organized crime, con-
trasting minority gangs to earlier (white ethnic) youth groups, in the belief
that todays gangs have a tightly organized, hierarchical structure.54 Gangs
in Chicago and Los Angeles, including the much-demonized Mara Salva-
trucha, are sometimes seen in conspiratorial terms as centrally organized
and linked in a broad chain of drug distribution and terror.
What lies behind this paranoia is the belief that gangs, particularly the
institutionalized ones I have been describing, are organized into pyramid-
like bureaucracies, with lieutenants and foot soldiers carrying out the
orders of a diabolical chief, as if gangs were a distorted reection of a police
department. While it may be human nature to see in the other a negative
reection of what is familiar, such simple-minded ideas are contradicted
by much research as well as the last fty years of organizational theory.
Are institutionalized gangs organized crime? If by this it is meant do

persisting gangs support and enrich themselves by the underground econ-
omy, the answer is yes, almost by denition. However, if what is meant
is that gangs like the Latin Kings, Comando Vermelho, or Hard Livings
are godfather-run, centralized, ecient crime syndicates, then the answer
is noor at least almost never, and if they ever are, then not for long.
The neither War nor Peace study found that armed groups varied struc-
turally from the militarized command structure of Rios drug factions to
a corporate structure in Chicagos gangs to the informal at structure
of Cape Towns Hard Livings.55 But what does this mean?
Comando Vermelho, the most organized of the gangs, Dowdney reports,
can be seen as a network of aliated independent actors rather than a
strictly hierarchical organization with a single head gure, a style of orga-
nization aptly described by the Brazilian anthropologist Alba Zaluar as hor-
izontal reciprocity networks.56 In fact, from 1986 onwards, the Comando
Vermelho began to fragment internally and disputes for territorial control
between donas became commonplace and increasingly violent.57 In Cape
Town, rather than a General Motorslike corporation, a gang leader de-
scribed the operation as a big chain, you know, like 7-11 franchises.58
This gang member is more attuned to organizational realities than most
law enforcement ocials. Institutionalized gangs might best be described
as networks or loosely coupled systems, a term Karl Weick coined to
describe how schools respond to central direction but also maintain local
integrity.59 Both concepts are consistent with the organization of many
decentralized businesses today and are a better t for drug-selling institu-
tionalized gangs than the rigid hierarchies of industrial-era behemoths like
General Motors.60
In fact, the notion of gangs as networks ts Chicago gangs well, with
each citywide supergang in reality a loose alliance of neighborhood branches,
or franchises.61 While leaders can indeed call hits from prison and are
typically major gures in the drug game, their inuence over the day-to-day
activities of their branches is often minimal and almost always exaggerated.
While all Chicago gangs have a formal structure,62 the absolute author-
ity of the leader may be more of a useful myth. Such fairy tales sometimes
come in handy for gang members presenting a fearsome image of the e-
ciency of their gang to outsiders, like police or researchers. For example, I
was told that Chicagos Milwaukee Kings (a dierent gang than the Latin
Kings) has an established hierarchy and chain of command, age-graded
sections, a set of laws formalized into a constitution written in 1980, a juridi-
cal board, nance board, and even a historian! Still, the gang has been led
for several decades by members of the same family and has been forced
from its home turf by gentrication. While the gangs structure appears
bureaucratic, it is in essence family-based, with decisions made informally
among kin.63 This gang closely resembles the quasi-institutionalized East
Los Angeles gangs described by Joan Moore.64
In the last years, as in Rio de Janeiro, Chicagos gangs have fragmented,
and renegade factions have split o from the main gangs.
R. . . . We aint . . . too together. . . . You know why that happens, though,

because niggers, you know what Im sayin, get their head pumps up. Nigga
dont wanna honor no violations no more. Nigga dont wanna pay dues. They
dont wanna hang out. So renegades come from that. Nigga wanna do what
he wanna do. Outlaw (say) fuck it. I dont gotta ride with yall. I do what
I wanna do. Im out for myself. I aint be goin to no meetings no more, I aint
be payin no dues.65
Law enforcement ocials have periodically crowed about their success

in breaking up gangs in Chicago, Cape Town, and Rio de Janeiro. How-
ever, the fracturing of gangs into more decentralized segments is not nec-
essarily a sign that repression works or notice that the demise of the
gangs is imminent.66 In Cape Town, the intense pressure put on the gangs
by PAGAD and then their banning by the ANC resulted in further gang
decentralization, which was seen by some law enforcement observers not
as a good thing but as a necessary strategy by the gangs to allow them-
selves to survive. While it could be that the fracturing of gangs in all three
cities is a sign of decline, it also might be a sign of health, of still-inuential
institutions surviving another unplanned adaptive change. Signicantly,
as I write in 2006, gangs in all three cities show no signs of going away.
The Importance of Institutionalized Gangs

So why is the institutionalization of gangs in a few cities important? The
reader cannot forget that most gangs do not institutionalize but are wild
groups of kids that come and go as the peer group ages. To understand why
some gangs institutionalize, we need to return to the last chapter. Global-
ization is urbanizing the earths population, polarizing rich and poor, and
creating vast spaces of social exclusion or slums within cities. By 2020, the
UN predicts that half of the worlds urban population will live in poverty.
As inequality is increasing and some areas of cities, regions, and entire
continents are marginalized, immigration increases, and ethnic conicts
have accelerated. Minority ethnic, racial, or religious groups are often the
most-neglected populations by third world and Western states alike. Large
areas within megacities have admittedly become unmanageable, and armed
groups are stepping in to manage the unmanageable spaces.
The good news is that conditions for institutionalization do not presently
exist in all cities, as I have shown. Local policies matter. On the other
hand, in more and more of the worlds urban areas, conditions are ripening
for the institutionalization of gangs or other armed groups. Once founded,
these groups will not easily go away, as organizational preservation be-
comes the top priority and cultural traditions take hold. An increasingly
frustrated and demoralized population will reluctantly turn to armed non-
state actors who can provide security of a sort, a sense of identity, perhaps
the sole local supply of jobs, and rudimentary services that the state can-
not or will not oer.67
Cheryl Maxson and Malcolm Klein, supporting the paradigmatic claims
of the Los Angeles school of urban studies, argue that gangs in Los Ange-
les, not Chicago, are todays model for gangs elsewhere.68 They address the
wrong research question. What is most important are not the dierences
between LA and Chicago but more their similaritiesin both of these U.S.
cities, local conditions have uniquely produced institutionalized gangs.
In LA and Chicago gangs are admittedly quite dierent from the play
groups of nineteenth- and twentieth-century U.S. slums, but gangs in both
cities are uncannily similar to their cousins in Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town,
Kingston, Medelln, Mumbai, and Karachi. U.S. criminologists need to
get out of their Eurocentric world and look to Africa, Asia, and Latin Amer-
ica for more meaningful comparisons.69 It is the desperate urban conditions
in the fourth world, including U.S. cities, that are more likely to produce
institutionalized gangs today. What is cause for alarm is that the processes
of institutionalization that produced gangs in LA and Chicago have also
been at work in many U.S. cities in the last few decades, as well as in Europe
and the third world. Moreover, the gangs of Chicago, Cape Town, or Rio
de Janeiro are also similar to other kinds of armed groups. In fact, gangs
can often quickly morph into an ethnic militia, a fundamentalist paramil-
itary group, or a drug cartel.
chapter 3
The Problem with Denitions:

The Questionable Uniqueness of Gangs
We didnt call ourselves gangs. We called ourselves clubs or clicas.

l u i s r o d r i g u e z , Always Running
How does one make sense of this description of gangs in Kano, Nigeria?
Ayan daba (are) urban gangs who, through hunting and warrior traditions,
have historical links to anti-colonial Islamic religious politics. These youths,
highly skilled in the uses of weaponry and magic, have ambiguous roles in
Muslim communities, where they have been employed by religious leaders
to strong-arm public opinion. Ayan daba are considered revolutionaries
who have Muslim ideologies and traditions. . . . (they sometimes) dress lav-
ishly in a Muslim-style riga (dress), smoking a joint reminiscent of Cheech
(n Chong) slap a alamajiri (Quranic student) to the ground for forgetting
to say his prayers. . . . (They also) have adopted a style of dress they associate
with West Side niggers, or Los Angelesbased rappers. In their sun glasses,
chains, and baggy jeans, ayan daba show a broad interest in youth cultures
around the world. . . . ayan daba serve as the vanguard for local political and
religious leaders, earning the major part of their income from politically
motivated thuggery.1
How do we make sense of gang members like these who say their heroes
include Saddam Hussein, Osama bin Laden, Tupac Shakur, Bob Marley,
and Nelson Mandela? Conerly Caseys vivid description of Kano gangs
points out a most important feature of the global era: the lines of distinction
23
24 the problem with definitions
between dierent kinds of groups of armed young men are just not so clear
anymore. In fact, it is the same set of conditions I detailed in the last chap-
tersocial exclusion, racism, and a delegitimized, weakened statethat
produces angry young men who feed the worldwide networks of gangs,
drug cartels, and death squads; religious, ethnic, and political militias; and
revolutionary guerrillas, as well as the ranks of police and the military.
Then there are the terrorists.
Al Queda, Jack Goldstone goes so far as to say in a National Research
Council essay, is like gangs in U.S. central cities or social protest move-
ments throughout the world.2 This is not an outlandish claim, nor does it
echo hysterical government charges that gangs = terrorists. Goldstone is
aware that it is fourth world conditions that produce angry young men and
their rebellious identities and organizations. The specic content of those
historical conditions determine what kind of armed group is likely to form.
Most criminologists share Malcolm Kleins view that street gangs are,
by and large, qualitatively dierent from other youth groups.3 Herbert
Covey has adopted this approach in his survey Street Gangs throughout the
World and attempts to isolate, reify, and universalize what he calls the true
street gang.4 Scott Decker and Frank Weermans European Street Gangs
also explicitly applies a Klein-like denition.5 For Klein and Covey, gangs
can be dened and categorized as various kinds of crime problems or
delinquent peer groups that have distinct and unique characteristics.
But the gangs in Kano may cause some readers to doubt conventional
criminological wisdom. In fact, while the twenty-rst-century process of
gang formation may sometimes look the same as it might have on street
corners eighty years ago, it can also look radically dierent. To make sense
of this I briey survey below the dierent kinds of conditions that spawn
gangs around the world, particularly how gangs respond to social control
measuresor the lack of themby the state.
Globalization and the State

The rst gangs studied by sociologists in 1920s Chicago were rebellious,
youthful by-products of immigration, urbanization, and industrialization.
Park and his colleagues were imbued by a progressive spirit that saw the
potential of the state for ameliorating conditions of poverty and treating
delinquency, as well as replacing the broken traditions of the old world with
a cosmopolitan civility.6 In the industrial era, Alain Touraine argues, the
the problem with definitions 25
belief in progress and civilization was fed by the spirit of class struggle in
the West and by the hopes of national liberation in the third world.7 The
strength and very existence of these social movements were characterized by
the vision of a soon-to-come better daywhether that meant prosperity
under the welfare state, socialism, or an end to racial, ethnic, or religious
oppression. Such sentiments can be seen in this passage from Richard
Wrights Native Son, which anticipates Frantz Fanon:
What I killed for mustve been good! Biggers voice was full of frenzied
anguish. It must have been good! When a man kills, its for something. . . .
I didnt know I was really alive in the world until I felt things hard enough
to kill for em. . . . I feel alright when I look at it that way.8
To understand how perspectives have changed, compare Biggers tor-

tured hope with the cold, quasi-existentialist lyrics of todays West Coast
gangsta rap group Cypress Hill: Here is something you cant understand
How I could just kill a man.9 There is no passion or ideals. The hope of
a better world has disappeared. All that is left is the sober, nihilistic reality
of a violent ghetto with no exit.10 As one older Chicago gang member sadly
told me, Gangs today are dierent than back in the day. They dont mean
anything anymore.
Holding a full cultural critique for a later chapter, I focus here on opti-
mism as one consequence of the modern project, whether in its liberal,
nationalist, or Marxist form. This included a positive and hopeful view of
the capacity of political action for alleviating the misery of the masses.11
Events over the past century, however, have provided evidence of the inca-
pacity of both liberal and socialist programs to signicantly reduce human
suering.
The loss of faith in the state can be understood by looking at Susan
Stranges book The Retreat of the State. Her central point is that a variety
of actors other than states now exercise authority and control outcomes that
previously were the domain of the state. While states were once the master
of markets, she argues, now it is the markets which . . . are the masters
over the governments of states.12 Her examples range from the power of
telecommunication rms to control the substance of information to the big
six accounting rms and their management of mergers and acquisitions
that help transnational corporations operate outside national law. She also
includes a chapter on the powerful inuence of maas and drug cartels who
prot greatly by corruption in a global criminal economy wholly outside
the laws of states. As Arundhati Roy explains:
The thing to understand is that modern democracy is safely premised on an
almost religious acceptance of the nation state. But corporate globalization
is not. Liquid capital is not. So, even though capital needs the coercive pow-
ers of the nation state to put down revolts in the servants quarters, this set
up ensures that no individual nation can oppose corporate globalization on
its own.13
By the end of the 1990s, the IMF was imposing its neoclassical structural
adjustment formula of cutting social benets in more than eighty countries.
When states refused to toe the line, like Kenya or Peru in the late 1980s,
they were punished and, as in both examples, collapsed economically while
informal and underground economies expanded.14 Half of all U.S. foreign
aid for third world countries is now given through nongovernmental orga-
nizations (NGOs) rather than the state.15
The demise of the state may be premature, however. The state does not
disappear, Manuel Castells adds. It is simply downsized in the Informa-
tion era.16 Further, the counterpressures on the state are not just global,
since below the state there are communities, tribes, localities, cults, and
gangs.17 Steve Reyna explains that globalization has created monsters in
the form of autarkic armed groups ghting to destabilize African and other
third world states.18 As Mike Davis says,
Even within a single city, slum populations can support a bewildering variety
of responses to structural neglect and deprivation, ranging from charismatic
churches and prophetic clubs to ethnic militias, street gangs, neoliberal
NGOs, and revolutionary social movements.19
What we can learn from a quick glance at the four corners of the globe
is that gangs and other kinds of armed nonstate actors are a normal pres-
ence. The loss of faith in the state has been replaced by faith in more local,
tangible bodies and, as Castells demonstrates, by the power of identity.
Warlords, Drug Lords, Triads, and Gangs

In the United States, Europe, South Asia, Latin America, and Africa, the
complex conditions we lump together under the term globalization give rise
to or support the prevalence of a bewildering lineup of gangs and other

similar armed groups.
Warlords
The retreat of the state can hardly be used to describe sub-Saharan Africa,
since many states have never been strong to begin with. Colonialism carved
boundaries for countries that paid little attention to what Harvey Zor-
baugh, in a dierent context, would call natural areas.20 Independence
produced states and rulers that were propped up by some combination of
foreign investment, military aid, and corruption. The end of the cold war
produced a sharp cutback in U.S. and Western aid that devastated the states
that had depended on the free ow of anti-Soviet or anti-American aid.
Jean-Franois Bayart terms the situation in sub-Saharan Africa as the
criminalization of the state, or the segmentation of the state into net-
works that include illicit trade and corruption. The situation is so grave
that Steve Sampson seriously suggests that we should conceive of the state
as lling gaps where the informal sector does not operate.21
William Reno calls this the shadow state, dominated by warlordsa
state that is not so much weak as it is a crazy quilt of armed groups.
Bayart claims these warlords and their minions are thoroughly rooted in
the realities of African life,22 meaning the domination of political life by
personal and tribal networks that survive through the sale of drugs, arms,
and tracking in people.23 Basil Davidson calls this a kind of Tammany
Hallstyle patronage, dependent on personal loyalty, family, and similar
networks of local interest.24 Politics, economics, and crime go together
like, well . . . like vampires and blood:
Signicantly for a possible future warlord politics, these agents of political

violence transmute into networks of criminal violence and agents of enter-
prising local strongmen. . . . in several instances gangs took over neighbor-
hoods and businesses.25
Drug Lords
The African situation diers from Latin American countries. As in Africa,
there are regions of cities and countries, such as the favelas of Rio de Janeiro
or the cocaine-producing areas of Peru, that are outside the states control.
Latin American states, however, have a longer history, marked by periods
of repression, military dictatorship, and civil war, as well as by a struggle

of all political tendencies to adjust to U.S. neoliberal policies.26 The end of
the cold war did not mean a sharp cutback in military and economic aid,
which instead increased to push Washingtons war on drugs.27
The central role of cocaine in the global criminal economy, with its prime
growing areas in Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, has transformed the politics
of the entire region.28 Left-wing guerrillas in Colombia and Peru, as well
as right-wing militias, have struck up relationships with the Medelln and
Cali cartels.29 In Mexico, the drug cartels, which by the late 1990s domi-
nated the cocaine trade, prospered mainly because of ocial corruption as
well as their willingness to use violence.30
There is little faith in the ability of governments to produce change, and
death squads of all sorts exercise a terrorizing power. There is mounting
anger at the inability of the criminal justice system to solve the problem
of violence. Paul Chevigny explains that this fear and anger provides an
opportunity for states to mix together an explosive brew of state power and
vigilantism.31
Social change is more rhetoric than reality for those stuck in urban bar-
rios and favelas. For example, I was in Rio de Janeiro in 2003 as part of the
planning group for the neither War nor Peace study. We were meeting soon
after the election of Luiz Igncio Lula de Silva, the progressive Workers
Party president. Lula was seen by many Brazilians as a savior and viewed
at rst by the United States and the World Bank with alarm. After three
or four days in Rio and its favelas, and dozens of hours of conversations, I
had not heard anyone even mention the name Lula. I nally asked why,
and the cold responses all were a variant of: What Lula does in Braslia
has little eect in our favelas. . . . After he gets done paying the foreign
debt and buying o the military from a coup, there wont be anything for
us. . . . Things are the same in the favela no matter who is in power. Lulas
election meant no change for the operations of the drug factions.
Triads and Tigers

In South Asia, a region where overall inequality is decreasing, the devel-
opmental state is both strong and legitimate, but also has long coexisted
with a variety of nonstate armed groups.32 While thriving states like China
and Japan have relatively homogenous populations, they also coexist with
still-vibrant Triads and the Yakuza.33 Other countries like India and Pakistan
are deeply divided by religion and ethnicity, with each religious group hav-
ing its own militias.34
The Golden Triangle has long been the worlds leading source of
heroin and has played a similar role in Southeast Asia as cocaine later did
in Latin America. The story of the exporting of heroin is lled with both
the violence of armed groups and the connivance of the French and Amer-
ican military and the Kuomintang of nationalist China.35 The lessons of
the economic miracles in South Asia are that dynamic economies do not
mean the disappearance of gangs. The illicit trade in drugs, sex, and other
goods has been functional for states, which have protably and corruptly
coexisted over long periods with armed groups.
Gangs and the Loss of Legitimacy

Finally, to bring it all back home, in the worlds only superpower, the United
States has seen its legitimacy and reach sharply criticized by conservatives.
The calls to reduce taxes and cut back on the welfare state are part and par-
cel of the Ronald Reagan Republican raison dtre that government is the
problem. Conservative ideology supports a strong military and law en-
forcement while advocating the rollback of public services and a reverent
reliance on the market. While the UK has enthusiastically embraced the
neo-liberal agenda,36 other European states have taken a dierent tack.
At the same time, in U.S. ghettos and in many immigrant suburbs of
European cities, the state governs as much by force as by a declining legit-
imacy.37 Gangs and youth in the United States, France, the UK,38 and
elsewhere see the police as the enemy and resist any formal controls. For
example, Elijah Anderson describes the Philadelphia ghetto:
In some of the most economically distressed and drug and crime-ridden
pockets of the city, the rules of civil law have been severely weakened, and
in their stead a code of the street often holds sway. . . . The code of the
street emerges where the inuence of the police ends and personal respon-
sibility for ones safety is felt to begin, resulting in a kind of peoples law
based on street justice.39
The importance of gangs in contemporary U.S. cities is spelled out by

Castells: The making of a sizeable proportion of the underclasss young
men into a dangerous class could well be the most striking expression of
the new American dilemma in the information age.40
Definitions and Flexibility

Recalling the Kano gangs at the beginning of this chapter, I nd it dicult
to see gangs worldwide as sharply delineated from other armed youth
groups. Gangs, in my studies, do not appear to be just a local crime prob-
lem but can be conceptualized as one of many angry responses to widely
varied conditions in a globalized world.41
It is this cultural response and its power of identity that I explore in the
remaining chapters. As Henry Giroux points out: Within this postmodern
youth culture, identities merge and shift rather than become more uniform
and static.42 Edward Said adds, No one today is purely one thing.43
Craig Calhoun reinforces Girouxs and Saids take on the current era:
It is not just that collective identities and ways of life are created, but that
they are internally contested, that their boundaries are porous and overlap-
ping, and that people live in more than one at the same time.44
If gang members identities are internally contested and constantly

switching, how can a hard and fast denition describe such a changing real-
ity? The search for a more precise gang denition by criminology is, on the
one hand, an old-fashioned positivist venture, trying to tack down and
quantify gangs as a static, clearly delineated form. Liberal criminologists
also have a desire to portray Western gangs as basically disorganized peer
groups, worlds apart from what seem to be more-organized groups of armed
youth, particularly in the third world. Dening a true street gang is also
useful to the U.S. and Western criminal justice ocials who are seeking to
enhance already severe penalties with longer sentences for a crime being
gang-related.45
Certainly young people themselves do not get hung up over the term
gang, and most members of institutionalized gangs insist they are organiza-
tions. Others call their gangs crews, sets, or other terms. Former Chi-
cago white ethnic gang members told me they belonged to Irish or Italian
clubs and that gangs were a black and Latino thing.
To limit gangs to wild peer groupsas do James Short and Joan
Moore46slights the variety of institutionalized gangs, the history of polit-
ical activity by gangs, and the transformations gangs often make from juve-
nile delinquents to organized criminals, pawns of political parties, religious
or ethnic militias, or even revolutionaries. The best denition of gangs, as

I have argued, is an amorphous one: they are simply alienated groups social-
ized by the streets or prisons, not conventional institutions.
Young people, particularly armed young men, are everywhere lling the
void left by weak, repressive, racist, or illegitimate states. They ll that void
in a number of waysas supervised youth groups, as entrepreneurs who
want only to be left alone to make their money, as political actors ghting
for reform or power, or even as armed pawns of the state.47 If there is any
constant in todays gangs around the world, it is their changing forms, how
they can be categorized at one point in one way, and then a few months
or years later they can adapt or become something quite dierent.
chapter 4
From Chicago to Mumbai:

Touring the World of Gangs
Thus what had begun as a ght for social and economic justice has
degenerated into a caste conict with a veneer of class struggle.
p r a k a s h s i n g h , The Naxalite Movement in India
What marks the form of the gang today worldwide is its exibility, its abil-
ity to shift gears, to grow up from a wild peer group into an illicit business,
working for political spoils or acting as thugs for ruling powers. As Michel
Wieviorka observes in central Africa: In Brazzaville the downwardly socially
mobile youths form groups that, depending on the period, may be part of
the political militia or again may be armed gangs.1 Thus gangs do not
represent stages in some natural process of evolution, with unsupervised
peer groups inevitably growing into third generation political gangs.2 For
example, in Kosovo,
part of the Kosovo Liberation Army has become an ocial police force under
the tutelage of the international community, another part a political party
seeking state power, and still other sections operate as independent bandit
groups intimidating or corrupting local ocials, and robbing aid missions
with military precision.
Steve Sampson concludes: Liberation armies, political projects, local pro-

tection, and banditry come together.3 It is this perplexing, diuse, and
often incoherent phenomenon that this chapter addresses.
Much, but not all, of the data presented here comes from neither War nor
33
34 from chicago to mumbai
Peace. This study is remarkable for its comparison of various groups of what
it calls COAVchildren in organized armed violence. What strikes the
reader is that the voices of youth in such diverse settings as Mindanao,
Cape Town, San Salvador, and Chicago sound so much the same. Some
of these armed groups are gangs, others ethnic militias, still others private
security forces of the state, but their reasons for joining the armed group,
their participation in violence, or their ties to family all sound similar. With-
out the specics, it would be dicult to tell from which country the quote
came or whether it was a youth in a gang, militia, or death squad.
U.S. criminologists have created typologies that categorize gangs by
neighborhood opportunity structure,4 by the nature of ethnic organization,5
and by size, age range, territoriality, internal dierentiation, longevity, and
criminal versatility.6 Rather than follow these traditional, Eurocentric types,
I have chosen to categorize gangs as mainly (1) unsupervised peer groups
similar to traditional notions of the true street gang; (2) street organiza-
tions, mainly in poor neighborhoods, that desire minimal state interference
in their economic, social, or cultural activities; (3) politicized oppositional
groups, like ethnic, religious, or territorial militias, that advocate reform,
overthrow, or takeover of the state; or (4) vigilante bands or violent tools
of those holding state power. But no matter where they are located, gangs
often change from one form to another, as they are inuenced by other
armed groups and the boundaries between them so often fade away.
Alienated, Unsupervised Peer Groups

The typical youth gang goes from play group to gang in a group process
just as Frederic Thrasher described a century ago. Thrasher, more so than
many of his successors, also identied a range of possibilities of what might
happen to the gang as its members age. But the old master did not imag-
ine situations like Freetown or Medelln.
In Freetown, Sierra Leone, gangs called rarri boys formed in colonial
times in crowded and poor neighborhoods and developed their own way
of life, centering on ghting over territory and engaging in petty crime. But
after independence in 1961, politicians recruited the rarri boys to provide
muscle in elections, like early U.S. voting gangs, although rarri boy cul-
ture and music even then was interested only in the good life. The civil
war in the 1990s, however, transformed rarri boys from thugs into child sol-
diers, focused on what Ibrahim Abdullah creatively calls revo (loot) shon;
from chicago to mumbai 35
to keep them obedient, the rarri boys were fed with drugs.7 The end of the
civil war has produced roving bands of unemployed youth with an abun-
dance of small arms, bitterness, and a need to survive. From gangs to child
soldiers and back to gangs is the Freetown story.8
In Medelln, in the early 1980s, guerrilla organizations like M-19 and
FARC began peace camps that recruited youth into what would become
powerful urban militias. These militias were formed to counter the inu-
ence of more than four hundred criminal youth gangs, which at the time
had more than ten thousand members. The militias engaged in a sort of
nonethnic cleansing, or antigang vigilantism, that by now is a familiar
scene around the world.9 The drug cartels naturally formed ties to the local
gangs as agents for drug distribution. But the success of the left-wing mili-
tias and the strength of popular antigang sentiment in Medelln led cartel
czar Pablo Escobar to both mouth revolutionary rhetoric and call for law
and order, turning on his local gang allies.
The militias and gangs were also adapting and changing roles. The gangs
learned from the militias and began to repair their relations with the com-
munity, doing social work by day and violence at night. Unlike most other
armed groups, these are not made up of only armed men: All of Colom-
bias irregular armed groups recruit women and girls to serve as combat-
ants.10 The 1980s were a time of many murders by children hired as hit
men, called sicarios.11
In the 1990s the left-wing militias began to recruit youth based more on
ghting ability than on politics and linked with Escobar and the cartels.
Lines between gangs and militias were blurred. After the death of Escobar,
the cartel decentralized, and many of the groups that had worked for Esco-
bar returned to Medellns slums. The highest rates of violence in Medelln
were the product of a ve-way war between the gangs, the militias, the
right-wing paramilitaries, the cartels, and the state. Later, to confuse mat-
ters more, the gangs, the right-wing paramilitaries, and the cartels formed
a new alliance.12
What is important in these stories of Freetown and Medelln is that civil
war and institutionalized armed groups forced youth gangs to alter their
forms and behavior. Gangs developed in Medelln and Freetown like youth
gangs everywhere, but the civil wars in both citiesand the vast wealth of
the drug trackers in Medellnhave made it dicult to distinguish the
gangs from other armed groups.
Gangs in More Stable Conditions

In other places, unsupervised peer groups do not grow up around institu-
tionalized armed groups or suer through the turbulence of civil war. In
China, delinquency is apparently leading to gang life for an increasing num-
ber of underprivileged youth. Sun Dongdong, a forensic psychiatrist at
Beijing University who studies youth crime, said, echoing Western crimi-
nologists, They form gangs to ght the emptiness.13
Similarly, in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, research has found that
gangs are engaged mainly in petty theft, grati, and vandalism, with no
apparent links to professional criminals or institutionalized gangs. Gangs
in Australia, though, Rob White nds, are highly racialized, and many
are drawn from minority ethnic groups, where the gang was a way to show
social presence in the face of marginalization.14 This diers from the
experience of Maori youth in New Zealand, who grew up in the shadow
of Black Power and other ethnic gangs that have institutionalized over the
past forty years and provide not only a social presence but also illicit eco-
nomic opportunities for Maori youth.15
The European and U.S. gangs described in Malcolm Kleins Eurogang
book are mainly of the unsupervised peer group type, although the skin-
head gangs that Joachim Kersten describes from Germany appear out of
place, and such gangs have a wide range of level of organization and ori-
entation.16 The bickering between Klein, Jerzy Sarnecki, and others over
whether to call Europes unsupervised youth groups gangs reects the
problems in looking at gangs using only the United States and Europe as
models. Kleins Eurogang paradox means that while European gangs are
not like the stereotypes of U.S. gangs, neither are U.S. gangs. While this
is insightful, Klein is actually proposing that Europeans adopt a narrow,
U.S. crime-based, group process denition of gangs. He is saddling Euro-
pean scholars with a comparative perspective derived only from gangs in
Western countries.17
The problem can be understood if we look at Kenya and what seems at
rst a straightforward description of a true street gang. Gangs in Kenya
began as gangs do everywhere: youth are enticed into criminal activities
because there is no one to monitor or supervise them.18 Even during the
Mau Mau uprising, crime merged imperceptibly with rebellion as gangs
like the Forty Group joined in the violence.19
After independence, this process accelerated as Nairobis population bal-

looned to nearly three million. The gangs in Nairobi, focused on survival,
targeted foreigners and tourists for kidnapping and carjacking as well as
participating in more standard activities in the underground economy. Civil
wars in Somalia and other nearby states have made small arms easily avail-
able, and rates of violence shot up in the 1990s. The end of the cold war
meant a reduction in foreign aid, and the Moi government used its corrupt
police force to step up political violence while neglecting security from
street crime. A strong vigilante movement then arose and targeted the gangs
with necklacing and lynching.
Recent reports nd that Kenyan gangs have now actively joined a polit-
ical process that emphasizes tribal and ethnic divisions. All this has led
Herbert Covey, a follower of Kleins denition, to despair: In countries
similar to Kenya, it is dicult to separate street gangs from civil war or law-
violating groups.20 That is precisely my point.
While unsupervised youth groups, male and female, continue to arise
spontaneously in urban centers, the existence of institutionalized gangs, like
the Colombian cartels and paramilitaries or the Chinese Triads,21 bends the
form of area youth gangs to the needs of the older armed group. Civil wars,
ethnic and religious hostility, the drug trade, and deep-seated feelings of
insecurity in the face of street violence have all worked to make the form
of the unsupervised youth gang susceptible to radical alteration of its shape.
This erodes the distinctions between gangs and other armed groups and
has led me to reject traditional criminological categories.
Laissez-Faire
Some armed groups are not unsupervised youth who can be taken and
shaped by more powerful forces. Some of these groups are the shapers,
institutionalized gangs or other nonstate armed actors with powerful self-
interests. One set of these armed groups is less interested in politics and
more often simply wants the space to run its businesses and activities with
minimal state interference. Like U.S. conservatives, these gangs believe in
laissez-faire.
The need to stay out of politics can be seen in the dierent strategies of
the Medelln and Cali drug cartels in the 1990s. While Escobar and his
Medelln network declared war on the Colombian state after failed attempts
to enter the political process, the Cali cartel refused to get drawn into the
war. It relied on corruption and collaborated with state security forces to

debilitate Escobars cartel in order to allow business in Cali to proceed
unhindered.22
The Marashea gangs in cities near the gold mines in South Africa have
persisted for more than fty years by making money o miners through pro-
viding dagga and women. Gary Kynoch points out that the Marashea estab-
lished, protected, and expanded spheres of inuence independent of larger
political and ideological concerns.23 The Marashea both fought against and
collaborated with the apartheid state and the ANC in order to organiza-
tionally survive.
In Chicago, one lesson gangs have drawn from their attempts to enter the
political process is that it may be better to mind your own business. The
following lament comes from the ocial history of the Black Gangster
Disciples (BGD): Our trouble as an organization began when we started
dealing in big city politics. Before that, we were largely overlooked.24
For many BGD leaders, as well as the Conservative Vice Lords and other
institutionalized Chicago gangs, involvement with politics meant targeting
by police and the political machine. If one wanted to do business without
hassle, one should avoid politics, as this young Vice Lord told me in 2004:
I think . . . its peaceful if you mind your own business, stay out of other
peoples business, nothing happens.
Institutionalized gangs in Chicago, as elsewhere, reoriented themselves
to the drug trade, and the need to do business unencumbered became par-
amount, as this BGD member explained:
From my observations the higher-ranking Gangster Disciples were placed in

that position because of their drug connections rather than their leadership
abilities. The more money one had within the gang, the more inuence and
power that coincidentally followed. The regents and mayors were known to be
no nonsense type individuals. They usually planned the amount of a drug that
a particular dealer was to receive. They acted as the American Stock exchange
by buying low and selling high. . . . Drugs became synonymous with the
Gangster Disciples within the neighborhood. They controlled the commu-
nity, not in a political manner, but rather by coercion, money, and drugs.25
In East Los Angeles, Joan Moore has documented an almost century-long

tradition of institutionalized gangs reinforced by waves of new immigration.
Gangs like White Fence are a specialized structure of the barrio that can
be seen as a symbolic challenge to the world. East LA gangs began as
part of a Chicano self-help movement, not as a politicized revolutionary
organization.26
Similarly, the drug factions in Rio de Janeiro are explicitly apolitical.
They avoid involvement in city and national politics and concentrate on
making money. The traditional absence of the state in the favelas makes
the drug factions a kind of state within a state.27 However, the drug fac-
tions control the economics and security of the favelas while having no
pretenses to confronting the power of the state citywide or being burdened
with responsibility for all essential services.
Other gangs described in neither War nor Peace also are characterized by
a laissez-faire attitude toward the state. After the civil war in El Salvador,
pandillas or maras, territorial youth gangs, exercised a higher prole.28 The
ideologically driven conict of the eighties gave way to a more survival-
focused nineties leading into the new century.
Most of the maras in El Salvador are united in two major gang constel-
lations, the Mara Salvatrucha 13 and Calle 18, both gangs with origins in
Los Angeles. At the end of the civil war, many young people whose par-
ents had ed the conict and illegally entered the United States either re-
turned or were deported to El Salvador. While in the United States, they
had joined gangs and were literally bringing the neighborhoods back to
my country, as one gang member told Elana Zilberg.29 In 1997 alone, more
than 1,500 youth suered a forced repatriation that has confused identi-
ties and created a new kind of transnational gang. The civil war of the 1980s
was replaced by a war of terror against the maras, of both a government
crackdown and death squad executions by la Sombra Negra and other
vigilantes with ties to the old right-wing regimes.30
While the El Salvador gangs have ties to drug cartels, the civil war has
given them and many others a bad taste for politics. As the journalist Silla
Bocanero said, Until recently, a rebellious youth from Central America
would go into the mountains and join the guerillas. Today, he leaves the
countryside for the city and joins one of the street gangs engaged in com-
mon crime without political objectives.31 While many El Salvador gangs
are unsupervised youth out only for vacil, or thrills, the form of the gang
in El Salvador, Ecuador, Guatemala, and other postcivil war countries is
a rejection of politics and focus on survival,32 what is sometimes called the

privatization of violence.33
From another angle, it can be asked what happens to child soldiers
when wars are over. This question has haunted Asia, Latin America, and
Africa and is compounded by economies that often cannot provide jobs
even for educated youth. Donal B. Cruise OBrien calls this the lost gen-
eration that may be of continental proportions in struggling Africa. Dur-
ing the Liberian civil war, the Small Boys Unit of Charles Taylor was kept
armed and under control as a potent ghting force. As the ghting ended,
these young people were desperate for an identity in a hopeless future: Some
young people see a solution in the life of the warband, others turn to God,
the identities of soldier, or religious believer.34
Similarly in the Congo the groups of armed young men left over after the
civil war created a nightmare for residents of Brazzaville. The intensied
struggle for power among politicians suddenly created a demand for young
men as militia men. . . . After the war of 19831994, life never returned to
normal. Armed young men have been a serious problem ever since.35
Depoliticization and demoralization aects the Arab world and other
regions as well. In Palestine, the political environment overshadows, but
does not eliminate, criminal gangs. In cities like Cairo, however, the poli-
cies of repression of the Sadat and Mubarek governments have foreclosed
collective action and channeled much economic activity into the illegal arena
of gangs with elaborate internal organization.36 In South Asia, gangs have
sprung up in the wake of the end of U.S. intervention and now control
esh markets for tourists and for export.37 Massive urbanization has cre-
ated squatter communities and a survival economy that stays depoliticized
in the face of a strong, repressive, developmental state.
Demoralization and depoliticization also characterize the chaotic tran-
sition of Eastern European socialist countries to capitalism. Gangs and
mayas have emerged, as state institutions have weakened and unem-
ployment skyrocketed. These new criminal organizations eschew politics
for business.38 For example, in Albania, a World Bank report states, The
loss of adult authority leaves young people free to rebel and unite in gangs
bent on violence for the sake of self-assertion as much as for easy earnings.
The criminal economy includes up to 25 percent of the young men aged
1825 and has become a structural feature in Albanian life.39
In situations of demoralization and lack of trust in the state, young
people often latch on to an identity, sometimes of gang member, that wants

cultural or individual expression with little concern, or desire, for a project
of broader societal change. Thus the retreat of the state has a cultural eect,
as Manuel Castells notes, of reinforcing communal, ethnic, religious, or local
identities. One character in a popular lm about Nigerias vigilantes sums
up this anticosmopolitan attitude by wearing a T-shirt that says: f the
world, save yourself.40
But sometimes these identities are not depoliticized but actively seek to
reform, overthrow, or take over the state.
Gangs and Politics

In the United States, Irish and other voting gangs were long involved in
electoral politics. In contemporary Mumbai (Bombay), Bal Thackeray, steal-
ing a page from the political book of Chicagos rst mayor Daley, bases his
political power on the direct action of gangs of youth. Thackeray has in
eect cloned Daleys Democratic Party, Irish Catholic, neighborhood pre-
cinct organizations with his Hindu Shiv Sena Party and its Shakas (pre-
cincts). Shiv Sena is ubiquitously anked by its mandels or clubs, where
youth, goondas (gangsters), and other militants both work the elections and
participate in violence much like Chicagos earlier ganglike social athletic
clubs strong-armed electoral foes.41 In Mumbai today, politics and the
underworld are as intertwined as Chicago ever was under Capone or the
Daley regimes.42 Arjun Appadurai describes a Mumbai political machine
that works hand in glove with organized crime and real estate interests in
precisely the same manner as their Chicago counterparts.43
By the 1960s in the United States, gangs were inspired by the civil rights,
nationalist, and revolutionary movements and were drawn into political
activity. Similarly, in South Africa, the black Totsis and youth gangs par-
ticipated in mass protests organized by the ANC and the more militant Pan
African Congress during the Soweto uprising. Nelson Mandela advocated
eorts to win the gangs over to the cause of liberation, though the rise of
the comrades, a militant ganglike youth group, took center stage as the
gangs withdrew.44
African American gangs in Los Angeles were heavily inuenced by the
1965 Watts riots, called by some the last great rumble.45 LA gangs, like
those in Chicago, were impressed with the Black Panther Party and were
shocked by the police killing of BPP leaders in 1969 (Bunchy Carter and
John Huggins in LA, Fred Hampton and Mark Clark in Chicago). In the
wake of the destruction of the BPP, LAs black youth who were searching
for a new identity mobilized as street gangs.46 After the 1992 riots follow-
ing the acquittal of the police who beat Rodney King, the Crips and Bloods
put up a common program for reconstructing Los AngelesGive Us the
Hammers and Nails and Well Rebuild the Citythat was perhaps the
most comprehensive proposal oered to resurrect and redeem Los Angeles.
Ocials refused to take the gangs oer seriously.47
In New York City, the Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation trans-
formed themselves, David Brotherton and Luis Barrios argue, into a social
movement in the 1990s. While this transformation was short-lived because
of intense police repression, it has major signicance for the study of gangs.
The involvement of the ALKQN with politics is far from unique.48
In the last decades in Chicago, gang politics has become more mundane,
as gangs attempt to worm their way into the machine through electoral
politics and familiar Chicago-style corruption. Larry Hoover complained
that he was considered dangerous because he advocated involvement of
the streets into politics. He told the Geto Boys in a recording on their Res-
urrection (Screwed and Chopped) album that Daley was afraid of him be-
cause of his political potential. One BGD member agrees and told me:
Hoover was talking politics, thats why they were scared. You cant let no
man like that get out. And another said of the BGD CEO: Hes a great
man, he almost did something.49
In Chicago, gangs are also deeply involved with Latino politics, as this
Latin King leader explained to one of my classes:
So while these guys were trying to build something, Billy Ocasio and Luis
Gutirrez [major Latino politicians] noticed that. And mind you the reason
they dont like us is because one of them used to be a Latin Disciple and the
other one used to be a Gent. So they used to be Folks and they still have
animosity against Latin Kings. . . . But when they need to get elected who
do they come to? They come to the Latin Kings. . . . We help em out in
exchange for jobs. And those are the back street politics that are played in
this city. Everywhere. Right now . . . theres some politician or commissioner
somewhere making a deal that if everybody found out about it, itd be over.
Itd be the end of their career.
The new Daley machine is actively soliciting the quickly expanding

Latino community in building a majority (antiblack) political coalition and
has hired gang members as part of its outreach, leading to several scan-
dals. Other gang members explained that they regularly made payos to
aldermen and police, an old Chicago tradition. Some police ocers and
prison guards are also gang members and help out their own gang and
go hard on their rivals.
Politics is no stranger to gangs in Jamaica either. Jamaican gangs had their
origins in the 1940s and were organized by yards, or certain sectors of the
city where rival political groups concentrated. The neither War nor Peace
study distinguishes between area gangs, which control entire communities
with a Don who has a patronage relationship to the local political party, and
corner gangs, which may or may not be tied to politicians.50 All accounts
of Jamaican history tie the violent persistence of gangs and local gunmen
to their direct ties to the Jamaican Labor Party (JLP) of Edward Seaga and
its rival Peoples National Party (PNP) of Michael Manley. The gangs have
become part of the politics of patronage in Jamaican cities and dense ghet-
tos, such as Craig Town or Tivoli Gardens. In 1975 twenty-ve thousand
people turned out for the Kingston funeral of the political gunman Bur-
rey Boy.
The intensity of the political violence grew to such an extent that the
gangs and other public gures attempted to stem the tide. Bob Marley, in
the famous One Love concert on April 22, 1978, coaxed Manley and Seaga
to join him onstage to shake hands. The impetus for the peacemaking,
according to Laurie Gunst, was the gangs themselves, whose imprisoned
members talked to each other and cried out, No more war.51 But, Gunst
continues, peace in the ghetto threatened the interests of the two parties,
and a wave of police repression fractured the truce.
By the early 1980s, the lure of cocaine had internationalized the Jamai-
can gangs, or posses, and this addictive substance had become the scourge
of Kingston ghettos. The U.S. market beckoned, and the big money of
cocaine smuggling loosened dependence on the political parties. Dons still
control entire areas of Kingston, whose gangs, thanks to the politicians, are
a classic example of gang institutionalization.52 While the gangs have drifted
away from politics, and fewer corner gangs have proliferated, the neighbor-
hoods are still divided both by gang and by political loyalties, maintaining
the deadly mix. By 2004 gang violence had reached extremely high levels,
in part the result of thirteen thousand deportations of gangsters from the

United States back to Jamaica.53
While the mix of politics and crime has persisted in Jamaica, demoral-
ization and political opportunities in Northern Ireland, Colombia, and Peru
have led political organizations to function as criminal gangs. In Northern
Ireland, the Protestant militias, once ercely anti-Catholic, have turned on
themselves in a quarrel over drug markets. One resident in the Protestant
stronghold of Shankhill told me that Johnny Adair and his brood, refer-
ring to the Ulster Defence Associations top dog, are nothing now but a
bunch of gangsters.54
The much ballyhooed dismantling of Colombias armed militias has
prompted their commanders to turn to politics, winning local elections by
an improbable Chicago-style 95 percent of the vote. The Caracas Journal
reports,
As some 23,000 paramilitary ghters have disarmed here over the last two
years, their top commanders have declared their intentions to play a role in
politics. But signs are emerging that the role is a dark one, as commanders use
bribery and intimidation to control local lawmakers and even blocs of repre-
sentatives in the Congress while they reshape their militias into criminal net-
works that trac in cocaine, extort businesses and loot local governments.55
From the left, in Peru, the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) Maoist
guerrillas have also turned their military defeats into opportunity by ally-
ing with local cocaine growers, like the infamous Tito Lopez, in Perus
Huallaga Valley. Peru, in fact, grows the majority of the worlds cocaine,
which is purchased from growers by Colombian cartels, which process it
for delivery to world markets. The guerrillas have proted from providing
protection to the growers, and their communist program for Peru has been
fatally corrupted.56
In the opposite process, in Algeria, after the 1991 elections were nullied,
the government banned the FIS (Front Islamique du Salut) and suppressed
its Muslim supporters. This radicalized the alienated hittistes, youth living
in and from the street. Street youth saw Islam and the mosques as sources
of inspiration and rebellion against a government that appeared atheistic
and communist and resorted to terrorist tactics.
The repressive atmosphere became more complicated as delinquent gangs,
operating under the protection of Algerian security forces, began stealing
and demanding protection money from shopkeepers. In response, Muslim

youth in the Armed Islamic Group (GIS) attacked the gangs. However, as
in Medelln, no sooner had the GIS swept the gangs out than it, and look-
alike Islamic gangs, took the delinquent gangs place, demanding protec-
tion money and controlling the underground economy. Violence raged in
Algiers in the 1990s in a war between the government security forces, the
GIS, the Islamic gangs, and the delinquent gangs. By the end of the decade,
the governments power had manifested itself in disillusionment with pol-
itics and a reversion to criminality.57 Similarly, in Haiti, prior to Rene Prevals
election, the Aristide popular organizations had been reverting to more
traditional forms of extortion, such as carjacking, kidnapping, and armed
robbery.58
The uprising of Muslim gangs and youth in France in the fall of 2005
was a warning that fourth world conditions exist in European cities too.
What seems clear from press reports is that gangs have joined youth in a
political protest, similar to the 1960s social movements and gangs described
here. Whether the gangs in Europes immigrant ghettos and slums will main-
tain a political outlook or revert to laissez-faire is unclear.59
A nal political example of gangs is the Muhajir Quami Movement
(MQM), a party representing Pakistani migrants from India after the 1948
partition. By the 1980s Karachi had become a major port for the shipment
of heroin from Afghanistan to the West and guns from the West to Afghan-
istan. The fall of the military regime led to democracy in 1988, and the
MQM grew as the voice of what it called a new ethnic group. Its success,
in no small part, Oskar Verkaaik argues, was due to small groups of friends
who partook in violence and fun and recruited other youth to the MQM
banner. The MQM won the local elections in Hyderabad, but the military
takeover of Pakistans government led to the partys fracturing. Accused of
abusing power during its heyday, in the aftermath of General Muhammad
Zia-ul-Haqs police state, the MQM fell apart into locally organized groups
resorting to anti-state militancy and crime.60
These disparate examples of gangs in politics also show the volatile and
transient nature of gangs and similar armed groups and their potential to
become political actors. Some gangs have dipped in and out of politics;
some political groups have become gangs and vice versa. The skeptical claim
that the political activities of gangs are more rhetoric than action is simply
ahistorical and wrong.61
Gangs as Vigilantes or Death Squads

Sometimes gangs oppose the state, but sometimes they work for the pow-
erful. Some are secular, and others are religious fundamentalists. Consider
Islamic Taliban gangs in Afghanistan a few years ago: gangs of youth lled
with religious fervor called bands of hope were, in eect, a moral police
used to intimidate sinners. Anyone who strayed from strict fundamental-
ist doctrine was threatened, and the young toughs tore from the bodies
of women what they judged to be indecent dress. Priceless art was destroyed
and literature burned.
Oh, did I say Afghanistan? I meant to say Florence, Italy, at the end of
the fteenth century. The bands of hope were young Catholic thugs orga-
nized by the Roman-appointed dictator, Girolamo Savonarola, to force
wayward citizens to return to Church doctrine and a strict morality. The
burning of art and literature was the infamous bonre of vanities that
destroyed some of the most precious artworks of the Renaissance. The roots
of religious intolerance and the use of angry young men by state and church
alike go back a long time.62
Contrary to the sensationalism of the mass media, today it is not only
Muslim youth who burn art and a few of the ungodly. For example, human
rights groups reported in overwhelmingly Christian Rwanda that mass mur-
der and rape were carried out by the army and also by informal paramili-
taries like the Hutu Interahamwe (Those who stand together) who were
attached to the ruling party. These
gangs of the displaced use the camps as bases from which to launch raids to
rove and kill local people. Some of this banditry may be purely criminal, but
other instances are politically motivated eorts to destabilize local govern-
ment control.63
The fratricidal savageness in these civilized times is carried out by groups

outside the ocial channels, as with Arkans Tigers, who ethnically
cleansed Serbia in the name of both their Eastern Orthodox God and Slo-
bodan Miloevic.64 These groups are often thinly disguised military or police
forces, acting under cover so that plausible deniability by their political
leaders can be maintained.65
While most of what we dene as death squads are state military or police
ocials killing extrajudicially, some groups performing these functions do
not originate within the state but are indigenous armed groups, often act-
ing as vigilantes to restore law and order.66 Bruce Campbell recognizes
that death squads may be privately constituted, almost always involve the
support and participation of elements outside the government and develop
considerable independence from their backers.67 In this section, I describe
those armed young men who were not ocially organized by the state and
have mainly originated in group processes largely outside ocial religious
or state structures.
For example, in Nigeria armed ethnic militias and self help security
forces, particularly the Egbesu Boys, Bakassi Boys, and Oodua Peoples Con-
gress (OPC), have arisen as a result of growing crime and violence over
the last ten years and the inability of law enforcement agencies to provide
adequate protection.68
While Human Rights Watch and others have linked the vigilante actions
to traditions within Nigerian society,69 others point out that it is the weak-
ness of the current state that is the proximate cause of vigilantism:
Nigerian governments have virtually told Nigerians to fend for their own
protection. My hometown of Okpara with its environs has a population that
is more than 20,000 people in Delta State. It has no police station. Indeed,
there is no presence of government in the daily lives of its people. That is, the
Nigerian state and its governmental agencies are absent from their daily lives.70
The three groups discussed in Mohammeds chapter on Nigeria in neither

War nor Peace have dierent ethnic origins and unique histories, but they all
arose from groups of unsupervised youth, as these who formed the OPC who
were recruited as school dropouts that had joined area boy gangs (gangs of
street children involved in petty crime) or other delinquent groups. A 20 year-
old member who had joined the OPC at 16 told researchers he had done so
as . . . another way of identifying with my ethnic group, Oodua.71
All three groups recruited youth both to defend their ethnic group and,
like People Against Gangsterism and Drugs in South Africa, to stop crime
in the absence of eective public safety services by the state. Bakassi Boys
interviewed for this study expressed the belief that the primary objectives
of the group are the protection of ethnic interests and the ghting of crime
in their communities.72 The Egbesu Boys were pulled together from exist-
ing groups of youth not only to maintain order in oil-rich Ijawland but
also to defend their ethnic group against central Nigerian government forces
and to demand a more equitable division of the oil prots.
While all three groups have ties to some units of government, the Bakassi
Boys, made up primarily of Igbo tribal members, have been the most promi-
nent, actually being incorporated in August 2000 by the Anamra state gov-
ernment under the name Anambra State Vigilante Services.73 The Bakassi
Boys are known for horric acts of violence and brutality, executing hun-
dreds extrajudicially, and have become a parallel force to the admittedly
corrupt police in several states. While the Bakassi Boys have received direct
payments from the local state, they also have extorted money from shop-
keepers to pay for protection.
Nigeria is not the only example of gangs being put to use by governments
as a violent tool against ethnic opponents. In Indonesia, for example, an
IMF-induced crisis set o anti-Chinese rioting. Ethnic Chinese hold dom-
inant positions in Indonesias economy, and gangs of knife-wielding youth
. . . pillaged Chinese-owned stores.74 As in Central America, Indonesian
death squads have also targeted street children, criminals, and other minor-
ity groups.
A dierent kind of state-sponsored gang is the Civilian Volunteer Orga-
nizations (CVO) of the Philippines. These groups sprang up under the
Marcos regime as self-defense organizations, supplementary to the army,
during the war against communist and Muslim guerrillas. After the fall of
Marcos, the Constitution of 1987 mandated the dissolution of armed groups,
but the COV became tied to the political interests of the mayors of towns,
and what is called datu and their pagali (strongmen and their clans). The
CVOs became private armies that protected the datu and his family and
worked at the behest of the mayor.75
These youth were organized as political tools, often hired assassins,
similar to the sicarios of Colombia. Like other politically involved gangs
elsewhere, these state-sponsored groups mixed politics, violence, and the
underground economy, what Agnes Zenaida V. Camacho calls dark busi-
ness ventures.76 The CVOs double as dealers of shabu, or amphetamines,
and other drugs. As in Kenya and other countries, kidnapping for ransom
is particularly attractive.
Finally, Haiti oers a politically incorrect example of the signicance of
armed gangs who do the states dirty work no matter who is in power.77
During the Aristide regime, the Cannibal Army, led by strongman Amiot
(Cuban) Mtayer, was a gang that ruled the Raboteau slum in Gonaives,
the city where Haitian independence had been proclaimed two hundred
years ago. The Cannibal Army was one of many popular organizations
that used force and intimidation on behalf of the beleaguered Aristide.
Mtayer was sprung from prison by his gang, but then murdered, his
brother and followers believed, on orders from Aristide. The Cannibal Army
abruptly turned on the president and united with forces with ties to the
old Duvalier regime. They seized and held Gonaives, killed police whom
they called drug dealers,78 then marched on Port-au-Prince, forcing Aris-
tides removal.
Since then, gangs loyal to Aristide and those opposed have battled in
the Soleil, Bel Air, and other slums called cits in Port-au-Prince. The UN
peacekeeping force MINUSTAH has also intervened and joined the ght-
ing, typically against pro-Aristide gangs.
The interim governments failure to restore stability left a power vacuum

allowing armed groups to ourish. Former soldiers, armed Aristide supporters
and criminal gangs are contending for control of dierent parts of the coun-
try. The level of violence has skyrocketed . . . , challenging MINUSTAHs
ability to control the situation.79
The various kinds of gangs, of course, also have a long history of recruiting
youth into the underground economy, which at times is the only means of
support in Port-au-Prince cits.80 The Preval government, breaking with U.S.
policy, came to power pledging to negotiate with gangs of all persuasions.
Conclusion: The Power of Identity

Globalization has created impossible conditions in many cities and coun-
tries. Such desperate situations produce all sorts of monsters and armed
groups trying to survive and make sense out of their situation. While most
gangs are still unsupervised peer groups, the form of the gang can no longer
be conned to delinquent gangs of Chicago school fame. The existence of
institutionalized gangs and other armed groups alters the shape and pros-
pects of the true street gang. While the underground economy may be-
come a solution to the gang members problem of survival, religious, ethnic,
or communal identity becomes the solution to the problem of meaning.
ii
Race, Space, and the
Power of Identity
chapter 5
No Way Out: Demoralization, Racism,

and Resistance Identity
Knowing there was no escape, no way out, the slaves nonetheless continued to
engage themselves. To carve out a humanity. To defy the murder of selfhood.
Their lives were brutally shackled, certainlybut not without meaning despite
being imprisoned.
d e r r i c k b e l l , Faces at the Bottom of the Well
It should be no surprise that desperate conditions in ghettos, barrios, and

favelas produce angry and alienated groups of armed young men and
women. But the last sections review of the world of gangs also empha-
sized the salience of ethnicity, race, and religion to gangs. Responses from
the streets to marginalization are often deeply racialized or colored by eth-
nic or religious interpretations.
Admittedly, not all gangs are from minority groups. The Nigerian Bakassi
Boys, for example, defend the regional ruling Igbo group by terror and
violence. Death squads are often composed of men from dominant groups
that are threatened by minority rights and use extralegal means to suppress
the other; the Ku Klux Klan has been a famous form in the United States.1
The early skinhead gangs were, as one member put it, identity groups.2
Neighborhood-based white gangs also have a strong sense of racial iden-
tity. In Chicago, for example, these gangs become what whites see as the
last of the Mohicans holding down the fort, since their neighborhood
is under siege as Latinos and blacks move in.3 A white Gaylord sadly com-
ments: It was apparent that the entire neighborhood was going through
an ethnic and cultural change, and the reasons for the Gaylords to stay no
53
54 no way out
longer existed.4 The Gaylords were being displaced by Puerto Ricans whose
gangs sometimes recruited some of the remaining whites.
Ive often felt sympathy when I see a White guy in a non-White gang. Its
like his identity had been lost or stolen. I guess his family couldnt aord to
escape the incoming culture, and he got taken up in it.5
The Latin Kings were one of the gangs that displaced the Gaylords and
were seen as part of the violent immigration pushing in to many neigh-
borhoods in Chicago. Michael Scott, the insightful Gaylord author of
Lords of Lawndale, adds, To this enemy, the Gaylords probably appear as
oppressive racist roadblocks preventing his progress.6 Racial identity is cru-
cial in understanding the motivations of gangs of all ethnic groups.
But such gangs as the Gaylords are often cited to support the thesis that
U.S. gangs arent just black and Hispanicthey can be of any race. Most
gang researchers follow Walter Millers view of gangs as basically a lower
class phenomenon or, like Irving Spergel, subsume ethnicity in ecologi-
cal concepts.7 While there are several researchers like Diego Vigil, Joan
Moore, Felix Padilla, and Carl Taylor who highlight the historical struc-
tures of racial oppression,8 most contemporary gang researchers give little,
if any space, to the analysis of the impact of racism.9
Among the few to confront the subject, Spergel examines what he calls
controvertible evidence to support the impact of racial discrimination.
He argues that racism is insucient to explain why some youth and not
others join gangs or why many gangs have a multiethnic composition. He
asserts that racism has declined over the years, while gang problems have
increased.10
The laudable intention of progressive scholars like Spergel is to debunk
the racist canard that violence, gangs, and crime are essentially character-
istics of any racial group. But this perspective also typically assumes that
racial oppression is not as important as class, neighborhood, or level of
social organization. If we only control for labor market participation, bro-
ken families, and level of education, for example, the racial eect disap-
pears or fades away.11 Minority gangs therefore can be understood basically
as the latest version of the white ethnic gangs of yesteryear. To paraphrase
Malcolm Kleins views, gang similarities far exceed their racial or ethnic
dierences.
no way out 55
But this notion, to chance a phrase, throws away the sheet but saves the
Klansman. To control for joblessness, poor education, or other character-
istics of the black and minority experience is to strip away some of what
makes racism racism and shapes identity. The deracializing of gangs is one
of the most egregious errors of Western criminology, a pernicious premise,
to use Loc Wacquants pungent phrase.12 In this section I argue, with Moore,
Vigil, Taylor, and Padilla, that todays gangs and other groups of armed
young men cannot be understood without an analysis of the history of
racial, ethnic, or religious oppression and resistance.
This short, more theoretical chapter explores how racism shapes the iden-
tities of alienated, impoverished youth, particularly African American gang
members. It ties together three ideas that have not previously been linked.
Demoralization was cited by the father of gang research, Frederic Thrasher,
as a seminal characteristic of gangs. I show how this concept has changed
since the industrial era and link it to Manuel Castellss fundamental idea
of resistance identity. Finally, I connect these terms to Derrick Bells notion
of the permanence of racism, linking all three concepts to explain the cru-
cial signicance of race in understanding gangs.13 These three concepts
together provide an explanation of how oppressed people organize mean-
ing in a more uncertain, unequal, globalized world.
Demoralization
In the industrial era, demoralization had a very dierent meaning. For
Thrasher, who devoted a chapter of The Gang to the concept, demoraliza-
tion in the 1920s meant the adherence of gang members to deviant values
and actions. In his view, the gangs
demoralizing inuence on its members arises through the dissemination

of criminal technique, and the propagation through mutual excitation, of
interests and attitudes which make crime easier (less inhibited) and more
attractive.14
Further, Thrasher argued that the boy usually acquires in the gang an atti-
tude of fatalism, a willingness to take a chancea philosophy of life which
ts him well for a career of crime.15
Thrasher derived his ideas from the far richer and deeper analysis of
Robert Park, who in turn was building on the theories of his mentor, Georg
56 no way out
Simmel.16 Park and Simmel were exploring the impact of the city on mi-
grants and immigrants who left their plows for the factories in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Classic sociology was largely con-
cerned with understanding how the weakening hold of religion and old
world traditions de-moralized the modern, urban newcomers. mile
Durkheims notion of anomy was the rst attempt to label these feelings
of normlessness that the radical disruption of urbanization had on the
simple, god-fearing mind-set of European rural folk.17
As the industrial era progressed into its Golden Age,18 Robert Mer-
ton would revise Durkheims views by theorizing that U.S. and Western
culture had placed an overriding emphasis on success. The consequent
inability of people to attain their deeply ingrained success-goals would result
in anomie, and they would adapt to their condition in dierent ways.19
Many adult gang members roughly corresponded to what Merton called
innovators, who accepted U.S. cultural goals of success but were alien-
ated from manual labor and found alternative, illicit, means to make money.
Merton also argued that there were rebels (like himself ) who both rejected
the goals of success and conventional means to attain them, as well as con-
formists and demoralized retreatists (like drug addicts) who saw no hope
of success whatsoever.
Demoralization, as used by these scholars, was fundamentally related to
the industrial era, or modernity. It described feelings about the loss of the
old world, its gods and traditions, and the challenge of a new, urban, more
scientic time. In such a more enlightened world, race and ethnicity were
assumed to be declining in signicance. Demoralization, it was thought,
was an unfortunate by-product of humanitys inevitable climb to the higher
rungs of a secular civilization.
The views of Merton, and more so the work of Richard Cloward and
Lloyd Ohlin, became a theoretical rationale for progressive social change.
Indeed, Cloward and Ohlins Delinquency and Opportunity was adopted as
a model for Lyndon Johnsons war on poverty, and Cloward would go on
to become a key adviser to several sixties activist organizations.20 But those
same social movements would prove to be the beginning of the end of the
industrial era, what Alain Touraine calls mid-modernity.21 It is in the les-
sons of the worldwide 1960s social movements, and particularly their lack of
success in changing conditions for the third world and the racial minorities
at the bottom of the social structure, that the concept of demoralization
no way out 57
would undergo a profound revision, underscore the signicance of race, and

dene the parameters of the power of identity.
The Defeat of the 1960s Social Movements

The 1960s, for a brief time, recaptured in the United States, and across the
globe, a rebirth of optimism. Youth, inspired by such diverse gures as
Vladimir Lenin, John Lennon, John F. Kennedy, and Bob Marley, surged
to the barricades to demand that capitalism live up to its promises or relin-
quish power. Frantz Fanon called on the wretched of the earth to rise up,
make violent revolution, and create a better life. Huey Newtons Black
Panther Party called on U.S. black youth to seize the time and hailed the
lumpen proletariat (and its gangs) as a potential revolutionary force. In
France, Daniel Cohn-Bendit led students to unite with militant workers
and demand sweeping change.
The powerful social movements of the 1960s, however, would not ful-
ll the dreams of the truly disadvantaged. Repression drowned many
rebellions across the globe in blood, as happened in Indonesia, Argentina,
Chile, and the Congo. In the United States, the state clamped down on
black, Latino, Native American, and youth rebellion, replacing the war on
poverty with a war on crime, as its police gunned down and jailed Black
Panthers and other radicals and rebels. By the end of the 1960s, some in
the black movement were advocating revolutionary suicide, an eerie fore-
boding of suicide bombers today.22
For Cornel West, the hope of the 1960s was shattered by the failure of
the U.S. government to live up to the promises of the war on poverty for
black people, abetted by a subsequent void in African American leadership.
The killings of Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr., Medgar Evers, Fred
Hampton, and others were a chilling reminder to black people of the fury
and power of racism. As bell hooks put it, After the slaughter of radical
black men, the emotional devastation of soul murder and actual murder,
many black people became cynical about freedom.23 As chapter 2 showed,
the decline of social movements also had the unforeseen consequence in
some large cities of strengthening gangs.24
West argues that nihilism among African Americans spread after the
1960s, though the concept is fundamentally rooted in the psychological
scars of slavery and centuries of racism.
58 no way out
Nihilism is to be understood here not as a philosophic doctrine that there

are no rational grounds for legitimate standards or authority. It is, far more,
the lived experience of coping with a life of horrifying meaninglessness, hope-
lessness, and (most important) lovelessness.25
Since the 1960s, West goes on, racism has intensied, and U.S. black peo-
ple have developed a passionate pessimism about Americas will to jus-
tice.26 By the mid-1970s, the main lesson for the black underclass was
that while a black middle class had demonstrably beneted from the 1960s
upsurge, no lasting relief from poverty or racism came either from the pol-
itics of the street or from the ballot box.27 I wonder, Tupac Shakur raps, if
even heavens got a ghetto?28
An even more imposing obstacle than repression, however, was the re-
structuring of the world economy that began in earnest in the 1970s, the
beginnings of globalization. Deindustrialization ate away at the U.S. work-
ing class, particularly its African American workers, who were late gaining
a foothold in heavy industry in such cities as Chicago and Milwaukee.29
The moving of factories to the third world, as I showed in chapter 1, has
not even signicantly reduced poverty and polarization there, and in Africa
and many other places has increased it.
David Harvey points out the consequences of globalization for solidarity
of the oppressed:
Gangs and criminal cartels, narco-tracking networks, mini-maas and favela

bosses, through community, grassroots and non-governmental organiza-
tions, to secular cults and religious sects . . . are the alternative social forms
that ll the void left behind as state powers, political parties, and other insti-
tutional forms are actively dismantled or simply wither away as centres of
collective endeavor or social bonding.30
The adoption of religious identities, particularly Islam, has swept the world
and exercises a strong inuence in the United States, even within gangs.
Monster Kody, the legendary Crips leader, was attracted to Islam in prison,
for example, because unlike Christianity, Islam was a religion that advo-
cated resistance to oppression. Islam, Kody said, is a way of life, just like
banging.31
Todays complex, uncertain world has made a lasting impact on the con-
sciousness of people of all classes. While highly skilled symbolic analysts
no way out 59
have some control over their lives, the bulk of the worlds people are help-
less in the face of decisions made in banks in New York, London, or Tokyo.32
Even the wishes of governments may have little eect on the decision of,
for example, where Intel puts a new chip factory. Unelected bankers and
market forces often have more power in this global world than presidents
or parliaments.33 Those with technical jobs can always nd work elsewhere.
Those without information-related skills are left with nothing.
This means that those on the bottom of the social structure, like the
African American urban poor, have become demoralized in a new way.
A faith in democracy, elections, or local or national leaders is no longer
enough to guarantee security or progress in the global economy. Elec-
tions and formal democratic processes do not work so well, particularly for
the dark ghetto. The hope that things will eventually get better has been
exposed as a myth of modernity, useful only to those who want to keep the
people under control: The assertion that progress leads to auence, free-
dom and happiness, and that there is a close connection between these three
objectives, is no more than an ideology to which history has constantly
given the lie.34
Demoralization today means, for large segments of the U.S. black com-
munity, as well as for many Latinos, other U.S. minorities, and much of
the third world, that survival and identity are delinked from the political
goals of the state and abstract notions of democracy or hopes of socialism.
Demoralization means both the process of losing touch with morality as
it is stripped out of our lives, and the way our culture has lost its sense
of purpose.35 But the costs of demoralization do not just produce drug
addicts, like Mertons retreatists. In the global era, these intense feelings
of demoralization become the occasion for the socially excluded to resist
the myths of modernity and create new forms of identity among them-
selvesand their gangs.
Resistance Identity
John Gray describes modernity as the hope that human beings will shed
their traditional allegiances and their local identities and unite in a univer-
sal civilization grounded in generic humanity and a rational morality.36
But this does not describe todays world. In the network society, when
states themselves have little control over economics, in whom do people
put their faith? For the information workers or symbolic analysts, their
60 no way out
new god may be technology, and a cosmopolitan identity is in vogue. But

for the masses, technology is a god that too often fails or ees. While post-
modernism has been a fashionable response among the elite and educated,
for the majority, and those seen as the other, more certain sources of mean-
ing are needed. As Zygmunt Bauman puts it,
Where the state has failed, perhaps the community, the local community,
the physically tangible, material community, a community embodied in a
territory inhabited by its members (and no one else who does not belong)
will purvey the being safe feeling which the wider world evidently con-
spires to destroy.37
While in the industrial era, a faith existed that political action could bring
lasting change and provide a secular working class or civic identity, the
sober realism of people today demands an identity closer to home. Castells
calls this resistance identity or, provocatively, the exclusion of the exclud-
ers by the excluded.38 He means that the socially excluded defensively
create religious, ethnic, or racialized identities to protect their personality
and community against the uncertainties and injustices of globalization.
Anyone who is no longer dened by their activity, Touraine says, soon
constructs or reconstructs an identity based upon their origins.39
Castells goes on to explain that this production of identity is what is
behind the growth of fundamentalist religion, and also ethnic and racial
identities in the African American ghetto and elsewhere. Like West, Castells
also argues that the failure of the social movements of the 1960s provided
the key element in this new sense of nihilist identity, or as he calls it, a
culture of urgency.40 People were left with no other choice but either to
surrender or to react on the basis of the most immediate source of self
recognition and autonomous organization: their locality.41 Castellss ter-
ritorial resistance identity, exemplied, he says, by gang based social orga-
nization has, in fact, become deeply racialized. LAs Monster Kody models
this in his dramatic soliloquy:
Who is Monster Kody? . . . I am Monster Kody . . . a person, a young man, a

black man. . . . Anything else? . . . No, not that I know of. . . . What is Mon-
ster Kody? A Crip, an Eight Tray, a Rollin Sixty killer . . . a black man. . . .
Black man, black man, BLACK MAN.42
no way out 61
In the same vein, an unknown Vice Lord told me,
Just because youre in a gang doesnt mean youre a bad person. Everybody
needs something to stand for. Everybody needs something to believe in. Thats
why people become Christians. Got to believe in something.43
To more fully understand how demoralization and resistance identity apply

to U.S. gangs, we must explore the permanence of racism in the United
States and the Western world.
The Permanence of Racism

Why do I say that racism is permanent? Is this just a rhetorical ourish
or a bow to trendy theorizing? No. In the language of social science, to say
that racism is permanent is to say that it is not a dependent variable or a
factor to be explained or dissected into its components. Racism is an inde-
pendent variable, like education, family structure, or religion, that has vary-
ing levels and must be included in all analyses. I do not agree with those who
say that racism is necessarily less important than economics or that if we just
add more jobs, racism will fade away.44 I am sympathetic to Albert Memmi,
who, in asking if economics was the motive force behind colonialism and,
by implication, racism, said, The answer is maybenot certainly.45
There has been a shift among scholars in interpreting the inuence of
racism, with a renewed appreciation for W. E. B. DuBois and a grappling
with Michael Omi and Howard Winants racial formation thesis. Among
feminists, hooks represents the best of this tradition, integrating race, class,
and gender in ways that make much contemporary social science uncom-
fortable.46 Robin D. G. Kelleys popular book, Yo Mamas Disfunktional! was
consciously written as a defense of black peoples humanity and a con-
demnation of scholars and policymakers for their inability to see complex-
ity.47 Kelley is among many African American intellectuals who have raised
sharp disagreements with white social sciences interpretations of black peo-
ples lives.
Bell, one of the countrys foremost legal scholars, has taken to ction and
storytelling to explicate his drive for new directions in our struggle for
racial justice; a struggle we must continue even ifas I contend here
racism is an integral, permanent, and indestructible component of this soci-
ety.48 But rather than accept that the permanence of racism must lead to
62 no way out
nihilism, Bell existentially asserts, We must acknowledge it, not as a sign of

submission, but as an act of ultimate deance. 49 Tupac, as usual, has a rap
that expresses this view succinctly in his song Keep Ya Head Up:
Say there aint no hope for the youth and the truth is
it aint no hope for tha future . . .
And even though youre fed up
Huh, ya got to keep your head up.50
I nd Bells brave comments, Tupacs rap, DuBoiss framework, and Win-

ants historical analysis convincing.51 This perspective, and Bells recommen-
dations for struggle, forms the basis for my later exploration of hip-hop as
a black Atlantic culture of resistance.
Black People as Americas Other

Racism has been a stable pillar of the politics and culture of all Western and
European societies, dating back at least to the shameful justication for the
slave trade. The notion of the permanence of racism contradicts Gunnar
Myrdals modernist idea that racism is mainly an atavistic behavior of a feu-
dal past.52 Rather, the dehumanization of slaves, Edward Said explains, is but
one example of the European creation of the other, the Orientals who
ought to be granted Western benevolence so they can become civilized.53
This persisting fear of the other haunts Europe today, from neo-Nazi skin-
heads in Berlin,54 to racial violence in London,55 to anti-immigrant poli-
tics in France, the Netherlands, and elsewhere, to widespread anti-Islamic
hatred, racism, and bigotry.
In the third world, Basil Davidson reminds us, ethnic, racial, or tribal vio-
lence is a disturbing legacy of the arbitrarily drawn state boundaries and
policies of colonialism.56 One horric example is the genocide in Rwanda,
whose unique ethnicities of Tutsi and Hutu were created by Europeans from
occupational dierences.57 The collapse of the apparent state in Africa,58
and its substitution by gangs of warring armed young men, can be directly
attributed to the legacy of colonialism and the cold war politics of the super-
powers, not historic, essentialist tribal antagonisms.
September 11 has not only exposed widespread global hostility to the
United States, but the resulting U.S. war on terrorism has unveiled the Amer-
ican peoples latent fear of the other and a violence just below a civilized
no way out 63
veneer. Said sadly asked whether there is any way of avoiding the hostil-
ity expressed by the division of, say, men into us (Westerners) and they
(Orientals).59 This division has long applied to black people, who, as Ralph
Ellison said, either were invisible to white America or were feared and
demonized.60 As Elijah Anderson eloquently describes:
The master status assigned to black males undermines their ability to be taken
for granted as law-abiding and civil participants in public places; young black
males, particularly those who don the urban uniform (sneakers, athletic suits,
gold chains, gangster caps, sunglasses, and large portable radios or boom
boxes), may be taken as the embodiment of the predator.61
In Western society, the scapegoat has been irrevocably racialized, and his
dark skin has a special meaning, which white people have come to asso-
ciate with crime.62 Even gangsters from areas and republics south of Russia
like Georgia are called the n-word by Muscovites.63 Richard Sennetts
historical description of the fear of touching is startlingly applicable to
white Americans reaction to African Americans.64 Bell, echoing DuBois,
denes the permanence of racism with the cold statement: Black people
will never gain full equality in this country.65
DuBois himself plunged to the depths of despair in an emotional chap-
ter in The Souls of Black Folks on the death of his rstborn. He writes of
his gladness of his sons death, that my soul whispers to me, saying, Not
dead, not dead, but escaped; not bond but free. He concludes with unre-
strained desolation: Well sped, my boy, before the world had dubbed your
ambition insolence, had held your ideals unattainable, and taught you to
cringe and bow. Better far this nameless void that stops my life than a sea of
sorrow for you.66 Sethes killing of her daughter in Toni Morrisons Beloved
follows tragically in this tradition.
This perception of the intransigence of racism oends a liberal faith in
progress implicitly held by many of those who research gangs. It also clashes
with the optimistic worldview of modernity and the hopes of a rising minor-
ity middle class.67 While Jennifer Hochschild has pointed out that it is
precisely the African American middle class that is most disillusioned by
black progress,68 the real victims of the failure of the modernist civil rights
movement are William Julius Wilsons truly disadvantaged, or what he
earlier called the black underclass.69
64 no way out
Wilsons analysis of the impact of deindustrialization on Chicago became

the paradigm for my understanding of gangs in Milwaukee. My rst book,
People and Folks, quintessentially argued that the loss of industrial jobs trans-
formed black and Hispanic gangs from unsupervised peer groups into post-
industrial gangs, focused more on economics than delinquency.70 After a
decade of research in Chicago, however, my views have evolved, and I now
dene demoralization as not only the hopelessness of economic mobil-
ity but also the hopelessness of social mobility, and the sober recognition
of the intractability of racism. A consideration of the historical structures
of racism in Chicago, and how it has impacted gangs, led me to make a
theoretical break with the Chicago school and look for more robust frame-
works, which I found in Castells, Touraine, West, Bell, and others.
chapter 6
A Tale of Two Gangs: The Hamburgs

and the Conservative Vice Lords
Anyone ever tell you this is a white mans beach? Morris asked Alford.
You know we dont want ns here! Buddy said.
j a m e s t . f a r r e l l , For White Men Only
This meaning is not without interest to you, Gentle Reader;

For the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color-line.
w . e . b . d u b o i s , The Souls of Black Folk
Once upon a time there were two gangs. One was a good, civic gang. The
other was a bad, violent gang. One gang has lasted for many decades, and
its leaders became leading citizens of the city. The other gang has also been
around for decades, but its leaders have been killed or sent to prison. One
gang is predominately male, proud of its ethnic traditions and neighbor-
hood, and its members are very prosperous. The other gang is also pre-
dominately male, proud of its ethnic traditions and neighborhood, but most
of its members are poor and out of work. One gang is Irish from Bridge-
port. The other, from about four miles away in North Lawndale, is African
American.
First and foremost, this story is more about race than space.1 It explains
how demoralization and Cornel Wests concept of nihilism have an objec-
tive basis in the historical structures of Chicagos racism.2 It points out vast
dierences between the industrial era and the information era, and the
eects of the economic and social changes on both gangs. Heuristically,
the comparison is a map to the step-by-step process I went through in
65
66 a tale of two gangs
shedding my allegiance to the Chicago school on my climb to more ex-

planatory frameworks.
The Gangs of New York . . . and Chicago

The story begins not in Chicago but in New York, and may be familiar to
those who saw Martin Scorseses cinematic adaptation of Herbert Asburys
book The Gangs of New York.3 Eric Monkkonen coined the term voting
gangs to describe the Irish and Yankee gangs in New York City that used
their physical skills to aid politicians of their ethnic group. The gangs of
early New York City were more than teenage delinquents: they were toughs
intimidating voters (or sometimes other voting gangs). Electoral violence
in New York City in the nineteenth century was a utilitarian tool, a part
of northern politics, yet also the tool of criminals.4
First among the ethnic groups who expertly practiced the art of politi-
cal violence were the Irish, who dominated the big-city machines in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.5 The Irish in Chicago learned
from their New York cousins and called their voting gangs Social Athletic
Clubs (SACs). Frederic Thrasher found that 243 of his 1,313 gangs in Chi-
cago were SACs, and another 192 were adult or mixed adult and youth.6
What were these clubs? One of the most famous, the Hamburg Athletic
Association (HAA), was founded in 1904 in Bridgeport, an area of Chicago
described by Mayor Carter Henry Harrison II as a semi-legendary, all-
Irish segment of the south division, where men were men, and boys either
hellions or early candidates for the last rites of the church.7 Clubs like the
HAA, and Ragens Colts in the adjacent Back of the Yards, were sponsored
by local politicians who fervently practiced the ne art of electoral thuggery.
One history of Chicago elections explains:
Social clubs were organized at the ward level to boost the campaign of a
favorite son, or slate of candidates. The pageantry of torch-light rallies, col-
orful parades, and bombastic oratory set in smoke-lled meeting halls scat-
tered across the city, provided an important sense of neighborhood identity
and ethnic pridethe hopes, fears, and prejudices vested in the candidate
fortunate enough to descend from the same dominant nationality found
within the ward.8
The tendency of the gangs to become athletic clubs, Thrasher said, has
been greatly stimulated by the politicians of the city.9 SACs like the HAA
a tale of two gangs 67
were made up of adolescent and young adults with feeder groups of even
younger kids aliated with their older brothers and neighbors. The soci-
ologist Edward Sutherland described Chicagos SACs in 1924:
At the present time a good many gangs are ourishing under the leadership
and protection of the politicians. These are frequently called athletic clubs
and are fostered even among young boys, evidently with the expectation that
political support will be gained in the future. In return for present support
and expected future support the politicians extend protection to the boys in
their depredations.10
Politics in Chicago, like New York, was intimately tied up with the rack-
ets, which, until Al Capones consolidation of power in the Prohibition
years, was controlled by the Irish and their clubs. Scratch a club man,
Thrasher claimed, and you will nd a gangster.11 Gangsters, according
to Thrasher, were normally younger boys who have probably been favored
by the politician and who have gradually become criminals, in which roles
they are probably even more useful to him.12
In this sense the HAA was not dierent from the Dead Rabbits or other
classic voting gangs of New York. It grew in an interstitial area southwest
of the Loop and thus was a perfect example of the Chicago schools de-
nition of a gang. But Bridgeport was not only an interstitial zone, it also
was located across Wentworth Avenue from the Black Belt or Bronzeville,
the home of Chicagos black community.
The 1919 Race Riots

This accident of geography is more signicant than all the concentric zones
of Chicago school theory put together. The proof of this brash assertion
lies in the long-term consequences of the horric events of 1919.
Irish-black hostility has a long history in the United States. The New
York City draft riots during the Civil War were spearheaded by Irish gangs
assaulting and murdering African Americans.13 In 1864 four hundred Chi-
cago Irish dockworkers went on a bloody rampage against black workers
whom they believed were after their jobs.14 At the end of World War I,
racial tensions were simmering in Chicago as in many other cities.
The key events underlying these tensions were the migrations to Chi-
cago and other northern cities of tens of thousands of black workers to ll
Galewood
Wicker Old
Humboldt Park GooseTown
Park Island Near Streeterville
Austin
North
Ukranian Side
Garfield Village
Park West Town The
Loop
Near West Near

Lawndale Side South
Side
Pilsen
Heart
of Chinatown
Chicago
Little
Village
Bridgeport
Lake Michigan
iver Brighton Canary-

oR ville
h icag Elsdon
Park Bronzeville
C
Back of
the Yards
Garfield Guage Fuller
Ridge West Park Hyde
Eldon Park Park
Chicago
Clearing West Lawn Washington
Lawn Park Woodlawn
Hamilton
Midway Park
Airport Marquette Park
Park Manor South
Ford City Shore
Ashburn Englewood
Central Chicago neighborhoods
jobs left by the Irish, Polish, and other white ethnics who went o to war.15
When these soldiers returned, blacks held their jobs, and racial violence
ared across the industrial Midwest. Signicantly, the jobs in Chicagos
stockyards lled by African Americans were geographically located in the
Back of the Yards, just to the south of Bridgeport. African Americans often
had to ght their way to work past a couple of miles lled with angry, racist
Irish clubs.
In the spring and summer of 1919 racial violence between black and white
gangs exploded on the Wentworth Avenue divide, and, in those few months,
twenty-four black homes in the neutral zone were bombed. On June 21,
1919, two black youths were brutally murdered by white gangs.16 Tensions
boiled over at the end of July, as a black youth was drowned after crossing
an imaginary line in Lake Michigan separating black and white. But while
other race riots ared and died down, the Chicago riots were kept burning
by the SACs. The HAA was specically named as one of the chief culprits.
What followed was carefully documented by the 1922 Race Relations

Commission report.
Gangs and their activities were an important factor throughout the riot. But
for them it is doubtful if the riot would have gone beyond the rst clash.
Both organized gangs and those which sprang into existence because of the
opportunity aorded seized upon the excuse of the rst conict to engage
in lawless acts. . . .
It was no new thing for youthful white and Negro groups to come to vio-
lence. For years, as the sections of this report dealing with antecedent clashes
and with recreation show, there had been clashes over baseball grounds,
swimming-pools in the parks, the right to walk on certain streets, etc. . . .
Gangs whose activities gured so prominently in the riot were all white
gangs, or athletic clubs. Negro hoodlums do not appear to form organized
gangs so readily. Judges of the municipal court said that there are no gang
organization among Negroes to compare with those found among young
whites.17
In fact, the drive-by shooting, popularly associated with Capone in the next
decade, got its start in earlier East St. Louis and the Chicago race riots.18
White club members would drive into the Black Belt and open re, high-
tailing it out after discharging their rearms. But the invasion of the Black
Belt was met by violent black resistance, as the World War I veteran Harry
Haywood relates:
It was rumored that Irishmen from the west of the Wentworth Avenue divid-
ing line were planning to invade the ghetto that night, coming in across the
tracks by way of Fifty-rst Street. We planned a defensive action to meet
them. . . . It was not surprising that defensive preparations were under way.
There had been clashes before, often when white youths in athletic clubs
invaded the Black community. These clubs were really racist gangs, orga-
nized by the city ward heelers and precinct captains.19
Still, black resistance would be inadequate against the white gangs, who,
the Race Relations Commission suggested, intimidated witnesses and were
often protected by police. For example, nine black families had moved into
homes three blocks west of Wentworth Avenue, Chicagos Mason-Dixon
line. During the riot, two hundred Ragens Colts assaulted these homes,
trying to burn them down and throwing bricks and rocks and opening re.
Police came and left, doing nothing while the Colts told white neighbors:
If you open your mouth against Ragens we will not only burn your house
down, we will do you.20
The HAA was one of the active participants in the rioting, and its spon-
sor, Eleventh Ward alderman Sonny Joseph McDonough, was the citys
most vociferous inciter of white violence and racial hatred. McDonough
falsely said that he was shot on July 30, and he wildly claimed that the
Negroes had enough ammunition to last for years of guerrilla war. He
told the local press that black people
are armed and the white people are not. We must defend ourselves if the city
authorities wont protect us. . . . I saw white men and women running
through the streets dragging children by the hands and carrying babies in
their arms. Frightened white men told me the police captains had just rushed
through the district crying For Gods sake, arm. They are coming, we can-
not hold them.21
The Race Relations Commission doubted that any of the events described
by McDonough actually occurred. The commission also debunked the
aldermans inammatory claims of black terrorists planting bombs. The
eect of McDonoughs vitriol was to heat up the level of racism in the Irish
community to fever pitch and must have had an eect on his star HAA
protg, Richard J. Daley. To his dying day, the rst Mayor Daley refused
to comment on his role in the violence as a seventeen-year-old HAA mem-
ber. A few years after the riots, Daley would be elected president of the
HAA and serve for fteen years until promoted by McDonough, beginning
Daleys step-by-step rise to the mayors chair.22
For Thrasher the events of 1919 did not merit much analysis, taking up
less than one page of the more than ve hundred pages of his classic work,
fewer pages than those describing two small Chinese American tongs. For
Thrasher and the Chicago school, the events of 1919 were just another ex-
ample of the pattern of cultural conict in the citys interstitial zones.
In the growth of Chicago it has repeatedly happened that one immigrant or

racial group has invaded the territory of another, gradually driving out the
former, only to be itself displaced later by a still dierent cultural or racial

group. This process of invasion and succession is both personal and imper-
sonal and involves both competition and conict.23
Harder to understand is Thrashers assertion that after the race riots there
existed two types of African American neighborhoods: In one type the
negroes and whites have become adjusted to each other and friction is either
non-existent or negligible. In the other there is friction.24
He further writes of the obliteration of race and nationality distinctions
in the gang and that racial divisions within the gangs were supercial.25
This perspective can only be described as delusional. To say that Chicago
race relations in the 1920s exhibited friction is like saying there is friction
between Israelis and Palestinians, or between Serbs and Bosnians. The 1920s
began, in the concise words of Arnold Hirsch, an era of hidden violence
that forcibly kept black people from leaving the south side ghetto. This vio-
lence, painstakingly documented by Hirsch, took the form of bombings and
riots anytime black people sought to escape the connes of their assigned
place. Friction indeed.
We know from historical research that, after World War I, black people
were the only ethnic group with concentrations of more than 90 percent
in neighborhoods. Other ethnic groups had enclaves, but only black peo-
ple lived in a ghetto.26 By 1930, restrictive covenants, real estate contracts
that forbade owners to sell to black people, would cover more than three-
quarters of Chicago homes, keeping black people to a slim south side Black
Belt. If the restriction of the district cant keep them out, a white religious
leader said in 1928, the Irish will.27 While other ethnics would invade slum
areas, succeeding earlier groups, then moving on themselves, black people
would be forced by law, tradition, and violence to stay caged in a segregated
black metropolis.
While it has been recognized that the lack of mobility of African Amer-
icans is contrary to some of the ecological concepts of the Chicago school,28
the geographic stability of the Irish also contradicts aspects of the Chicago
schools ethnic succession model. Many Irish did not move out of the city
as they assimilated because their prosperity was tied to city politics and its
patronage. Already by 1900, nearly half of all Chicago city employees were
Irish.29 By the late 1990s, Bridgeports land values soared with gentrication,
and those Irish who stayed became quite wealthy and determined to hold
on to their property.
Nonracial ecological theory kept Thrasher and his Chicago school col-
leagues blind to the realities of racism in Chicago. Perhaps they were too
close to events and did not understand what W. E. B. DuBois had been
writing at the time about the fundamental nature of the color line.30 They
saw white racism as just another manifestation of ethnic conict and ignored
the persisting reality of racial violence. They also misunderstood the sig-
nicance of Chicagos most prominent institutionalized gang, the Hamburg
Athletic Association.
The Hamburg Athletic Association and the Machine

The HAA is an unquestioned success story. It has lasted now for more than
a century, and its clubhouse still stands at 37th and Emerald in the old
neighborhood, two blocks from where its most famous member, Richard J.
Daley, grew up and lived as mayor. The HAA is a good example of what hap-
pens when gang kids are provided with conventional opportunities through
athletics, social activity, religion, and politics.
What has happened to the HAA? Today its clubhouse is still a center of
activity for the neighborhood. It sponsors basketball games on its gym oor,
which it bought from the Minneapolis Lakers when that team moved to
Los Angeles in 1960. It has a weight room and a clubhouse area where every
Friday night its members come to talk and exchange ideas.
I was invited to the clubhouse by James, a longtime HAA member,
through connections with one of my students. James even made a video-
tape of a tour of the clubhouse for one of my classes and answered ques-
tions about its history. I later spent an evening with James and other HAA
members discussing the nature of the club and how it was or was not a
gang. Were a gang of do-gooders, James told me many times, a civic-
minded gang. He derided any notion that the HAA was ever a gang like
those today. Were not the Gangster Disciples, said one club member,
Matt Danaher, to a reporter in 1996.31
Indeed, the HAA membership today includes remen, policemen, city
managers, plumbers, and carpenters. In the mid-nineties, the Chicago Sun-
Times estimated that 70 percent of HAA members were city employees, a
percentage that would undoubtedly be elevated if city contractors were
included. At the clubhouse and a nearby restaurant, I met high-ranking
ocials in the police department as well as several members who made a

living by providing services to the city. Waste removal and other services
have been contracted out to the mayors political allies and have replaced
civil service as Chicagos principal form of patronage.
HAA members today have the same last names as the members back in
1919, James said, and only the rst names have changed. The club is inter-
generational, handed down from father to son. The men of the club per-
sonify family values, said HAA member Dannaher to the Sun-Times. Wives
also play a supportive, auxiliary role but are not members. Was the HAA ever
a gang? No, according to James; it was just a group of friends getting together
to share a common, Irish life. He criticized William Tuttles book Race Riot
for believing that the HAA could be a social club and an athletic club and
a street gang, saying it was dicult for it to be all three at the same time.
What the HAA provided for street toughs from Bridgeport was an avenue
out of the gang and into conventionalized politics. Its members were not
choirboys but street kids who found in the HAA both comradeship and
entre into a similarly tough political life. For example, here is the HAAs
Richard J. Daley as mayor, in 1961, responding to the pleas of an Italian
housewife, Florence Scala, for the city to stop a plan to level the homes in
her neighborhood to make room for the University of IllinoisChicago:
Nobody gets tough with me. I know how to handle myself. I know how
to protect myself. I come from the kind of neighborhood where we know
how to protect ourselves.32
Maybe there is something to the adage that you can take the boy out of
the gang, but you cannot take the gang out of the boy. A retired police com-
mander whom I spoke with recalled his club days in Bridgeport as a youth.
When I asked him what happened to all his wild friends, he thought for
a moment, then answered, I guess they all became police ocers.
The HAA is an institutionalized gang in every sense of the termit
has persisted despite changes in leadership; has a younger generation wait-
ing to join; has built an organization with multiple political and social roles;
has adapted to changing conditions of being on the outside, to being con-
summate political insiders, to now being in a erce ght within the machine
with the rising Latino voting bloc; has provided jobs through patronage
and social activities for the community; and has rituals and ceremonies like
marching in the St. Patricks Day parade under its colors and banner. It
has institutionalized within Chicagos all-powerful Democratic machine.
James is right to be proud of his club. The HAA fullled its purpose and
provided economic and political opportunities for Bridgeports neighbor-
hood kids and a way to make their lives meaningful. Club youth became
well-to-do citizens and even mayor. The HAA still possesses inuence on the
second Mayor Daley, though the Latino community has recently cut into its
patronage and now makes up more than half of Bridgeports population.
While conventional political science may see in this the normal work-
ings of machine politics, the role of the HAA and other clubs in the 1919
race riots would set in concrete the racial principles on which Chicago was
built. As Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor put it, Daleys modern Chi-
cago was built . . . on an unstated foundation: commitment to racial seg-
regation.33 If, for the HAA, it has been the best of times, for the Vice Lords
it would become the worst of times.
Shattered Dreams
The story of the Conservative Vice Lords (CVL) begins not in Chicago but
in the South, as black people migrated north in large numbers after World
War II. Chicagos Bronzeville, on the south side, was overcrowded and could
not contain a fast-growing black population despite the years of hidden
violence and absolute political dominance of the Irish machine. Black gangs
in Bronzeville, from the 1919 race riots into the 1950s, would be street corner
kids, very much like Thrasher described. Policy, or illegal, gambling was
one road to mobility, but it was controlled by older African Americans with
no room for the gangs.34 The black metropolis was segregated and overow-
ing by the 1950s. Someplace had to be carved out of Chicagos hodge podge
neighborhoods to house a youthful and growing black population.
That someplace was Lawndale, a predominately Jewish neighborhood
on Chicagos west side. By 1930 half of the population of Lawndale were
Russian Jews, and white dominance continued into the 1950s. At that time,
politically, the area was run by Jake Arvey, a kingmaker in Chicago pol-
itics. The Twenty-fourth Ward was described by President Franklin Roo-
sevelt as the best Democratic ward in the country.35 In 1960 it may have
won Illinois and perhaps the presidential election for John F. Kennedy by
returning a vote of 24,211 to 2,131 over Richard M. Nixon, an astounding
total that few believe was on the level.36
The west side was also the home of gangsters and had been the site of
numerous killings by the Outt, the west side bloc of aldermen who
controlled any and all anticrime legislation. One historical essay describes
it: The 24th Ward had a history of drug tracking, numbers running, and
prostitution. Mobsters were believed to be the guiding force in the district.
It was a malodorous mix of crime and crooked politics, to say the least.37
During the 1950s Lawndales white population dropped from 87,000 to
less than 11,000, while that of African Americans grew from 380 in 1940
to 13,000 in 1950 and then to more than 113,000 in 1960. While white
politicians and gangsters held power in Lawndale, by the end of the fties
it was clear to Arvey and his ally and protg, new mayor Richard J. Daley,
that a black face was needed for the machine. Benjamin Lewis was appointed
committeeman in 1961 and lived the high life of graft in this crime-scarred
district, like his white predecessors. Soon after Lewis was reelected by an
overwhelming margin and had hinted at some independence from Daleys
machine, he was gunned down February 28, 1963, the last in a long list of
Outt murders of politicians. No killer was ever found, and Lewiss many
corrupt dealings gave the Chicago police too many motives.38
But while the white machine lumbered on and white gangsters domi-
nated the rackets, there was restless stirring on the streets of Lawndale. We
began as a social athletic club, says Bobby Gore, one of the top leaders of
the Conservative Vice Lords. But Gores wry comment reveals both the
similarities and dierences between the CVL and the HAA.
McDonough sponsored the HAA, but the CVL would have an unsym-
pathetic white alderman as it formed and then, for a few years, machine-
token Lewis. The gang grew by assimilating a variety of neighborhood gangs
in Lawndale, including the well-known Clovers. The CVL was a group of
street toughs, but its ranks also included talented individuals like Gore, who
shone as a member of a popular singing group, the Clevertones.
The CVL would ocially come together in St. Charles, Chicagos juve-
nile prison. Like the HAA, it started as a group of friends who called them-
selves vice lords because, as the the white man . . . was said to be the
lords of all vice so we just took their title. Instead of being known as the
maa . . . we just wanted to be vice lords, said Edwin Marion Perry, or
Pep, the CVLs original leader. The CVL united other clubs and gangs in
Lawndale under its banner and grew to be the largest gang in Chicago.39
As the CVL, the Egyptian Cobras, and other west side gangs formed,
they fought not only among themselves but with the white gangs trying
to hang on to their neighborhood. One CVL leader, Bennie Lee, describes

his upbringing:
My family moved out of K-Town in 1967. We moved on Cicero and Jackson.

This was a predominately white neighborhood. My family was one of the
rst black families to move in that area. You have to keep in mind this was
in the sixties. Racism and Jim Crow laws were still in eect. During the
summer, we would have to walk through the majority white neighborhood
to get to the swimming pool. The whites would attack us. These would be
adult whites as well as young white boys our age. The adults would urge them
on to attack us. . . .
There were two swimming pools on the west side for us. One was in the
near K-Town area at Gareld Park (3600 west), and Columbus Park, which
was 5500 west. We decided to go to Columbus, which was closer. The whites
felt we were invading their neighborhood. So it was these conditions that
caused racial tension. The word got around the neighborhood that my broth-
ers and me had the courage to ght the whites, so other brothers would join
us to go swimming. So in that time we became recognized as a gang. We
were forced to band together for protection.40
The racial solidarity formed in the process of struggling for territory was
similar to the experiences of ethnic succession described by the Chicago
school, but would have a very dierent, and violently tragic, ending.
The best narrative of the life history of the CVL is David Dawleys Nation
of Lords, which documents the CVLs transformation from a gang into a
community organization. While the HAAs street toughs also transformed
their gang into a conventional group of do-gooders, there is no record
of the HAA ever repudiating its violent role in 1919 or later, and in con-
versations with me, members of the HAA minimized their clubs role.
On the contrary, Gore tells of the CVL leaders meeting in the mid-1960s
and despairing of CVL gang violence and the negative inuence they were
having on young people. The kids are the ones who are actually losing,
Gore told the other CVL elders after a group of young kids approached
them, asked for guns, and said they wanted to follow in the CVLs foot-
steps. In the midst of the civil rights movement, rising levels of black pride,
and a growing political inuence of black people in Chicago, the gang lead-
ers decided to change course.
Why did they change? One founder, Noonie, told me, A lot of it was
Bobby [Gore]. And it was the right thing to do. They became CVL, Inc.
This remarkable story can be followed on the Web site gangresearch.net,
in pictures and rst-person interviews with Gore and other leaders of the
gang, as well as in Dawleys book. The CVL started businesses and youth
and cultural centers and ran a community cleanup program with the Black-
stone Rangers called grass not glass. They took part in parades and cele-
brated their heritage, just as the HAA had done in Bridgeport. They attracted
to their side the pride of Lawndale, great athletes such as the Golden Gloves
champion Chuck Spruell, the National Football League star Mack Her-
ron, the artist Don McIlvaine, and the world-famous drummer Willie The
Touch Hayes. They became a gang of do-gooders, a civic-minded
gang,41 who wanted their piece of the pie. While Pep left to attend Dart-
mouthwith which the CVL sponsored scholarships for Lawndale youth
the new CVL leader Alfonso Alford summed up their new stance.
Like society itself, we are in a time of change. Just as we used to ght each
other on the street, we now stand together in a dierent ght for lifethe
life of a city, the life of a neighborhood and the life of a people who have been
declared unemployable, uneducable, and unreached.42
At rst, politicians began to court the CVL, especially since the Twenty-
fourth Ward was a treasure trove of votes. Edward Hanrahan, running for
states attorney, would praise them in a visit to the House of Lords, and
the CVL would sponsor an open house for the Chicago police. The CVL
worked to stop gang violence citywide. The things we are doing to each
other, we cant have it no more. You see. Because our problem is not among
ourselves, said Gore to a citywide meeting of gang leaders. The CVL even
adopted a less confrontational slant toward Mayor Daley and the Chicago
machine. They worked closely with new black alderman George Collins,
a staunch member of the machine, until his elevation to Congress, and
they also forged ties with the local police commanders and businessmen.
The CVL, Inc., received funding from the Rockefeller Foundation and
Republican fund-raisers like W. Clement Stone. Their youth activities were
funded by Sammy Davis Jr., and they were the toast of the town. Chi-
cagos leading journalist, the Sun-Timess Irv Kupcinet, wrote, The CVL,
once regarded as a hardened street gang, has made a complete about-face.
Its purpose now is to provide activities and motivation for the blacks in
Lawndale.43
All their good works surely would prompt the machine to reach out to
them, like it had to the HAA before. We thought the mayor would grab
us and kiss us, says Gore, with an ironic smile and an underlying tone of
sadness. But it was not hugs and kisses that made up the machines response.
It was war.
The War on Gangs

In 1969 Daley had had enough. The riots after Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s
death and the police riot at the 1968 Democratic Convention were the tip
of the iceberg of political stirrings among the African American commu-
nity, particularly those at the bottom of the social structure. The Black Pan-
ther Party (BPP) and its charismatic leader, Fred Hampton, had established
a major following on Chicagos streets. Black street gangs in Woodlawn,
Englewood, and Lawndale had united smaller gangs under their banners
and had begun to get involved with politics.
The gangs formed a coalition, LSD, or Lords, Stones, and Disciples,
to take on the city and the construction trades and to demand jobs for the
black community. We were going to take Chicago on a trip, laughs Gore,
making a pun on LSD, the popular hallucinogenic drug. But this was deadly
serious business. In a series of meetings, including some coordinated by
Euseni Perkins of the Better Boys Club and the author of a history of Chi-
cagos black gangs,44 Hampton met with leaders of the gangs and urged
their political involvement and the creation of a united front. Perkins gets
it just right:
Fred [Hampton] was trying to organize these gang members into a political
entity. He challenged them to stop the killing, shooting, and so forth and
to come together and develop a political perspective. This is what the Jew-
ish gangs did, this is what the Italian gangs did, this is what the Irish . . .
Denitely the Irish. . . .
The Irish controlled Chicago at one time. You got the mayor, the police
commissioner, the park commissioner, just about every commissioner, every
high oce in the 30s and 40s you have an Irish. And yet Irish only consisted
of about 3 or 4% of the population, maybe 5% thats all. But they literally
controlled Chicago. . . . But that was because of the formation of these
gangs that helped them to develop this power base and they came here as
immigrants. . . .
Black gang members began to say well they did it, we can do it also. But
theres always two standards toward black criminality and white criminality.
Theres always two standards. They did it, okay that was righteous. But we
aint gonna let you do it.45
Mike Royko, a white journalist, sets the proper context in his biting biog-
raphy of the Boss.
Daley had seen the same thing happen before. He recalled Ragens Colts, the
Irish thieves and street ghters who became the most potent political force
in Canaryville, and his own neighborhoods Hamburgs, who got their start
the same brawling way before turning to politics and eventually launching
his career. There lay the danger of the black gangs.46
Just as the HAA had helped Irish politicians seize power in Chicago for the
Democratic Party and dispense patronage to their own, in ne Chicago
tradition the black gangs were following the same path. While the HAA
and other clubs combined violence with the hard work of campaigning
to get their start, once in power Daley could use the police powers of the
state to crush his enemies. As Noonie said, Mayor Daley
didnt want to see us prosper. We were getting with politicians and things. . . .
Just like they started the Hamburgs, (he thought) these black boys would fol-
low that path. . . . Can you imagine 10,000 guys with mothers and fathers and
sisters and brothers who are voters? . . . One day Bobby might be the mayor.47
What was in essence a familiar contest for political power became a vio-
lent campaign of terror against gangs and the BPP. On May 9, 1969, Mayor
Daley and his handpicked States Attorney Hanrahan ocially declared war
on gangs. In a press statement they used the words of organized crime and
terrorism to change the fundamental way gangs were viewed:
Gang claims that they are traditional boys clubs or community organizations
ignore the violence and destruction of social values in the neighborhoods
they terrorize.48
These are almost the same words as those used in the 1922 Race Relations
Commission report describing the HAA, Daleys own gang. But the mainly
Irish police force in 1919 had no interest in suppressing the Irish clubs
surely many were members. Fifty years later, the police were eager to smash
the black gangs. The political interests of the gangs and all the good deeds
of the CVL were ignored, and the very idea of gangsnow mainly black
and Latinowas criminalized.49
The war was swift and eective. As Lord Slim, who was a teenager at
the time, told me: They started lockin up Lords. They got them on drug
charges, anything they could. No one was left. In the fall of 1969 Leonard
Sengali, the Blackstone Rangers spokesman, and Alford were both indicted
on trumped-up murder charges. Sengalis case was thrown out of court, and
a jury quickly found Alford innocent. Two weeks before the notorious
Hanrahan-led police killings of BPP leaders Hampton and Mark Clark,
CVL spokesman Gore was also arrested on a phony murder charge. Denied
the attorney of his choice, Gore was forced to go to trial quickly without
adequate preparation or location of numerous eyewitnesses who could clear
him. The trial was ooded by a media-driven antigang hysteria, and, with
a police force arresting and threatening potential Lawndale witnesses, Gore
was convicted.
Daley pressured foundations and corporations to cut o funding for the
CVL and vetoed a major job-training grant approved by a federal agency
for the CVL. Coupled with Gores incarceration, the cuto of funds demor-
alized CVL members and the Lawndale community. With private jobs scarce
and access to public jobs through CVL programs gone, youth reverted to
the streets. There would be no niche in the political establishment for Gore
and buddies. Rather than ride his popularity to city hall, Gore would spend
the next eleven years in Stateville Correctional Center.
Once Bobby went down, Noonie said, guys didnt have jobs and stu
and there was money to be made selling drugs. A lot of us were mad,
adds JB. They gured that if they cut o the head, the body would die.50
But the CVL did not die; it was reborn, no longer a prosocial commu-
nity group based on foundation and government funds but an economic
organization, living o drug dollars.
The Institutionalization of the CVL

While the HAA institutionalized within the Democratic machine and polit-
ical system, CVL members and their youthful followers were cut o from
jobs and other conventional means to escape the streets. The dope dealers
became the main game in town and one of the only employers for the youth
that were the CVL base. They used the Vice Lords for protection as they
built their drug empire, Noonie said, not without bitterness. Slim adds:
I started seeing Cadillacs on the corner. All these guys with tailor made
clothes and capes on em. Where this comin from? . . . then the drugs hit the
neighborhood. . . .
Bobby and them tried to keep the drugs out of the neighborhood, to make
it a positive thing. . . . But after all of them left, somebody brought the
drugs into the neighborhood and thats what the chiefs relied on for money:
drugs.51
But the impression made by the CVL on the minds and hearts of its long-
time members would not allow the gang to go away. Slim adds, Noonie
was the one who kept it going. He said I aint gonna let this die. When
younger kids tried to put up grati for a newly invented RIP Boys,
Noonie and his buddies took action.
We aint been nothing but Vice Lords, I aint gonna be any RIP or nothing
else. I got about seven of my friends and we made them take it all o the
walls. . . . We Vice Lords and thats what we are going to continue to be.52
The CVL did not die, but institutionalized on the streets, supported by
drug prots. The incarceration of so many of its members did not break the
gang but gave it another space to occupy and training to rebuild on a crim-
inal basis. When other gangs tried to claim Lawndale drug-selling spots, the
CVL taxed them and reorganized around individual drug entrepreneurs. It
was not the CVL of old, but the spirit would not die. As Noonie explains,
It was just in my heart, it was because of Pep and Bobby I was proud to be
a Vice Lord. It meant something to me. I didnt want that to be forgotten.
I just had to build it back up.53
Slim says:
The name had to go on because of what we accomplished. We couldnt let

that die. I want people 100 years from now to say the Conservative Vice Lords
did something for the neighborhood.54
Spruell, the Golden Gloves champ and a close friend of Gore, sees what
is happening as so dierent than the sixties. We were trying to help peo-
ple . . . but the kids today are out for themselves. Still, JB explains why the
CVL will not go away, despite repressive police tactics. He says the CVL
will live on
because of their children. You cant kill something that is steady being born,
you cant kill a spirit that is willing to ght, not against ourselves so much
as against conditions.55
The Permanence of Racism

How can the story of the HAA and the Vice Lords be told without race
being at the center of the discussion? The dierent paths of these two gangs
were part of the racial wall that has divided Chicago and America into two
separate societies, one black, one white. While the HAA members found
jobs and a future in their gang activities tied to the Democratic machine,
the Vice Lords would nd only demoralization and despair. Wests notion
of nihilism ts the outlook of a defeated, depressed, and powerless group.
It was all the worse because the CVL had come so tantalizingly close to
success.
While the CVL programs were being demolished, Lawndale and Chicago
were beginning the process of deindustrialization, with factories leaving
and the middle class eeing. Lawndale was written o, and arson became
a tool for landlords to rid themselves of property that could not get high
rents and pave the way for todays gentrication. With the CVL defeated,
the salt of the earth of Lawndale would have no voice.
Harold Washingtons ascension to power gave the old Vice Lords and
black people in Chicago a brief glimmer of hope. As Slim said,
People got more relaxed especially with the mayor we had before who thought
we were the scum of the earth. But Harold came to visit us, and he was a
positive guy, he told us he needed everyone.56
But when Washington suddenly died, Slim relays how cynicism once again
embraced the community.
Everyone was bitter (after he died) they say: all that could help us would be
the black man runnin the city and now they get rid of him, just like they
did to our dreams. People turned hard, it got rough in the neighborhood.57
Vote totals, which had dropped sharply after the repression of the 1960s
and had risen to elect Washington, fell again.58 By 2000 more than half of
all adults (male and female) in Lawndale were in jail, in prison, or on pro-
bation or parole, and more than 70 percent of all males had a criminal
record.59 Lawndale had an ocial unemployment rate of 26 percent. While
gentrication is seen as a solution to Lawndales problems, it is not a solu-
tion for the current residents, who are being displaced to make room for
an advancing middle class.
As I learned the story of the CVL rsthand and investigated the HAA
as well, my more basic analysis in People and Folks of the role of deindus-
trialization and gangs became a bit more complicated. It was not primar-
ily economic factors that transformed the CVL into a drug business. The
devastation in Lawndale caused by deindustrialization followed a path to
perdition paved by racism.60 The CVL would follow a third world trajec-
tory of social exclusion, not climb the ethnic succession ladder like the
Irish HAA.
To understand why the CVL did not end up like the HAA, racism is an
indispensable independent variable. Race, not class, DuBois said, was the
fundamental dividing line of the industrial era. This tale supports Michael
Omi and Howard Winants assertion that we should think of race as an ele-
ment of social structure rather than as an irregularity within it; we should
see race as a dimension of human representation rather than an illusion.61
Black and, in a slightly dierent way, Latino gangs were seen not as suc-
cessors or rivals to their white Irish counterparts but as the othersome-
thing alien and dangerous, threatening white civilization with the heart of
darkness. But while this chapter supports Derrick Bells notion of the per-
manence of racism, the global era causes us to look at racism in a new light.
As I earlier pointed out, the insecurity and oppressiveness of globaliza-
tion has meant a return to local, ethnic, and religious identities. These
resistance identities seek to reclaim meaning, self-determination, and self-
respect in an era of the dominance of global corporations and U.S. military
hegemony. In ghettos, barrios, and favelas around the world, the dispos-
sessed and their gangs forged cultural responses to the dominant white
culture and society. Among those responses were hip-hop and gangsta rap.
chapter 7
Reconsidering Culture:
Race, Rap, and Resistance
You should be thinking about a culture when you say, hip-hop.

k r s - o n e
How can anyone understand the outlook of gang members today without
exploring the meaning of gangsta rap? Rap is an immensely popular, world-
wide cultural genre, its hardcore version sensationalizing the gangster life-
style. But it has not been a topic considered particularly important by the
eld of criminology or the study of gangs. The lack of social science analy-
sis of gangsta rap is a consequence of criminologys systemic deracializing
of both gangs and culture. It is a good example of what Robin D. G. Kelley
means in his blistering critique of the lack of complexity in white social
science.1
This brief chapter argues that culture has assumed a much greater im-
portance in the global era than in the classical sociology of modernity.2 On
the one hand, American mass culture operates as a ubiquitous homoge-
nizing force, with rap becoming the music of choice for youth worldwide
as media companies merchandize the rhymes of violence.3 On the other
hand, rap and hip-hop have also become a contagious culture of rebellion,
the precise denition of what Manuel Castells means by resistance iden-
tity. Tricia Rose says:
Like generations of white teenagers before them, white teenage rap fans are
listening in on black culture, fascinated by its dierences, drawn in by main-
stream social constructions of a black culture as a forbidden narrative, as a
symbol of rebellion.4
85
86 reconsidering culture
What we are witnessing in hip-hop is the creation of a powerful global

identity based on street experiences that are lled with multiple meanings,
contradictions, and intense cultural struggle. This complexity is not un-
derstood by mainstream social science. Those, like Cornel West, who have
realized the importance of hip-hop are often cited in a politically correct
manner that race matters, but politely ignored when their philosophic
attention turns to hip-hop.5 Many who write about gangs today remain
ignorant of basic facts, even the dierence between hip-hop and gangsta
rap, and are unaware of the crucial role of gangs in the history of hip-hop
culture.
As I discuss in the next chapter, engaging in the ongoing, erce struggle
within hip-hop over the misogyny and thug life of gangsta rap may be the
single most important contribution we can make to tap the energy of the
streets and heal the breach between generations, races, gender, and classes.
Culture and Industrial Age Social Science

The Chicago school sociologists took cultural matters seriously but believed
that culture mainly referred to the traditions of the old world, which the
modern world threatened by the mechanical rhythms of the factory and
the anonymity of urban life. The modern era meant the replacement of
the chains of culture by the freedom of science,6 and American culture
was not at rst a central concern. Later, in the major industrial-era stud-
ies of gangs, American culture and subcultures were seen as dependent on
social structure, as largely situational, in Ulf Hannerzs terms.7 For Richard
Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, in their classic work Delinquency and Opportu-
nity, retreatist, ghting, and criminal gang subcultures were ecolog-
ically derived from dierent kinds of neighborhood opportunity structures.
The typical reader of this classic work might not realize that the violent
subculture being described was in fact African American gangs in New
York City housing projects and criminal subcultures based on the Maa in
Sicilian or Italian neighborhoods.
A studied deemphasis on race and ethnicity still dominates research on
gangs today and gets its theoretical rationale from the social disorganization
tradition, currently exemplied by William Julius Wilson and Rob Sampson.
For Wilson, culture is basically a response to social structural restraints
and opportunities.8 In an important article, Sampson and Wilson argue
that the culture of the streets is antagonistic to community organization.
reconsidering culture 87
The basic thesis is that the macro-social patterns of residential inequality give
rise to the social isolation and ecological concentration of the truly disad-
vantaged, which in turn leads to structural barriers and cultural adaptations
that undermine social organization and hence the control of crime. . . . our
argument is that if cultural inuences exist, they vary systematically with struc-
tural features of the urban environment.9
Culture, in this view, is responsive to variations in social structure; there-

fore, the attention of policymakers, logically, should focus more on jobs
and education, not the culture of the poor.10 Wilson, Sampson, and other
social disorganization theorists are arguing against the more conservative
view of a culture of poverty, which posits the existence of a debilitating
underclass culture that is independent of structural forces. Wilsons work
is a stern rebuke to those who argue that the culture of the lower class is
self-perpetuating and therefore will not budge even with more opportuni-
ties for jobs or education. Wilson also consciously seeks to alter the dis-
course of social change from race to class, deecting policymakers from
nding the hidden agenda behind his universal solutions.11
Within the gang literature, Walter Miller represents the conservative cul-
ture of poverty view, arguing that gangs have not changed over the decades,
since their behavior is the result of a stable lower class culture. Gang
members street-oriented outlook is made up of focal concerns of trou-
ble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy.12 While in
my previous work I have criticized Millers views by pointing out that the
live-for-today cultural traits he ascribes to the lower class are also charac-
teristic of the rich,13 what should be noted here is that Millers culture of
poverty is deracialized and ethnically neutral. For an anthropologist, Millers
disregard of race and ethnicity is striking.
In Millers work, as with that of Cloward and Ohlin, Albert Cohen, and
other subculturists, ethnicity and race, as well as religion, are virtually absent
in explaining how gang members make meaning in their lives. Their delin-
quent subcultures produce meaning through gang members nonracial,
antisocial, and criminal acts. This is, at best, extremely one-sided. Anyone
who spends any time on the streets knows that for black, Hispanic, Asian,
and white gang members, ethnicity and race are crucial aspects of their lives.14
Classical criminology of all strains denes the behavior of gang mem-
bers in terms of their deciencies, their broken families or disorganized
neighborhoods. While personal, familial, and community problems cer-

tainly are inuential in understanding gangs, they lead us away from racial
oppression and understanding the source of the alienation that is so fun-
damental to inner-city gangs and their culture.
Some researchers of black communities in the social disorganization tra-
dition do emphasize race and culture. Notably, Elijah Anderson has exam-
ined how black street corner men construct a deeply racialized meaning of
their lives in Chicago and Philadelphia. I have already highlighted Ander-
sons view of the anonymous black male as Americas other. But Ander-
son, true to his social disorganization roots, also argues that a we/they
dichotomy is simplistic, that the underlying issue is class.15 Andersons
ethnography, I believe, is shackled by his Chicago school, nonracial, eco-
logical training.
More signicant for this chapter, however, are Andersons views of the
code of the street, which he sees as a cultural adaptation to a profound
lack of faith in the police and judicial system.16 The core of Andersons
book of the same name revolves around categories of street and decent.17
While decent families struggle for respectability, street youth
sometimes model themselves after successful local drug dealers and rap artists
like Tupac Shakur and Snoop Doggy Dogg. . . . Highly alienated and embit-
tered, they exude generalized contempt for the wider scheme of things and
for a system they are sure has nothing but contempt for them.18
Though Anderson mainly seeks to explain how cultural street codes lead
to violence, his lack of faith is closely related to Wests thoughts on nihil-
ism within the black community. Anderson sensibly explains the code as
being rooted in a history of masculinity that has a tragic echo in todays
truly disadvantaged black neighborhoods.
The code is not new. It is as old as the world, going back to Roman times
or the world of the shogun warriors or the early American Old South. . . .
But profound economic dislocations and the simultaneous emergence of the
underground economy that thrives on the law of the jungle implicit in the
code have exacerbated conditions in many communities.19
Andersons powerful portraits stretch the limits of modernist social the-

ory by simultaneously elevating a racialized outlook while also explaining
it as mainly an adaptation to the new deindustrialized world. The code

of the streets, Anderson implies, will change as economic conditions im-
prove. While this is hard to contest, the more important point is to under-
stand how people react and make meaning when their life chances do not
improve. This is one meaning of the permanence of racism.
The insight that street culture reproduces the social relations of society
has been convincingly portrayed by Philippe Bourgois, Lisa Maher, and
Kathleen Daly, as well as Jay MacLeod, who consciously follows in Paul
Williss footsteps.20 But street culture, as these scholars are aware, is not just
reproduction but also resistance, and it is those forms of resistance that merit
more investigation.
The global era, I have sought to show, has resulted in economic and
social polarization in much of the world. Along with the global reach of
the mass media, neoliberal policies have spawned cultural opposition, with
religious, racial, and ethnic identities becoming the main source of mean-
ing for literally billions of people. To better understand the racialized culture
of the street, and the centrality of hip-hop to it, I need to briey revisit the
theories of Manuel Castells and his mentor, Alain Touraine, before drop-
pin science on the stage of hip-hop culture.21
The Dissociation of Culture and Social Structure

The concept of the dissociation of culture and social structure is simple to
understand but has explosive consequences for social theory. What Castells
and Touraine mean is that the world today is fundamentally torn by the
battle between unfettered markets and local, religious, ethnic, and racial
identities. The class struggles of the industrial era, though still very real, no
longer describe the most serious and important conicts in the world, which
revolve around religion, race, and ethnicityin a word, identity. Touraine
explains the fundamental contradiction of this new era:
Whilst the law of the market is crushing societies, cultures, social movements,
and the obsession with identity is trapping them into a political arbitrariness
which is so complete that only repression and fanaticism can sustain it.22
That elites manipulate some of these conicts does not make them less
real or destructive.23 Our unitary civilization is decaying, and what is being
assaulted with even more vehemence in the era of globalization is the ability
of social actors, other than the cosmopolitan global elite, to make society
rational, that is, to produce actual social change for the less advantaged.24
This depoliticizes the many and creates dangers for both the global elite
and the poor.
The poorest dene themselves in terms of a religion; the richest by appeal-

ing to a reason, which is, they believe, exclusively theirs. . . . On the one
hand, the liberal call for an open society easily becomes cultural imperial-
ism. On the other, the appeal to identity produces dangerous moral majori-
ties and still more dangerous national fronts.25
There is a profound and reasonable cynicism among the vast majority of

the worlds people about their inability to produce social change, whether
through elections or revolution. With no Winter Palace to be seized,
Castells says, outbursts of revolt may implode, transformed into every-
day, senseless violence.26 Among the most excluded, like the African Amer-
ican underclass, their resulting no-exit-in-sight nihilism becomes a culture
of urgency. Like Touraine, Castells fears the violence and bigotry implicit
in the power of identity, which necessarily means dening ones self or group
in opposition to an other. The potentially fearsome consequences of the
fanaticism of identity parallels the self-destructiveness of street culture in
Bourgoiss work.27
Castells, however, goes beyond Touraines dark analysis and social repro-
duction theory and argues that it is the very creation of resistance identity
that can also replace outdated industrial-era socialist or liberal ideals with
new hope, what he calls a project identity.28 Arjun Appadurai, in the same
vein, denes culture as the mobilization of group identities.29 Similarly,
bell hooks suggests,
Its exciting to think, write, talk about, and create art that reects passionate
engagement with popular culture, because this may very well be the cen-
tral future location of resistance struggle, a meeting place where new and rad-
ical happenings can occur.30
While the industrial era was marked by the ability of humanity, with its
machines and its culture, to subdue nature, the information age creates the
possibilities of a culture that can have the power to transform humanity,
by asserting the self-worth and dignity of people and social movements in

the face of, and in spite of, an all-powerful technology. Touraine explains,
Industrial society had transformed the means of production; postindus-
trial society transforms the ends of production, that is, culture.31
The shift to an information society is more than the replacement of one
set of elites by another. In the richest countries, Touraine explains, youth
culture, the messages of the media, and the attractions of mass consump-
tion mean that social demands are now expressed in nonpolitical ways.32
Those with power are those who dene the cultural models that are prop-
agated worldwide through the ubiquitous mass media. Castellss resistance
identities are the desire for nonsocial relations in an overowing sea of in-
formation, whether in the form of propaganda, advertising, or Web sites
in the millions. The construction of these identities is a life preserver to
save people from drowning in a ood of information. The danger is that
the power of identity can retreat, as Touraine, Castells, and hooks fear, into
a bigoted world of racism, essentialist nationalism, and misogyny, or else
lead to a surrender to consumerism that only reproduces existing relations
of power. These are the precise contradictions that divide and dene hip-
hop culture.
chapter 8
Street Wars: Hip-Hop and the Rise

of Gangsta Culture
When we made Hip Hop, we made it hoping it would be about peace, love,
unity and having fun so that people could get away from the negativity that was
plaguing our streets (gang violence, drug abuse, self hate, violence among
those of African and Latino descent).
afrika bambaataa, http://www.zulunation.com/hip_hop_history_2.htm
Hip-hop today is torn by a searing culture war between two dierent resis-
tance identities: a deant but life-arming black Atlantic hip-hop and
the consumer-oriented corporate hip-hop that now controls gangsta rap.
This chapter seeks to understand the contradictions within hip-hop and
how they shape, and are shaped by, the multiple conicting identities of
gang members.1
Rather than locate a gang subculture in dierent kinds of neighbor-
hood opportunity structures, or as an epiphenomenon of larger, more
fundamental structural forces, this chapter argues that hip-hop is a cen-
tral way for gang members and other young people (and some not so young)
to make meaning out of their lives. Consistent with my argument in the
last chapter, I see culture as reecting and reproducing structural condi-
tions, but also rising above them as a powerful, independent force in its
own right. In other words, culture is responsive, but also transformative. It
is reproductive, but also productive.
In the face of desperate ghetto conditions and the permanence of racism,
some claim that hip hop has become the primary vehicle for transmitting
culture and values to this generation, relegating black families, community
93
94 street wars
centers, churches, and schools to the back burner.2 While this may be an
overstatement, in many ways the key to understanding gangs is to get
their music: where it came from, what it represents, why they like it, and
what potential it can tap.3
Gangs and Hip-Hop: A Brief History

Hip-hop is a worldwide street culture and consists of four elements: MCing
(or rapping), DJing (spinning and scratching records), breakdancing, and
grati art.4 Some say that Rappers Delight, a 1979 song by the Sugar Hill
Gang, is the source of the term hip-hop: the song begins with the lyrics da
hip da hop, da hippity da hip hip hop and you dont stop. Others say Love-
bug Starski coined the term much earlier.5 Gangsta rap is a subgenre of hip-
hop, and while it is a hyperbolic representation of street culture, it is also
a big moneymaker for media conglomerates like Time Warner.
Hip-hop had its immediate origins in the music, dance, and art of Afri-
can American and Latino youth in the South Bronx in the early 1970s. As
a musical form, it is notable that it came from the streets, not the studios.
Like the devils music of the blues,6 it is not based in middle-class ex-
perience but in an expression of the dispossesseds misery and deance of
racism and poverty.7 The South Bronx of the seventies was the perfect envi-
ronment for the rise of hip-hop. Some 170,000 black and Latino peoples
had been dislocated because of Robert Mosess Cross-Bronx Expressway
and other urban development projects.8 Communities were shattered and
left leaderless. Arson cleared out whole areas, making the South Bronx look
like it had been bombed. The area became the symbol of the desolation and
poverty of blacks and Puerto Ricans in the United States.
In Chicago and Los Angeles, similar situations of turmoil produced pow-
erful gangs that became entrenched in their communities. New York City
too had well-known gangs, and many more of them at the time than Chi-
cago or Los Angeles. If ever an opportunity existed that would allow gangs
to persist and become major forces in their communities, it would have
been the South Bronx in the 1970s. Yet, unlike Chicago and LA, older gangs
in the Bronx faded, with the inevitable new, younger ones taking their
place. Why?
In chapter 1 I alluded to the reasons: New York City under John Lindsay
did not declare war on gangs, as did Richard J. Daley in Chicago and Samuel
Yorty in LA, but attempted to reach out to the ghettos. The importance
street wars 95
of Lindsays modest social opportunities policy may not have been what it
did but what it did not dotry to suppress gangs by large-scale incarcer-
ation. Rather than prison aiding the institutionalization of gangs and assist-
ing them to become the center of youthful rebellion, the streets hosted a
new musical form.
The key gure is not Lindsay, however, but Afrika Bambaataa, the god-
father of hip-hop. As one of the rst MCs, his vision for hip-hop has
remained one pole of an intense cultural struggle among youth today. Bam-
baataa, whose given name is Kevin Donovan, was a warlord in the Bronx
River Project division of the Black Spades, one of that areas largest, most-
feared street gangs. Unlike Bobby Gore, a Chicago singer (the Clevertones)
and leader of the Vice Lords, Bambaataa was not targeted for arrest and
prison. Instead he left the gang and turned his talents to use music to lure
kids from the violent life of the streets.
Bambaataa was enthralled with all types of musical styles and seized on
and popularized the rapping of street youth, the scratching of records, and
roles of DJ and MC at street parties. His music joined with other innova-
tors, like Kool Herc, a transplanted Jamaican who introduced the Trench-
town system of setting up large speakers on street corners, turning South
Bronx neighborhoods into raucous block parties.
Bambaataa early on saw that music and the not-yet-named hip-hop had
the potential to pull kids from the self-hatred and destructive behavior that
is an all-too-common response to poverty and racism. At some point he
started to believe, S. Craig Watkins says in his incisive Hip Hop Matters,
that the energy, loyalty, and passion that dened gang life could be guided
toward more socially productive activities.9 Bambaataa went on to found
a performing group called The Organization, then later formed the Zulu
Nation, a remarkable collective of New York artists that included Queen
Latifah and LL Cool J.
Hip-hop emerged, Tricia Rose eloquently points out,
from the deindustrialization meltdown where social alienation, prophetic

imagination, and yearning intersect. Hip hop is a cultural form that attempts
to negotiate the experiences of marginalization, brutally truncated opportu-
nity, and oppression within the cultural imperatives of African-American
and Caribbean history, identity, and community.10
96 street wars
Hip-hop would have many facets, but was essentially created as an oppo-
sitional form of identity, reecting Bronx youths collective struggle for self-
recognition and meaning in bleak surroundings. Alternative local identities
were forged in fashion and language, street names, and most important, in
establishing neighborhood crews or posses.11
In other words, rather than the identity of gang member, what took the
South Bronx by storm was a racialized, oppositional identity based in cul-
ture. Watkins explains that Afrika Bambaataa professed, Hip hops real
power and true signicance resides in its capacity to empower young peo-
ple to change their lives.12 Cornel West sums up the essence of hip-hop
culture:
The basic aims of hip-hop music are threefoldto provide playful enter-
tainment and serious art for the rituals of young people, to forge new ways
of escaping social misery, and to explore novel responses for meaning and
feeling in a market-driven world.13
To be sure, hip-hop did not spring like a rapping Minerva from the head
of Afrika Bambaataa. While some want to dene hip-hop as authentic
black culture, in reality hip-hop is a marvelous hybrid, a merger of earlier
blues, the West African griot, or call and response and emphasis on drum-
ming, the Afro-Brazilian martial arts dance capoeira, and the Jamaican toast-
ing tradition, as well as the African American celebration of male outlaws
like Stagger Lee.14 Puerto Rican and other Latino inuences were pres-
ent in New York in the early years, and Mexican inuences helped shape
West Coast rap.15 West African and Jamaican music, among others, make
hip-hop essentially a black Atlantic culture, to extend an idea from Paul
Gilroys seminal work.16
Borrowing heavily from W. E. B. DuBoiss concept of double conscious-
ness, Gilroy points out that black culturelike hip-hopderives from
many African, Caribbean, and European inuences. The diversity of this
culture is, in fact, its strength, speaking in many dierent voices and with
many dierent messages. The postmodern deconstruction of authentic,
essentialist identities has a paradigmatic example in the amazing global pas-
tiche of hip-hop. The struggle over these contradictory tendencies and var-
ious identities, I argue, is of central importance for the future of our youth.
street wars 97
The Two Faces of Gangsta Rap

Gangsta rap has always been a powerful voice as one kind of hardcore rap.17
Gangsta rap has been popular, in essence, because it expresses the rage of
the gang member in the ghetto and his deance of the white mans system,
particularly the police. This black rage has always found a cultural outlet,
in music with the blues, and in the angry, passionate writings of Richard
Wright, James Baldwin, Toni Morrison, and many others. For example,
Eldridge Cleaver, the former convict and Black Panther, shocked many with
Soul on Ice by writing that the rape of white women was an insurrectionary
act . . . defying and trampling on the white mans law.18
What is often missed in the numerous denunciations of Cleavers quite
real ideas of male supremacy is his self-reection over this rage on the books
very next page. There Cleaver says that he could not approve the act of
rape, that his actions as a rapist cost him his self-respect. The man,
Cleaver, vowed to give his rage a cultural solution: That is why I started
to write. To save myself. This became Cleavers way of reacting to nihil-
ism. Similarly, the rage that comes from recognition of the permanence
of racism sets both the emotional and creative conditions for the emer-
gence of the cultural response of gangsta rap.
The popularity of gangsta rap comes from its ironic and deant nature,
its hardcore beats, and its very negativity in a world that appears unchange-
able. At times, Ice Cube says, there is no message, just reality. Ice-T adds:
This music isnt supposed to be positive. Its supposed to be negative, be-
cause the streets are negative. Ice Cube argues that gangsta rap is hated
because it is telling the truth about the ghetto, not sugarcoating racism and
poverty. We tell kids the truth. . . . The world is an ugly place.19
Pious condemnations of gangsta rap by notables like Bob Dole or Bill
Clinton ring hollow when these same politicians shamelessly accept millions
in campaign contributions from the movie stars of Hollywood, Americas
rst and foremost evil empire of sex and violence. Many denunciations of
the inuence of rap on young people are humorless, missing its irony and
how rappers poke fun at white America. How else are we to understand
Tupac Shakurs hilarious taunt that listening to him is like watching OJ
All-Day. Picture me Rollin!? Or enjoy any video from the aptly named
Ludacris.
Robin D. G. Kelley tries to counter the moral majority tide by pointing
98 street wars
to raps cultural nature: Lest we get too sociological here, we must bear in
mind that hip hop, irrespective of its particular avor, is music.20
The power of gangsta rap to thrill black youth is why important, street-
smart black religious gures like Louis Farrakhan have come to its defense
and worked directly with rappers to organize gang truces and stop the vio-
lence. Gangsta rap is the power of negativity to keep on living in the aware-
ness of ghetto conditions that are unlikely to be improved by government,
business, or liberal whites. It is a form of testimony for the underclass
and its gangs.21 Like the blues, its style and message can stare painful truths
in the face and persevere without cynicism or pessimism.22
But that said, gangsta rap is more than words of rebellion. In the early
nineties, raps east coast and west coast represented ganglike enemies and
a feud that would cost hip-hop some its most talented stars, such as Tupac
and the Notorious B.I.G. Those wars were real and lethal, but also a grim
reection of the music industrys amoral capacity to exploit even murder
for prot.
Keith Clinkscales, in 1997 the CEO of Vibe, a prominent hip-hop mag-
azine, said that the marketing of evil is a double-edged sword. Murder,
Clinkscales argued, apparently without irony, is not good for business.
While Clinkscales personally cannot condone some of the nihilism and
misogynistic elements, hip-hop artists, he says, should have the opportu-
nity to have their work judged by the market.23 The sound you hear is
not hip, hippity, hop but ka-ching.
Corporate Hip-Hop
It was the revolution in information technology that transformed the music
business and led to the discovery of rap. Billboard, the music magazine,
had traditionally provided ratings of the popularity of songs for the indus-
try. These ratings were based on the sampling of opinions of music store
owners. In 1991 the music industry switched over to a computerized count
of sales, called SoundScan, and the results shocked insiders and outsiders
alike. Rap music was incredibly popular, based on actual sales, and a giant
market waiting to be devoured.24 SoundScan reported that N.W.A.s clas-
sic, Niggaz 4 Life, sold 900,000 copies in the rst week it was out, and Dr.
Dres Chronic sold a previously unheard-of 3 million copies.25 Look at the
top of the SoundScan, said Ice Cube in 1996. All the top SoundScans are
actually hardcore rap.26
street wars 99
A potential white clientele for black artists had been exploited before by
music companies. Michael Jacksons 1983 Thriller music video had mas-
sive crossover appeal. Yo! MTV Raps was introduced in 1989, with impres-
sive ratings among blacks and whites. Already by 1991 it was reported that
suburban whites then made up the largest customer base for rap music.27
When the SoundScan numbers went through the roof, you could almost
see music industry moguls wiping the drool o their wide-eyed, money-
hungry faces.28
What they bought and packaged was the hardcore beats of gangsta rap,
to which they added the most stereotyped messages, aimed to appeal to
white consumers who wanted to vicariously experience a fantasized, exotic
ghetto life. The more violence and sex the better, following Hollywoods
tried-and-true formula. Artists were pressured to add more authentic street
violence to their lyrics and to look the part of the gangster, anked in their
videos with scantily clad sex objects. Everywhere I go, Tupac deadpans,
I see the same ho.
Entrepreneurs like Death Row Records Suge Knight saw the dollar signs
in the crossover appeal of gangsta rap. Suges real genius was in shaping
street culture for consumption by the youth of America.29 In big music
companies a devotion to sex and violence almost ruled out other forms of
hip-hop. KRS-One reects on his experience working at Time Warner:
They wanted artists who basically thugged it out and pimped it out and
it was a disappointment.30 The rap mogul Russell Simmons puts it bluntly:
I dont like the trend toward so many gangster records in rap, but I am
an art dealer and thats what is selling now.31 Gangsta rap today has be-
come an almost wholly owned subsidiary of corporate hip-hop. To white
dominated mass media, bell hooks adds, the controversy over gangsta rap
makes great spectacle.32 Mike Davis hits it on the head: Hollywood is
eager to mine Los Angeles barrios and ghettoes for every last lurid image
of self-destruction and community holocaust.33
Pushing gangsta rap on the air might help explain its popularity among
fantasizing white teens, but the rhymes of violence indisputably resonate
with, and derive from, the street. The SoundScan database came out in 1991
just as the crack wars were at their most intense. Tupacs To Live and Die
in LA was a creative expression of street-level reality. Homicide rates in
U.S. cities reached record highs as gangs competed for drug markets and for
the chance to get rich or die trying, striving to turn their daily nightmares
100 street wars
into the American Dream. By the summer of 1993, Kelley says, gangsta
rap had been reduced to nihilism for nihilisms sake.34
This harrowing experience of a life lived close to death shaped a street-
based gangsta identity. I never sleep, Nas raps, cause sleep is the cousin
of death. As Kelley writes:
The criminalization, surveillance, incarceration, and poverty of black youth
in the postindustrial city have been the central themes in gangsta rap and
thus constitute the primary experiences from which cultural identities are
constructed. . . . a new ghettocentric identity in which the specic class,
race, and gendered experiences in late-capitalist urban centres coalesce to
create a new identityNigga.35
I was doing research in Milwaukee in 1991 with a sta of former gang

members as community researchers to chart what happened to the gangs
I had studied in the rst edition of People and Folks.36 The sounds of our
oce were racked with N.W.A. on the boom box, and we cruised the city
listening brazenly with open windows to N.W.A.s Fuck tha Police. The
guys laughed at the misogynist tales in cuts such as Just Dont Bite It,
claiming, and almost convincing themselves, that N.W.A.s raps were what
life in the crack house was really like. The all-time-high murder totals in
Milwaukee were reected in the violent gangsta rap music my sta loved to
play. I watched my gangster sta emulating the gangsta or nigga iden-
tities performed by N.W.A.
On the one hand, gangsta raps booming popularity, constant play, and
erotic, money-worshiping music videos reinforce racist stereotypes among
whites. On the other hand, these stereotypes also have had an inuence
on gang members themselves. This new, studio-produced gangsta or nigga
identity now inuences how actual gang members, and other youth, see
themselves: life imitating art imitating life in a manner that would make
Jean Baudrillard proud.37 The internalization of the gangsta identity, de-
ned crudely by the twisted imagination of white record company execu-
tives, is one of the most pernicious consequences of the rise of rap music
worldwide.38
Hip-Hops Challenge to the Gangsta

But while the record companies were exploiting the violence for their own
prots, there were also intense reactions within the hip-hop community.
street wars 101
Hip-hop began as a life-arming street culture, and the music industry

was systematically turning it into an updated minstrel show, with no black-
face needed. As Afrika Bambaataa disdainfully said, some gangsta rappers
need a check up from the neck up.39
The struggle against hip-hops corporate, exoticizing tendencies was well
known on the streets if not among criminologists. Hip-hop had civil rights
era predecessors in the Last Poets, a group of militant rappers founded
after the murder of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The great Gil Scott-Heron
struggled mightily against the depoliticization of the black community in
the 1970s, calling for a renewed commitment to struggle in his famous rap
The Revolution Will Not Be Televised. Already in 1984, KRS-One, a
major player in hip-hop history, had taken to the air with a passionate plea:
If you wanna get to the tip top, stop the violence in hip hop. Rap, for
KRS-One, was rebellious music not gangster music.40
In fact it was both, and the struggle against the glorication of the gangsta
identity continued full force with such brilliant performers as Public Enemy,
who scored with their Burn Hollywood Burn, Fight the Power, and
other hot cuts. Tupacs career displays both sides of this dialectic, the thug
life and the community activist, with Tupacs roots going back to his famous
Black Panther mother, Afeni Shakur.41 In the last few years, a reaction to
the west coast/east coast gangsta beats has taken center stage, with a south-
ern, more house party sound from artists such as Juvenile, Outkast, Arrested
Development, and, of course, Missy Elliott.
What is crucial is the struggle to dene an identity, one that is oppo-
sitional and liberatory but does not go over the poetic cli into nihilistic
despair and self-destruction.42 West comments, One way of understand-
ing the sub-genre of gangsta rap is as an extreme, exaggerated, metaphoric
form of the struggle for recognition.43
What mainstream social science and the public alike lose sight of is that
the culture of hip-hop has spawned multiple conicting identities and
divided loyalties, in a manner succinctly dened by hooks and, on a more
general level, Craig Calhoun.44 Some of these identities are merely dressed-
up versions of an All-American, keep your mind on your money and your
money on your mind culture. The seduction of gangsta rap by the big
bucks of the music companies has stripped the authenticity of the streets
from much of it, and if gangsta rap began as tragedy, it too often reigns
as farce. Oppositional identities of thug, pimp, revolutionary, drug dealer,
102 street wars
party girl, or playboy are put on stage as a bald and often ironic challenge
to mainstream culture.
It is also a reality that rapping today is a way to get paid, a way to nd
work and make money in the ghetto. The road to success of a rapper does
not necessarily depend on education, rich investors, or connected friends.
Rap has become a widely practiced form of the informal economy, a poten-
tial bridge to a hoped-for music contract. Being a rapper can be a career
alternative to drug dealing. Rappers are todays Horatio Algers, pulling
themselves up by their own bootstraps or, in this case, microphones. While
the big music companies demand conformity as the price of success, a
booming digital underground also exists where rappers perform and com-
pete and develop their art.
What in fact has been going on in hip-hop culture since its creation is
a vivid, no-holds-barred struggle between a host of dierent identities, some
destructive, some liberatory, some playful, but nearly all deant and much
loved by the worlds youth. This kind of struggle is inherent in any living
culture and, I think, needs to be joined by those who wish to seriously
combat the inuence of the gangster lifestyle. I explore this further by look-
ing rst at gangsta raps infamous misogyny and then at hip-hop around
the world and its central importance for gangs.
Whos a Tramp?
Salt-N-Pepa, an early female hip-hop trio, in a lively, fun-loving rap, turns
the label of tramp on its head.
So I dissed him, I said yous a sucker, get your dirty mind out the gutter. . . .
Then I walked away, he called me a tease, youre on a mission, kid, yo hes
a . . . tramp.45
The misogyny of gangsta rap has always been contested by many female
rappers, as well as some men.46 That protest is part of a centuries-long strug-
gle by black women against patriarchal attitudes. As Nancy Guevara says,
The undermining, deletion, or derogatory stereotyping of womens creative

role in the development of minority cultures is a routine practice that serves
to impede any progressive artistic or social development by women that
might threaten male hegemony in the sphere of cultural production.47
street wars 103
While many male rappers dismiss the misogyny of their lyrics as just
words, these words, like the rhymes of violence, have a consequence for
the identities of male and female alike.
The deindustrialization that has devastated poor minority communities
has had a predictable eect on male notions of identity. Loss of even the
capacity to play the role of breadwinner has reinforced historic feelings of
powerlessness for black men and has led to exaggerated, defensive notions
of masculinity. But the new urban conditions also have impacted young
girls,48 and both genders, in and out of gangs, have been heavily inuenced
by gangsta rap and consumer culture.
As hip-hop has matured, female performers have gotten more play and
display nearly the same range of identities as males, both liberatory and self-
destructive. Lil Kim, for instance, as I write, has just been released from
prison for lying in court in the trial of another rapper. Kims sexualized raps
and videos have her spitting out lines like these from Get Yours:
Sayin that you rich and all, tell me whatchu bitchin for
Maybe cause Im gettin minewell is you gettin yours?
Just as female gang members take on dierent identities and roles, some
more independent, others strongly dependent on males, female rappers span
the range of identities of bitch, goddess, street ghter, killer, strong woman,
and sex object. As Elliott told an interviewer,
But I can say that um, women in the Hip Hop eld is gettin more respect
now. Were able to say what the guys use to say or what they say now cause
at rst we couldnt do that, but now its like were more open and we are
more respected now in the business then we were like 1012 years ago when
people like Latifah and Monie was out you know. So I think we starting to
get a lot more respect. As females now and being able to just voice our opin-
ion on how we feel about certain subjects.49
Female rappers, as well as males, turn to religious, ethnic, and racialized

identities to resist urban conditions and mainstream culture. Quite natu-
rally, females as well as males feel pride in their religion, race, or ethnic
group. However, the sexism of men complicates female identity. Iris Rivera,
a Puerto Rican graduate student doing her thesis on female identity and
hip-hop, says of her own experience:
104 street wars
As an adolescent I listened to the old school style of hip hop, and during
the early nineties I was immersed in the new school culture, often times
buying and listening to misogynist music because of its ethnic beat and my
identication with lyrics that denounced police brutality, systematic racism,
and promoted the plight of the ghetto blues.50
Rivera captures the contradiction between self-respect as a woman and

the need to identify with her own, oppressed group. Joan Moore looks at
Muslim gang girls in Europe who face a similar dilemma, of rebelling against
traditional, patriarchal norms while strongly opposing the discrimination
faced by Islam.51 Mary Devitt and I tried to capture this internalized con-
ict with the notion of ghting female: Milwaukee gang girls loved to
ght but many rejected traditional female roles, asserting their indepen-
dence from men who saw them only as pillow queens.52 The identities
of gangsta rap both reect and inform the identities on the street of female
as well as male gang members.
For males, as a response to marginalization, gangsta rap is used to con-
struct the warrior role, as for example Ice-Ts in sending his message to
the soldiers, welcome to the struggle! In this worldview women become
either the protected or the seductive, but always an object, not a subject.
This sexist notion has its roots in the history of the denial of legitimate work
to black men and their corresponding feelings of loss of self-worth. Every
day black males face a culture that tells them that they can never really
achieve enough money or power to set them free from racist white tyranny
in the work world.53
The legacy of slavery and the burden of racism are magnied by Amer-
ican consumer culture that demoralizes men and women of every race who
are not masters of the universe. The glamorizing of gangsta rapwhich
includes the absurd, o-camera return to insurance agents of rented gold
chains by rappers after shooting their music videoshas created an enor-
mous industry of hip-hop consumption.
The well-dressed hip-hop consumer needs to understand the etiquettes
and cues to proper dress and behavior, and spend the big bucks to acquire
the name brands. This aects women as well as men, but the framing of
fashion for women reinforces their role as sexual object. Old school rap-
pers like Salt-N-Pepa, Lauryn Hill, and Queen Latifah spin out counter-
narratives, and Elliott and the new wave of female rap superstars cast an
street wars 105
independent image that is both imposing and erotic.54 But the MTV mas-
ter image remains women as bitches and hos, high-heeled, scantily clad,
big-breasted babes, shaking their booties in a tip drill for the guys.
Just as gangsta rap glamorizes ghetto violence, misogyny is also an all-
too-real aspect of life on the streets. Lisa Maher explains, Hierarchies within
the drug economy serve to reproduce the gender, race, and class relations
of mainstream society, where women occupy menial and sexualized places.55
While female gang members rebel and stand on their own, women in gangs,
as in mainstream society, are dependent on males and are sexualized, objec-
tied, and exploited. Women, including female gang members, are much
less violent than media claims or their BET image.56 However, music video
female violence, reecting the Hollywood success of tough-as-men but-still-
sexy icons like Lara Croft or GI Jane, is basically a new, marketable twist
to traditional male fantasies like 50 Cents Candy Shops.
Today the identity of the pimp has become a corporate hip-hop syn-
onym for the stereotyped black male. The best example is 2006 Academy
Award winner Three 6 Maas Its Hard Out There for a Pimp.
Man it seems like Im duckin dodgin bullets everyday. . . . But I gotta stay
paid, gotta stay above water. . . . Couldnt keep up with my hoes, thats when
shit got harder.
Pimp raps like these promote crude stereotypes of ghetto life and cover
over a profoundly misogynist message in their catchy beats. Anyone, like
me, who has had the unsettling experience of not being able to stop hum-
ming 50 Cent and Snoops hypnotic but disgusting rap P.I.M.P. can un-
derstand the problem.
Finally there is corporate hip-hop superstar Kanye West, who went plat-
inum with his stereotype of the gold digger. On the streets, gold diggers
are a problem for unemployed males only in their wildest dreams, but mil-
lionaire West probably does speak from his own diamonds-are-forever
experience. Corporate hip-hop, in its treatment of violence, money, and
women, is in essence an unholy blend of ghetto fantasyland and suburban
stereotype. It reinforces the worst caricatures of gang members among the
white public and then glamorizes them to the ghettos and barrios.
One countertrend within hip-hop is exemplied by Muslim inuence,
with Public Enemy, Rakim, and others reecting strong, conservative cultural
106 street wars
sentiments. Maulana Rod Karenga, a powerful 1960s voice of cultural nation-

alism, similarly expresses an anticonsumer, Afrocentric critique.
Finally, we must realize and resist the continuing attempt of the corporate
world to benet from the tragedy and creativity of rap. Early it discovered
that it could sell racist stereotypes for a protable price, seduce infantile mil-
lionaires into savaging themselves and their community under the concern
for artistic and personal freedom and it will not miss the opportunity to in-
crease its sales by turning communal and private pain into a protable pub-
lic spectacle. It will certainly convince young people and old that buying the
records of one who has passed (Tupac) is the most appropriate and conve-
nient way to honor the dead regardless of the problems posed for the living.
After all, in a consumer society we are taught that buying is the way we can
cure all ills from frustration and headache and other pain to ongoing oppres-
sion. But again, the oppressor cannot be our teacher and ours is the future
that we dare conceive and struggle to bring into being.57
While there is widespread resistance among male and female rappers,

Muslims and other religious leaders, and much of the public to the gang-
ster and pimp and ho images, this resistance has little chance of changing
corporate hip-hop. As in the rest of Hollywood, sexualized images of women
are the norm, and racist stereotypes of the super y black male still abound.
Indeed, I join with hooks in believing that substantial progress in the cre-
ation of any liberatory identities is possible only if the ght against racist
stereotypes is joined to the ght against misogyny in both rap music and
mainstream U.S. culture.58
A World of Hip-Hop
Any serious investigation or even Google search into hip-hops reach will
quickly reveal that it is a worldwide cultural phenomenon. The 2005 World
Hip-Hop Summit in Africa sponsored the Messengers of Truth project,
which
is about empowering disenfranchised girls and boys living in slums by giving

them a chance to voice their views and opinions on decisions aecting their
livelihoods and by facilitating their access to skills training, job opportunities,
information and means of communication.59
street wars 107
In an interview with Michael Eric Dyson, Toni Morrison many years ear-
lier argued
that what unies hip-hop throughout the world is its emergence from the
others within the empire: for instance the Turks in Germany and the Alge-
rians and North Africans in Francewho bring profound changes in the
nations discourse.60
Gangsta rap, though, is not the only musical style that emulates and idol-
izes deant gang dealers. In Mexico, the corrido, or a style of folk songs, is
one of the most popular forms of music. The narcocorrido is the Mexi-
can form of gangsta rap, glorifying drug smugglers who risk all for money
and fame and snub the Yanquis to boot. Chalino Snchez and other singers
appear on album covers replete with menacing guns and cowboy hats. Even
Mayan gangs or pandillas in San Cristbal happily rap out the latest cuts.61
In Sierra Leone, as in most African countries, American gangsta rap lls
the airways, and youth gangs take the names of Crips, Bloods, X-Clan, and
Niggas with Attitude (N.W.A.).62 But in Sierra Leone, Ibrahim Abdullah
writes, these Western inuences are combined with an indigenous music
called the milo, which originated in the 1940s among rarri boys. The milo
was a form of music among the very poor, not a musical genre of the more
educated. Like gangsta rap, milo music did not carry any social message
about their conditions in society. The lyrics dealt with the vulgar and the
profane.63
Rap music rocks around Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Europe as well.
In Brazil, a distinctive Brazilian rap is the most popular music in the favelas.
The sound of machine guns and themes of shoot-outs with police reect
a violent reality. Members of the rap group Filosoa Gangsta say they per-
form gangsta rap
not because of the message per se but due to the form in which the mes-
sages are conveyed, the aggressive style. We use this label as a style of iden-
tication. We preach gangsterism against the horrible things that happen in
the ghetto.64
When I was in Vigrio Geral, the popular Grupo Cultural Afro Reggae
ran a cultural program in a neighborhood center. A group of local youth
performed a variety of art forms for us, such as drumming and dancing, and
108 street wars
gave a musical lesson on AIDS education. In the tradition of Afrika Bam-

baataa, the Grupo saw culture as a way to pull kids away from the drug
factions. As in the United States, street culture may express violent realities,
but it is mainly constructing an oppositional identity, one that can refuse
to give in to despair. In So Paulo, it is estimated there are at least thirty
thousand rap groups that call themselves gangstas or posses.65
South Africa is also a hotbed for rap music, which has long been inter-
twined with politics, as well as the musical dance form Kwaito.66 One rap-
per, Devious, comments, in words that echo Ice Cube and Ice-T:
I am a strong believer in the truth and therefore I dont beat around the bush
when it comes to exposing it. I also believe in telling it like it is. No sugar
coated fairy tales. Strictly undiluted realness. When I say real, I mean real
people, real situations and real emotions. I feel its important to write about
our reality. As it is important for you to acknowledge it.67
Zubz, MC of the Origins Band, explains his take on the universal appeal
of hip-hop:
I dont believe in local hip hop. I think the term needs to be re-visited. I
believe in South African hip hop. Zimbabwean hip hop. African hip hop. I
believe in the spirit of the music. Its soul. Theres no such thing as a local
soul. I hate the debate that rages on between local and American. Its based
on arguments based on little to do with the music, or art form, or culture, but
on personal agendas aimed at propagating subjective opinion.68
African rappers understand the meaning of black Atlantic culture, since a

major inuence on American rap was the West African griot. Senegals Daara
Js hot release Boomrang expresses this history. The groups MC, Faada
Freddy, says
Hip-hop was born in Africa [and] went around the world to come back to
Africa, like a boomerang that has been thrown from the motherland and is
back home, . . . The rst time we heard Grandmaster Flash rapping on a hip-
hop track, everybody was like, OK, we know this because this is tasso [the
rhythmic oral history in Senegal].69
France was the rst European country where hip-hop made it big, mainly
with youthful, dark-skinned immigrants from the Maghreb living in high-
rises in banlieues. In 1984 the rst TV show Hip Hop picked up the raps
street wars 109
of the earlier free radio movement, and hip-hops mesmerizing beats spread
from there to the rest of Europe.70
In the barrios of New York and Miami as well as in San Juan, Reggaeton
is a blend of Jamaican music with strains of reggae, dancehall, and hip-hop.
Reggaeton, originated by the philosopher, the Puerto Rican rapper Vico C,
is another example of the power of black Atlantic culture, created as a true
voice of Latino and Caribbean youth, not just a Latino hip-hop. Native
forms of hip-hop from New Zealand to Chile to the banlieues of Paris
embrace rap for the same reasons as American youth, as a resistance identity.
A nal example, Palestine, points out the potential of hip-hop as a cul-
ture of liberation. Rap is our way of resisting occupation, Nadir Abu Ayash
tells Al Jazeera. He raps:
Do you remember, or do you choose to forget
that your army, against us, aggressed
my voice will continue to echo, youll never forget
You call me terrorist when Im the one whos oppressed.71
Jackie Salloum, a lmmaker whose Web site, http://www.slingshot.com/,

is lled with video and information on Palestinian rap, says youthful per-
formers in Gaza and the West Bank throw rhymes like others throw rock-
ets. Similar sentiments can be found on http://www.arabrap.net, with the
popular group DAM. There are also instances of Palestinian and Israeli rap
groups performing together, though there is also a right-wing Israeli rapper,
Subliminal, with his jeweled Star of David necklace, spinning nationalist,
Zionist imagery.
The list could go on, from Maoris in New Zealand to youth in Green-
land and Japan, but the main point is that hip-hop is a worldwide resistance
identity, though not the same one for everyone. It can be destructive, nar-
rowly nationalist, fun-loving, bigoted, misogynist, or revolutionary. Rather
than locate meaning for gang members in a narrow delinquent subculture,
I have chosen to look at how a broader youth culture has been inuenced
by gang life and, in turn, shapes meaning in the lives of gang members on
the street.
Gangsta Rap and Religious Fundamentalism

One way to better understand gangsta raps worldwide appeal and potential
is to compare it with fundamentalist religion. Both rap and fundamentalism
110 street wars
provide a deep and rich cultural meaning to their adherents. That cultural
meaning for both consists of the creation of an identity that is at odds with
the secular, civic identities of mainstream modern society. The gangsta and
fundamentalist identities are primary for many of the people involved and
strongly related to their racial or ethnic origins. These identities are relied
on, as Castells says, to shrink an uncertain world into a manageable size
for true believers.72 While in some ways the values embraced by the two
cultures are dierent, both often celebrate violence and masculinity, and
demonize and ridicule the mainstream.
Importantly, both gangsta rap and religious fundamentalism are part of
broader systems of meaninghip-hop and traditional religions. They both
also have had political leanings. Thus many Christian fundamentalists func-
tion as a conservative pressure group to the U.S. Republican Party. Hindu
and Islamic governments in India and the Middle East attempt to survive
by placating fundamentalist critics, like al-Qaeda, that demand loyalty to
the Koran and Islamic Umma, not the state.
Sean P. Diddy Combss 2004 Vote or Die campaign was an attempt
to tie the hip-hop nation to the U.S. Democratic Party. Consciousness rap-
pers like Chuck D of Public Enemy joined Air America Radio and pushed
for the participation of hip-hop-inuenced youth in electoral politics. But
many rappers refused to take the pledge of allegiance to the ag of the Dem-
ocratic Party of cultural conservatives like Tipper Gore. KRS-One called the
decision to vote for one of the two parties like having to choose between
mumps or measles.
The main point, though, is that the political identities of both funda-
mentalist religion and gangsta rap are only one identity among many, and
in sharp conict with other identities. It is the overall power of identity,
Castells argues, that is the main force opposing the globalized power of the
market and accompanying demoralization of the socially excluded. Con-
scious, or positive, rap is but one identity, and attempts to narrow hip-
hop to conscious rap would kill it as a living culture. There are many ways
to provide meaning to young people in the face of persisting ghettos and
jobless barrios and favelas. Trying to re-create the civil rights movement
through hip-hop is only one of them.
Afrika Bambaataa had it right from the beginning: hip-hop today is per-
formed with a postcivil rights voice.73 It is much more than We Shall
Overcome with a beat. Bambaataa preached that hip-hop could give young
street wars 111
people the power to change their lives. It is this power, to use Castellss
terms, that could produce a new project identity of social movements with
clear goals that could transform social relations.
If those of us of the older generation want to lend a hand and not get
in the way of youth, we need to rst speak their language. One way to reach
gang members is to enter the broader world of rap music and the real, ex-
isting struggle over the gangsta identitys worship of drugs and violence,
and disdain for women. Such a cultural battle can be won only with weap-
ons from within the culture.
Gangsta rap is what Castells called a culture of urgency, lled with
individualist values, destructive of the community and the self. But hip-
hop, by its origins and conicted nature, is multifaceted cultural responses
to nihilism, a search for ways out of being paralyzed by the void. Gilroy
comments:
In the simplest possible terms, by posing the world as it is against the world
as the racially subordinated would like it to be, this musical culture supplies
a great deal of the courage required to go on living in the present.74
Tupac grasps the full meaning of Derrick Bells face at the bottom of the
well when he simply says, even though youre fed up, ya got to keep your
head up. While the deance of hip-hop is often condemned by the older
generation, it is precisely that deance in the face of meaninglessness and
desolation that needs to be captured and turned from self-destruction to
self-armation.
Hip-hop makes meaning for young people within ghettos, barrios, fave-
las, and urban spaces worldwide. It expresses the principal cultural contra-
diction in their lives, the nature of their identity. To complete my mission
to understand the world of gangs, I more closely examine the contested
urban spaces where these identities are grown and displayed. There is a
secret war going on: an oensive by the prosperous classes, who are trying
to reclaim for themselves spaces near downtowns that they once neglected
but now covet. Police raids, schemes for development, surveillance cam-
eras, and widespread incarceration are weapons used against the defensi-
ble spaces of the ghettos and their gangs.
chapter 9
Contested Cities:
Gentrication and the Ghetto
When white folk who have never met before, start to talk to each other,
friendly like, it means some ns goin to die.
j e a n - p a u l s a r t r e , The Respectful Prostitute
There is a common, if counterintuitive, factor that closely links gangs, the

ghetto, violence, police, and the prison: gentrication. Investment bankers,
high-priced professionals, and other symbolic analysts want to live near
their colleagues and close to where the action is in refurbished, what they
warmly call charming, spaces near the city center. If the ghetto and its
gangs get in their way, then somethings got to give, and it probably will
not be the Starbucks Army. This chapter is about the secret war now being
waged over space in globalizing cities.
In some cities, particularly in Europe, the poor and immigrants are con-
centrated in outlying suburbs, but in some third world and most U.S. cities
the poor live in older, rundown housing near the central business district.
The new gentry is expanding out from downtown, concentric zone by con-
centric zone, pushing out those who had made these lands their home. Space
in many cities is tied inextricably to race, and the gentrication of cities
typically means a confrontation with the dark ghetto and its gangsa con-
frontation that has nearly always been won by the forces of law and order.
Rates of violence in many, but not all, U.S. cities have, as a result, come
down as wars on gangs, drugs, and crime were waged to make the city safe
and attractive, particularly for its returning whiter-skinned inhabitants.
Gangs have long operated their illicit businesses in the defensible spaces
113
114 contested cities
of housing projects or in dense, low-income neighborhoods. But when these

older areas that have been black or brown for decades begin to whiten, an
architecture of auence and security transforms the landscape. The youth
of these areas become targets of police harassment and end up behind bars
or under constant threat of revocation of parole or probation. Gangs must
adapt or leave.
Urban spaces reoccupied by the gentry, however, seldom benet the ex-
isting residents, whose longtime homes and low-income public housing are
razed or rehabbed to be reborn as pricey condos. What is more important
is that these revitalized areas seldom signal an end to the ghetto. Rather,
as I show in Chicago, the truly disadvantaged are forcibly and rmly trans-
ferred to the citys less desirable zones, where an undying ghetto tragically
re-forms.
The main point of this chapter is that valued spaces of cities have become
a battleground in a erce, if little noticed, war. Gangs are socially con-
structed by a compliant mass media as the demonized and dangerous other
and become a threatening enemy that must be removed by any means
necessary. This one-sided new war diers by city, and how the war is car-
ried out has much to do with variations in urban violence.1 The impor-
tant role played by gangs in urban violence is among the reasons we need
to consider gangs as social actors.
The Importance of Urban Space

Cosmopolitan professionals moving into run-down areas would be mor-
tied to think of gentrication as their version of ethnic cleansing. That
term is reserved for Neanderthals like the late Slobodan Miloevic, or
primitives like the Hutu and Tutsi. But consider this comment by a com-
munity policing ocer in Chicagos Humboldt Park, a Puerto Rican neigh-
borhood undergoing gentrication.
Weve got a lot of yuppies who move here, buy houses at a bargain price, and
then they rehab it. But its not the same neighborhood. . . . its noisy, con-
gested, more diverse, and theres more crime. There are the same kids whove
always played on the streetLatinos, blacks, Filipinos, Arabs. . . . Now all
of a sudden these pioneers want us to round up the Indians and clean
up the neighborhood for them. Basically they want everyone whos not like
them to move somewhere else.2
contested cities 115
Another Chicago police ocer put it even more bluntly. In ordering Pete
Haywood, a black male o a corner near where the Chicago Housing
Authoritys (CHA) Stateway Gardens were being torn down, the blue-clad
defender of law and order brusquely said, This aint CHA no more. Its
the white mans land now. You cant stand there.3 Loc Wacquant under-
scores this racialized discourse of safety:
The result is that everywhere the dominant strategy for ensuring physical
safety in urban space is to avoid younger African Americans. In the dualizing
metropolis, the appraisive slogan black is beautiful has been eectively sup-
planted by the vituperative adage, black is dangerous.4
The broader context for gentrication today is the paramount impor-

tance of the spaces of cities in a globalized world, particularly in those world
cities that John Friedmann and Goetz Wol famously called the control
centers of the global economy.5 The notion that the Internet and uidity
of capital would mean the decreased importance of cities has been laid to
rest by Saskia Sassen, among others.6 Sassen argues that the global city needs
actual, physical spaces for the professional class to interact, to do business,
to be entertained, and to consume their wealth. These spaces are best found
near their workplaces, just as in the nineteenth century the industrial pro-
letariats housing quarters were constructed around major factories. Areas
adjacent to downtownsthe slums of the second concentric circle of Chi-
cago school fameneed to be reclaimed in the information era.
The 1960s are a turning point in my overall narrative in many ways.
This decade marked the closing of the industrial era, the beginning of the
information era, and the rise and fall of social movements. But it also meant
the emergence of cities as crucial nodes in the globalization of nances and
trade. Elites had to make a choice whether to abandon cities or revitalize
them. Debates in the 1970s were lled with laments about the Ungovern-
able or Unheavenly City.7 Popular movies like The Warriors and Fort
Apache, the Bronx portrayed the city as lled with gangs and out of control,8
and lms like Death Wish and its many sequels called for violent responses
by the state and vigilante justice.
While the future of the city once appeared to be at risk, the movie
Escape from New York, which portrayed Manhattan as a walled-o prison-
ghetto, was never even a faint possibility. In reality the new global economy
compelled New York City to urgently retool, to remake itself into a more
civilized workspace and playground for the bankers and other profes-
sionals who lived in Manhattan. Arriving on cue, as Neil Smith says, was
the revanchist city, a city of revenge against minorities, immigrants, and
the dark other.9
At the dawn of the information era, somebut not allcities clearly
saw the need to reclaim run-down spaces for the professional class and pro-
vide housing and consumer markets. Indeed, as Sassen implicitly argues,
an expanding agglomeration of information workers is a trusty sign that a
city has joined the global elite: The downtowns of cities and key nodes
in metropolitan areas receive massive investments in real estate and tele-
communications while low-income city areas and the older suburbs are
starved for resources.10 Those industrial cities that failed to recognize this
transition early on, like Detroit, Bualo, and my hometown of Milwaukee,
continue even into this century to lose population and have high rates of
crime. These rustbelt cities waited too long to nd their niche in the global
economy and have become the big losers in the globalization game.11
In globalizing cities like Chicago, however, more auent whites who had
earlier left for the suburbs are returning, boosting urban population after
decades of decline. One of my Chicago students, a Puerto Rican male whose
family had resided for years in now-gentrifying Humboldt Park, tragi-
comically described what was happening as white ight. . . . White peo-
ple are eeing the suburbs and taking our homes. Spatial mobility, dened
by the Chicago school as a one-way ticket to the suburbs, has instead turned
into a round-trip aair. The yuppie chickens have come home to roost and,
in the areas of the city they covet, are systematically evicting those who
reside there.
In traditionally black Atlanta, the New York Times reports large numbers
of auent whites are returning and signicantly increasing their share of
the overall city population. New York City is losing black population for
the rst time since the years after the 1863 racist draft riots.12 Importantly,
what is occurring across the United States is not only a class but a racial
transformation. Cities that were becoming increasingly black and run by
black mayors have become cities where whites are returning, often trying
to build alliances with Latinos, to take back or retain power.
Thus we have witnessed the passing of powerful black mayorsHarold
Washington, David Dinkins, and Tom Bradleyand their replacement by
white mayors Rudy Giuliani, Richard M. Daley, and Richard Riordan. LAs
election of Antonio Villaraigosa is testimony to the growing power of Lati-
nos everywhere. Though Villaraigosa is said to be a friend of the black com-
munity, overall fears of a white and Latino antiblack electoral bloc are not
to be dismissed.13 The startling removal of blacks and creoles from New
Orleans and their replacement by Mexican immigrant workers in the wake
of Hurricane Katrina may be a glimpse in fast-forward of what might turn
out to be a new American paradigm of ethnic cleansing.
Worldwide Patterns of Gentrification

In the United States, reclaiming the city and making it safe were closely
related to the war on drugs and the steady increase in the rate of incarcer-
ation of black youth.14 But the pattern of building secure walled commu-
nities and fortied urban villages is international in scope. In Cape Town,
urban development in the 1960s meant the making safe of central areas of
the city called White Group Areas and the expulsion of native blacks
from them. Don Pinnock points out, The heart of the city was to be torn
out as a sacrice to order, cleanliness and progress. He goes on to explain
the extremes taken by the apartheid state, in echoes of Ebenezer Howard
and Baron Haussmanns reconstruction of Paris.15 Over proposals for gar-
den cities and green belts, planners talked of machine-gun zones, buer
strips, military roads, and policeability.16 In Cape Town, electric fences
originally built to protect white settlers against lions are now used as a bar-
rier against blacks.17
Beirut followed a dierent pattern before the devastating 2006 war with
Israel. Following the long civil war of 197590, the city center was destroyed
and in the 1990s became revitalized as a pan-Arab entertainment capital.
Private developers with barely disguised commercial interests and politi-
cal ambitions rebuilt central Beirut by evicting the current poor residents,
which began to eliminate the social fabric and make the city center safe
for the better o.18 The rich and privileged who moved there took shel-
ter in their own bubbles of country clubs, park-townlet preserves which
now punctuate our landscape.19
Similar to French working-class banlieues, the Lebanese poor have been
conned to dahlia, shantytowns in south suburban Beirut, segregated by
religious sects and existing beyond the law.20 One commentator points
out that what is happening in Lebanon, at least in a majority of areas, is
a sectarian ghettoization.21 The rapidly increasing wealth of pre-Israeli-

bombed central Beirut stands in stark contrast to growing marginalized
populations with a strengthened communal identity.
A still dierent tack, and one with sinister implications, has been taken
by Singapore. In an attempt to promote both security and homogeneity,
ethnic kampung settlements were forcibly dismantled and their popula-
tion scattered after the 1950s and 1960s race riots. Singapore sees itself as
the model information city of the future, with its per capita income now
exceeding that of the European Union.22 The suppression of dissent and eth-
nic dierence that characterize this totalitarian city-state has become a model
for the iron-st approach to pacifying the city, though Singapores city-state
status makes generalization questionable. The ght against crime, as Manuel
Castells says, is a battle repeatedly lost over the past decades everywhere
except in Singapore.23 Another commentator says, In Singapore the streets
are safe. There is virtually no crime and no unemployment.24
Singapores economic miracle and its success ensuring this public safety
showcase the use of force to suppress crime and forcibly remake urban spaces
into zones of safety. Cities look far and wide for magic bullets to give them
at least the appearance of security. The apparent success of Giulianis zero
tolerance policies in New York City have brought multimillion-dollar con-
tracts to his consulting rm from cities as diverse as Mexico City and Lon-
don. Many of these cities are worried that high crime rates will discourage
the protable tourist industry and have turned to Giuliani and others to
help them restore law and order. Dennis Judd calls an aspect of the cleans-
ing of cities a tourist bubble where the lucrative tourist spots are kept san-
itized and Tracy Chapmans subcity stays hidden or is silently eradicated.25
One of the most striking studies of the urban war over space is by Teresa
Caldiera, whose City of Walls describes So Paulo, Brazil.26 Caldiera begins
with a discussion of the talk of crime, the discourse used by the more
wealthy residents who are seeking islands of security as they renovate older
urban areas. In So Paulo, as in U.S. cities, the criminals are dened as non-
white, and such racial crime-talk elaborates prejudices and is made up
of stereotypes.
The construction of walled communities in So Paulo, as in gentried
areas of Chicago or settlements on Palestines West Bank, means the sym-
bolic reordering of the world to justify, among other things, a blatant land
grab and persecution of the other. What goes on in the talk of crime, whether
in community policing meetings, discussions of urban planners and devel-

opers, or in small group chatter at coee shops, is the emphasis on the dif-
ference between good and evil. For the new frontiersmen, good means
security and evil means crime. As Caldiera says, the central justication
for fortied enclaves . . . is the fear of violent crime.27
Caldiera describes the city in the language of war, the seizing of desired
spaces in So Paulo from gangs and criminals, and the securing of them
with armed violence by police or vigilantes. This is a familiar discourse in
the United States where perpetual wars on crime, drugs, gangs, and, of
course, terror have been waged by the state over the past decades. So Paulo,
like Peter Marcuses New York City, is a city that is combination enclave,
ghetto, and citadel, the urban archetype in the global era.28 In order to
feel safe, Caldiera sadly concludes, the well-heeled have to build walls.29
Caldiera compares So Paulo with Los Angeles, which Mike Davis de-
scribes as a fortress protecting the white gentry in a black and Latino city
that needs to be pacied by force. Davis relays the story of LAs city attor-
ney, and later mayor, James Hahn, who used civil injunctions to clear some
spaces of gangs. Hahn wanted to criminalize gangs and believed LA was in
a war, so no constitutional rights are absolute. In faint echoes of Sin-
gapore, Hahn said he was no longer interested in rehabilitating gang mem-
bers but in jailing them for as long as possible.30
Davis goes on to discuss the helter-skelter proliferation of LA black
street gangs at a terrifying rate in a somewhat apocalyptic prediction of
coming chaos. Davis wrote City of Quartz as homicide rates were increas-
ing, a few years before the sharp drops in violence in the mid-1990s in Los
Angeles and other cities. Police have used declines in violence to trumpet
the eectiveness of zero tolerance tactics. While this trend has made liberal
academics uncomfortable, the crime drop is an unaccounted-for, stub-
born fact.31 Indeed, variations in violence, the secret war over space, the
unprecedented incarceration of black youth, and the transformation of the
ghetto in the dual city are closely related.32
The Ghetto, Prison, Violence, and Gangs

The ongoing war over urban space is very much like the second U.S. war
on Iraq. Massive repower results in a clear-cut victory in the short term
but hardly an end to hostilities. The new war going on in U.S. cities is
similar to guerrilla resistance to superior U.S. military intervention around
the world: a battle to halt the elimination of a group and the erasure of its
identity. As Mary Kaldor says, The violence in the inner cities of West-
ern Europe and North America can, in some senses, be described as new
wars that are as much about identity as space.33
The struggle over urban space is where racialized resistance identities
often come into conict with the gentry. While the elite are determined
that the ghetto must go, a cosmopolitan identity requires a few of the more
respectable minority residents to remain to add color and diversity.
A lifestyle of auence appreciates the cashbox-culture of ethnic shops and
native goods, in a reasonable proportion to global brand-name stores like
Banana Republic, Starbucks, or Victorias Secret.
Another onerous result of this confrontation is the spatial extension of
the ghetto and its gangs into prison. As I showed in chapter 1, gang iden-
tities inltrate the prison, and prison culture, in turn, diuses to the ghetto.
Wacquant calls the ghetto a collective identity machine for its stigmatiza-
tion of the excluded and the acceptance of this stigmatization by black
ghetto dwellers.34 For Wacquant, the ghetto and the prison share a single
carcereal continuum, a deep kinship as instruments of forced conne-
ment of the U.S. black population. Wacquants critique is a stinging re-
joinder to liberals who reduce racism essentially to poverty and believe the
ghetto is little more than a quantitative extension of ethnic enclaves.
The unchecked intensication of its exclusionary thrust suggests the ghetto

might be protably studied not by analogy with urban slums, lower-class
neighborhoods, and immigrant enclaves, but alongside the reservation, the
refugee camp, and the prison, as belonging to a broader class of institutions
for the forced connement of dispossessed and dishonored groups.35
Wacquant places the emergence of regimes of neo-liberal penalty within

the globalizing world where some populations have become superuous
and mechanisms of social control must be extended. Wacquant in eect
theorizes Caldieras walls of segregation to the United States and then shows
how punitive U.S. polices are being exported around the world.36 As Fried-
mann and Wol argue in their seminal article on world city formation:
Confronted with violence, the nation-state responds in coin. Given the sever-
ity of its scal constraints in the face of rising costs, it resorts to the simplest,
least imaginative alternative: the application of brute force. The response is
acceptable to the new ruling class who generally prefer administrative to polit-
ical solutions. But police repression can at best contain class violence; it can-
not eliminate or signicantly reduce it. Violence is here to stay.37
The reality of ghetto life today, however, is not a static or uniformly vio-
lent one, as some globalization studies seem to imply. Most ghetto walls are
not surrounded by barbed wire, nor are they socially isolated zones com-
pletely cut o from the rest of the city. Violence is neither invariably high
nor unresponsive to a multitude of external factors, even excluding the out-
lier of Singapore. Ghettos move, and walls are often shifting and invisible
to outsiders,38 unlike the deliberately visible electronic fences of privato-
pia or the monstrosity of the Israeli wall criss-crossing the West Bank.39
In the late 1990s signicant reductions in violence occurred in most, but
not all, U.S. cities, while poverty stayed relatively constant or even increased.
Every city diers in how it fashions space for its favored professionals. How
a city wages its war over space and against gangs may be an important fac-
tor in a citys level of violence. One way to understand how gentrication,
the ghetto, police repression, gangs, and violence are tied together is to take
a close look at the city where I work, Chicago.40
Gangs, Public Housing, and the Ghetto

The eort to recolonize the city involves systematic eviction.41 Smiths
words could not have better described the eect of gentrication . . . in
Chicago. While some cities, like Smiths New York, have in fact invested
heavily in aordable and low-cost housing and have stabilized low-income
and working-class areas like the South Bronx,42 others like Chicago have
adopted a conscious policy of systematic eviction of public housing ten-
ants and any residents who get in the way of revitalizing neighborhoods.
Two related processes are underway in Chicago. The rst, nearly com-
plete as I write, has been the destruction of Chicagos high-rise public hous-
ing projects. The second is a simultaneous expansion of the gentry into the
ghettos on the citys north, west, and south sides. Chicagos institutional-
ized gangs have complicated both processes.
Chicagos Segregated Public Housing

In the 1950s the postwar black population explosion meant that aordable
housing had to be increased, and the issue was where. White aldermen
outdid one another in refusing to allow public housing to be built in their

wards, and the solution was to tear down existing housing within the black
belt and put up high-rises. The Chicago Tribune points out, Of the nearly
21,000 low-income family apartments built by the CHA from 1955 through
1968, all but about 2,000 were in high rises.43
Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, in their remarkable biography of
Richard J. Daley, describe the public housing extravaganza:
Hilliard Center was the nal installment in the State Street Corridor. When
it was completed in 1966, this strip of land one-quarter mile wide and four
miles long was home to almost 40,000 poor black tenants. The ve massive
projects lined State Street700-unit Harold Ickes Homes, 800-unit Dear-
born Homes, 1,784-unit Stateway Gardens, and 4,415-unit Robert Taylor
Homesand took up thirty-four consecutive blocks, except for a stretch be-
tween 30th and 35th Streets where the campus of the Illinois Institute of Tech-
nology is located.44
Altogether, thirty-eight thousand units of public housing were created,

which at its height housed as many as one hundred thousand poor black
tenants, including tens of thousands of nonleaseholders residing there
without CHA knowledge or approval. Their concentration and later dis-
persal are two of the sorriest chapters in Chicagos shameful history of racism.
The 1950s CHA strategy for containment of Chicagos black population
unintendedly created defensible spaces for gangs who used the projects
spaces to run their drug and other illegal businesses with impunity. As I
argued earlier, the existence of all-black, low-income public housing high-
rises was not the main factor in the institutionalization of Chicagos gangs,
but it was a major contributor. Gangs controlled the drug business within
the projects and warred with one another in the spaces outside. Here is an-
other Black Gangster Disciples description of the high-rise drug business:
Because, like in the days, the projects were making a lot of money. Thats
when I started really making money in the projects, because they was giv-
ing me two hundred dollar dime bags, that was two stacks. I was sixteen,
thats when I started making my own money, real money. My man gave me
two hundred bags, tell me to bring him back fteen, I keep ve. Then, youre
going to slip two hundred bags in a day, easy. In the morning, from 125,
youre going to make so much money because thats when theyre out. Thats
why everybody was ghting. People thought it was over gangs because you
aint getting along. It was over money, it was over money.45
Another Black Gangster Disciple describes the intensity of the warfare in

Robert Taylor Homes:
a. [In the next building] they had a sniper. And he was standing right there
in front of the building, he was shooting right there . . . and he shot him
in the head.
q. Was this a Mickey Cobra [a rival gang] building?
a. Right. Yeah, cause I was in the back, cause, you know, in our building,
theres a little hole where you do the shoot out. . . . So, thats where I was,
then when I came out, thats when I heard the whole commotion, I heard
what happened to Sonny.
q. How did it make you feel?
a. That was the rst time in my life I felt fed up about what I was doing.
Like, damn, that couldve been me. We couldve been switched spots easy.
Thats the rst time made me think. It didnt stop me, but it made me
think. Damn. Made me nally believe what kind of game I was in.46
Female gang members also sometimes took part in violence. Two Sis-
ters of the Struggle (the BGD-allied female gang) explain:
r1. We was into it with the Iggies [residents of the nearby Harold Ickes
Homes]. . . . We just shot at them. We was like, I hit, you know the Hil-
ton [Robert Taylor Homes] got a lot of oors, and we was like on the . . .
fourth, . . . I just shoot at them.
r2. You could just shoot out the porch. Its like a big open thing. And . . .
theres like a fence right here. Its, hey, you could just shoot. And, you
know, they basically dont know where its comin from.47
The gang violence encouraged by the built environment of low-income

high-rises was met with a variety of sweep tactics that consisted of CHA
or Chicago police rampaging through buildings in a search for weapons,
drugs, or wanted gang members. Like search and destroy missions in Viet-
nam, the sweeps almost always came up empty and cost the CHA $175,000
a pop to carry out.48
These tactics did nothing to lower Chicagos homicide rates that until
the mid-1990s had been similar to New York Citys, though considerably
less than those of Detroit, Washington, D.C., or New Orleans. While mur-
ders dropped at mid-decade in most other cities, Chicagos homicide rate
stayed stubbornly high. Every few years Chicagos police and mayors chanted
the ocial mantra of yet another war against crime and gangs. But in the
mid-1990s the slogans conveniently coincided with the plans of developers
to grab the prime spaces of public housing that now were needed to house
a quickly expanding professional class. Big money meant this time some-
thing would happen.
Destruction of Public Housing High-Rises, Displacement, and Violence

The ve sets of housing projects that lined State Street just south of the Loop
were originally built during the rst Mayor Daleys term to contain the black
community and create a barrier between African American Bronzeville and
the legendary Irish Bridgeport. But the second Mayor Daley was position-
ing Chicago as a big-time player in the global economy, and the nancial
markets and high-tech economy were booming. The new rich needed places
to live and play. Occupying vital space to the south were thirty-four blocks
of high-rises; on the north were the towers of Cabrini-Green; out west were
the four projects that made up what was called ABLA. The talk for the
public was about crime, but the backroom conversations were about money.
The money was to be made on development on top of the spaces of
the CHA. The CHAs Plan for Transformation called for the destruction
of all but one of its 168 high-rises and nearly twenty thousand housing units,
replacing them with a variety of mixed-income residences.49 The CHAs
thirty-eight thousand units were to be replaced by twenty-ve thousand
new units, but half of those would go to senior citizens. The CHA wait-
ing list for housing by 2006 was over sixty thousand.50 While promises to
existing residents of their right of return were made, most tenants knew
relocation in public housing was more talk than action.
If Chicago were Bosnia, of course, the creation of internally displaced
people would be recognized as ethnic cleansing. The areas being cleansed
of black and brown people are among the citys most run-down areas. They
include vast expanses of what Arnold Hirsch called the Second Ghetto,
the all-black spaces of the city that were rebuilt through segregated hous-
ing projects.51
In 2004 Miloon Kothari, the United Nations highest-ranking expert

on housing issues, visited Cabrini-Green, a Chicago housing project slated
for demolition. He stated that evictions of public housing residents in the
United States clearly violate international human rights, including the Inter-
national Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrim-
ination and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights. CHA tenants thus qualify as Internally Displaced People and
are entitled to special protection under UN guidelines.52
But while some attention was given to the many tenants who resisted
displacement,53 what was almost completely overlooked were the conse-
quences of displacing tenants and nonleaseholders who were gang mem-
bers. In Chicago institutionalized gangs claim nearly all neighborhood
spaces, and the movement of gang members and branches from the high-
rises to other high-rises or neighborhoods proved lethal.
In the mid-1990s homicide rates were falling in most U.S. cities, par-
ticularly New York, as aggressive policing combined with communities fed
up with violence and repeated attempts by gangs to call truces. But in Chi-
cago, this momentum was interrupted by the displacement of thousands
of families and many gang members. Susan Popkin, who studied the trans-
formation of the Harold Ickes Homes, comments,
Without security, Ickes was particularly vulnerable to outside gangs. By 1996,

the CHA was vacating and demolishing buildings in other developments
along the State Street corridor (where Ickes and Robert Taylor Homes are
located), displacing their gang members from their usual turf. The domi-
nant Gangster Disciples had been weakened by the conviction of more than
thirty of its top warlords on federal conspiracy charges related to drug sales;
as a result Ickes did not even have an eective gang to ght o intruders.
Without guards or gang members to protect the development from outsiders,
Ickes quickly became a battleground.54
The plan to demolish high-rises to reduce violence, if it was ever a serious

concern, was backring. This Vice Lord points out the obvious:
As the projects come down, they gonna start movin in, in like our neigh-
borhoods, like our neighborhoods, probably some suburbs. . . . Im talkin
about, man, a war, a war that youve never seen before, man. Cause niggers
from the projects gonna come try to take over niggers lands and shit and,
aint nobody gonna let it, you know what Im sayin. . . . Its gonna be a lot
of people dyin and getting shot and getting hurt, robbed.55
That is indeed what happened. Here is how one Black Gangster Disci-
ple explains what went on when he moved to far south side Roseland after
his building was demolished.
The building got torn down, and [we] moved out here, and the people got
mad that we low end [former Robert Taylor Homes tenants] people that come
down are trying to take over. . . . and we say Like, they cant get mad now,
because our building got torn down, they moved us, the government moved
us out here. Now, they cant stop us, were going to serve in their set, sell
weed or anything.56
All hell broke loose in what several gang members called the wild, wild,
west where gang members from the projects attempted to resettle in areas
already claimed by other gangs. Chicagos homicide rate, which had par-
alleled New York Citys for decades, reached as much as four times higher
than New Yorks, before nally dropping after the turn of the century and
stabilizing.57 But while displacement of public housing tenants in the 1990s
took place on a large scalea process that was not occurring in New York
a wave of gentrication was engulng other spaces of Chicagos ghetto,
making good use of the iron st of Smiths revanchist city.
Gentrification and Chicagos Gangs

For the past decade, developers have been prospecting areas in Chicagos
north, south, and west sides for development. A eld note I wrote in the
late 1990s, as several gang members gave me a tour of their neighborhood,
describes one such gentried island surrounded by run-down homes and
vacant lots in Englewood on Chicagos south side.
Then there was Boys Town, a legendary area with a lagoon where in the
past bodies kept being found.58 Young kids were always warned: if you keep
it up youll end up in the lagoon. But when we saw it, it looked like a Miami
resort. Middle class people in shorts walking around in their own private
space, clearly set o from the rest of the area. The lagoon was clear, clean,
with a touch of azure. . . . The guys said that the drug game around Boys
Town had stopped. Too much heat, maybe . . . other opportunities. What
I saw throughout the north side of Englewood was lots of these middle class
islands, mainly black, but some white people as well.
The introduction of middle-class homeowners into a ghetto area prompts

major changes in social control. This Vice Lord describes what happens.
q. Do you do things dierently, because the yuppies are there? Do they bring
cops with them, because theyre there?
r. The cops come real quicker, you know what Im sayin, and just say, at
rst . . . before the yuppies start movin in there, it used to take em a
minute. Now our neighborhood is condominiums, condominiums, con-
dominiums, condominiums, condominiums. So if a cop get called . . .
they comin like this (snaps ngers), and we gettin locked up. Aint no
talkin no more. You get locked up, cause they might like say this person
called the police on us . . . might point to this person and say this per-
son called the police so, man, you get locked up now. Aint no more talk,
okay, man, f [you], man. . . . no more breaks, so you getting locked
up, cause they tryin to prove a point. They tell you at the station, know
what, we just cant let you all go cause . . . these people starin out the
window right here. If we let you all go, then what? Our jobs would be
fed up. So you goin in. They tryin to stop you from hangin on the
corners, all that now.59
Sometimes the yuppie newcomers are afraid of the scary-looking dark young
men hanging out on the corners.
You gotta . . . do your thing dierent, like, um, disguise it some times like,
lets just say, if you hangin out and, um, you got to piss in the gang way, oh,
you gotta do this and mask up now, cause when they by the yuppies, they
will tell your face, you know what Im sayin, but they dont be, they dont
be callin the police and none of that, cause, really, they kind of scared any-
way, so what they do is, how you doin sir, ooh, and man, man, they goin
about they business, you know, so they scared.
They dont stay scared. Police ood gentrifying neighborhoods with patrols
to protect them. But more troops alone are not enough. Chicagos version
of shock and awe includes a high-tech component that is a sure sign of

things to come.
The Electronic Panopticon

In Chicago, in the late 1990s, surveillance cameras were installed in certain
neighborhoods to keep watch on crime. These blue light cameras were
concentrated in high-crime zones, but they were also placed in the gentri-
fying areas of the near west and south side. Police are especially aggressive
in gentrifying areas, with sudden shakedowns and pressure on minority
males, of any age, standing on corners.
The west side particularly, the traditional home of the Conservative Vice
Lords, was targeted for maximum surveillance. One consequence of this
policy for Lawndale was inconceivable levels of incarceration and crimi-
nalization of the population. In 2002, according to a study by the Center
for Impact Research, up to 57 percent of all adults, male and female, who
lived in Lawndale were either behind bars or on probation or parole.60
Being on paper puts tremendous power in the hands of police to intim-
idate citizens who could be immediately sent to prison for an arrest for a
minor violation. Like in Alices Wonderland, revoking probation or parole
means the sentence comes rst and no judge or jury is even required.
Chicago police, particularly on the west and south sides, have a long
history of corruption and brutality. The systematic use of torture by Chi-
cago police, exemplied by the infamous Commander Jon Burge, was given
international publicity by Human Rights Watch.61 Rather than being reined
in after this long history of brutality, police are now being set loose even
more by the mayor, who wants the area cleaned up. One of the original
Vice Lords, a man nearing his sixties, explained what that meant:
You know in the Lawndale area they rebuilding now. They are rebuilding.
It is a new thing coming in there now. The police really got Lawndale under
tap. . . . Man where we use to stand on the corneryou cant even stand on
the corner now. Three people they are going to pull upget to walking I
mean where we use to hang out all nightdrinking wine and singing wow,
wow. . . . oh no that aint happening now. . . . Me and Bobbie and Mack
cant stand there on that corner no more than about fteen minutes they are
going to tell us to move. You have got to go. I dont care what you have done
you have got to go.62
The gangs were forced to adapt. Youngsters who had sold drugs on cor-
ners openly were laid o, since they were too conspicuous. Drug sales
skyrocketed, with beepers replacing drive-by corners. Older members, par-
ticularly those who could relate to the newcomers, monopolized sales. Ten-
sion between youth and older members surfaced. Police harassment became
routine.
Chicagos experience echoes Caldieras description of So Paulo: Thus
for many people everyday life in the city is becoming a daily management
of barriers and suspicion, marked by a succession of little rituals of iden-
tication and humiliation.63 Traveling around Lawndale in 2006 with
several older Vice Lords, I came upon a telltale scene. A brand new El
commuter train station stood in a nearly vacant area of the neighborhood.
Several blocks down stood a brand-new police district station house. In
between was a sign: Coming Soon: Condominiums. This public invita-
tion to a yuppie invasion was even clearer as I turned my head east down
Ogden Boulevard. On a straight line down the street were the skyscrapers
of the Loop, easily accessible by both train and car.
Bobby Gore told me that even back in the 1960s he didnt need Paul
Revere to warn him the yuppies were coming: We recognized Lawndale
as being prime land. With Lawndale being seven and a half or ten minutes
from the Loop, we knew they were going to come this way.
It just took them a few years.
Space, Race, and the Contested City

The battle for space in the American city is essentially the continuation of
a centuries-long struggle against racial oppression and segregation. Hous-
ing policies in the 1950s and 1960s were aimed at clearing ghetto lands to
build highways to speed up the white move to the suburbs. That earlier
white ight now is reversing itself, as whites ee back to the city to take
back their land. Not emphasized enough by the Marxist class analysis of
scholars like Smith, the quiet war going on over space in the city is the
most recent echo of the rst white invaders of native American land. As
the Chicago policeman said, This is white mans land now. The white
return to the city means the era of urban black power may be over before
it even had a chance to get rolling.64
In some gentrifying black communities, Chicagos African American mid-
dle class is often the rst to settle in traditionally black areas. Some claim
this shows gentrication is mainly a class issue. In fact, such selective set-
tlement reveals the deep racist fears of whites to move close to black ghetto
areas until they have been pacied and shown to be safe. Whites appear
to have no such fears of moving into Latino areas, like Chicagos Humboldt
Park, and there are few if any middle-class African Americans who gentrify
Latino areas.
Gentrication everywhere, as Caldiera reminds us, is accompanied by a
discourse that socially constructs a dark other as enemy. Using both the
conservative rhetoric of racism and its liberal wink and nod variant, this
discourse calls on law enforcement to take the lead in securing the frontier.
What is being reproduced at the level of the built environment, Caldiera
says, is segregation and intolerance.65 Along with this return to the city
has been the vast expansion of the U.S. prison system and the war on drugs,
a not even thinly disguised war on black and dark-skinned youth. The
chilling reminder that three-quarters of all those sentenced to prison for
drug offenses are black is enough of a statement in a country where the
vast majority of drug users are white.66
Cities signicantly dier, however, in the way the war for space is carried
out and what policies are implemented toward the poor black and minor-
ity residents of coveted spaces. As the crack wars came to an end in most
cities in the mid-1990s, zero tolerance and other law enforcement cam-
paigns resulted in sharp crime drops. In Chicago the displacement of tens
of thousands of black residents, including institutionalized gangs, delayed
that citys crime drop for several years. Still, Chicagos homicide rate seems
to have stabilized at a level that remains nearly three times higher than
New York Citys.
Clearly, one factor for Chicagos relatively high homicide rate is the
Windy Citys history of institutionalized gangs and how in the 1990s these
black and Latino gangs interacted with policies of systematic eviction.
What the case study of Chicago tells us is that the nature of the war over
space will dier city by city and is probably a major inuence in variations
of violence. It also tells us that gangs inuence the level of violence in a
city, though perhaps not directly. In other words, gangs are what Alain
Touraine calls social actors and must be taken into account in fashion-
ing urban policies, and even, as I have shown, housing policy. This recog-
nition of gangs has important implications for how we understand them
and what we will do about them.
conclusion
A Rose in the Cracks of Concrete
But the chances for any major transformation in the ghettos predicament are
slim until the anguish of the ghetto is in some way shared not only by its
victims but by the committed empathy of those who now consider themselves
privileged and immune to the ghettos agrant pathologies.
k e n n e t h b . c l a r k , Dark Ghetto
This book has presented evidence that gangs, whether we like it or not,
are a normal feature of cities worldwide. The reader of these pages may
not want to admit it but may have to reluctantly recognize that this world
of gangs will not go away soon, if at all. But what, then, should we do?
In 1988 in People and Folks I opposed any programs sponsored by the
U.S. Department of Justice as merely stung more resources into an already
bloated law enforcement machine. I have not changed my mind, and the
machine is now more bloated than ever. Today the Department of Home-
land Security is making things worse by labeling gangs domestic terrorists
and expanding even wider its draconian net.
I do believe there are eective, if dicult, actions that can be taken by
individuals and groups willing to reach out to angry youth. Analysis need
not mean paralysis. I would like to use this concluding section to urge both
action and rethinking. These nal pages therefore set out to accomplish
two modest tasks. First, I reiterate why gangs are important today and why
our traditional ways of thinking are ill equipped to understand them. Sec-
ond, I summarize some lessons I have learned about how to combine re-
search and action.
131
132 conclusion
A Misunderstood World of Gangs

The vast majority of gangs are adolescent peer groups that have been social-
ized to the streets. In other words, gangs today are mainly made up of kids,
like they always have been, who are displaying normal deviance, in Joan
Moores terms.1 In the wake of a vast increase in urbanization and social
and economic marginalization, gangs are spontaneously created in cities
all over the world. The old, familiar gang problem becomes more compli-
cated when we understand that many of todays gangs may have begun
spontaneously, but then are conditioned by dierent kinds of preexisting
groups of armed young men. It is the shaping and channeling of so many
youth gangs into various kinds of armed groups that represents one of the
most signicant developments of late modernity.
Some gangs have institutionalized over decades in defensible spaces of
cities like Chicago, Cape Town, or Rio de Janeiro. Youth growing up in
these cities have an ever-present role model in local gangs. The gang is one
business that is almost always hiring and may be the only chance many
youth have to get a job. But these gangs are not merely economic agents:
they develop rituals and ceremonies, a distinctive outlook, and interests of
their own. Young people are strongly attracted to and nd an identity in
these organizations that are deeply rooted in ghettos, barrios, and favelas.
Such institutionalized gangs are nearly impossible to destroy, short of total-
itarian repression.
But the problem is broader than a limited number of cities with institu-
tionalized gangs. Civil wars, ethnic rivalries, and an immensely protable
underground economy have produced various sorts of armed young men
who also exist as role models for youth and an organized outlet for their
frustrations. The complex world we live in is not made up of neatly dened
groups, some criminal, some political, some cultural. The world of gangs
comprises exible forms of armed groups, some changing from gang to
militia to criminal syndicate to political party, or some existing as all types
simultaneously.
Jobs alone will not solve the problem, though a few more jobs anywhere
would not hurt. Community-based agencies and nongovernmental orga-
nizations that provide recreation, education, and cultural programs are nec-
essary, but not sucient. I have argued that the anger of gang members
fundamentally comes from their conscious or unconscious recognition that
conclusion 133
progress is an illusion. No leader, party, or form of government has deliv-

ered the goods for the underclass, nor do men and women on the streets
realistically expect them to in the near future. The bright promise of moder-
nity has dimmed on the ghettos mean streets and for many has already
burned out. This situation presents long-term dangers to them and to us.
To understand these young men and women, I have theoretically crossed
over, in Edward Saids sense,2 and taken Cornel West and Derrick Bell as
my guides, rather than rely on a deracialized, moribund, industrial-era crim-
inology. I have argued that the outlook of gangs is not so much economic
rationality as nihilism. This approach allows us to better understand why
gang members are seduced by an ethic of hustling, of trying to make it any
way they can. As Nas says in Lifes a Bitch, Thats why we get high,
because you never know when youre goin to go. You have to recognize the
world is ugly, says Ice Cube, and a dog-eat-dog life prowls on every corner.
The rage from the streets is especially intense because so many black
and minority youth are drowning in rivers of racism. How can you mini-
mize the importance of race in understanding how Irish gang members
from the Hamburg Athletic Association could run Chicago and one even
become mayor, while the 1960s black Conservative Vice Lords, with the
same dreams and aspirations, were killed or sent to prison? The traditional
study of gangs has always minimized race and, as a result, nds indeci-
pherable the racialized, hostile identities of the street.
For the past decades, the study of gangs has been more structural than
cultural, mechanically hypothesizing outdated notions of delinquent sub-
cultures that when applied describe no gang at all. The culture of the streets
begins with race and ends with survival. It is at once a culture of urgency,
outrage, and resistance.
To begin to understand, all we need to do is listen to our iPods. Noth-
ing better captures the alienation and rage of the streets than gangsta rap,
which both proclaims an alternative lifestyle and mimics the lives of the
rich and famous. It is mainly within the worldwide cultural arena of hip-
hop that the struggle for the future of our youth is being waged. To under-
stand how gang members make meaning in their lives, talk to thembut
rst listen to their music.
Their music is urban and worldwide, and most youth now live in cities,
where a sharp contest for space is being waged. The classic studies of cities
looked at deracialized, ecological processes in the industrial era, but these
134 conclusion
processes are out of date in the global city. Gentrication has reversed the
one-way movement of better-o whites to the suburbs and has brought
them back to the city and into conict with the dark ghetto and its gangs.
This war may be a secret to the public, but it is all too real to minority
youth in gentrifying neighborhoods who are tracked by surveillance cam-
eras and hounded by police. City ocials and developers are using all means
at their disposal to ethnically cleanse the special places they wish to reserve
for those who will pay top dollar for conveniently placed condos. The con-
tested city will be the norm for the twenty-rst century.
A Requiem for Traditional Criminology

This brief synopsis of A World of Gangs explains why I have concluded that
traditional criminology has worn out its usefulness in helping us under-
stand gangs. My critique of criminologys dated theoretical framework has
led me to look elsewhere for inspiration. To cite Alain Touraine once again,
we need to go beyond a classical sociology that is still beholden to the
nineteenth-century idea that society is an organic or a mechanical system,
with its own laws, and that the function of sociological analysis is to dis-
pel the illusion of the actor.3
The reader of this book cannot help but see that the gang members I
have described are neither puppets of economic forces nor hard-core crim-
inals imprisoned by cold-blooded calculations of rational action. My the-
oretical schema is more cultural than structural and looks to existential
rebellion, not broken families or jobless landscapes, to understand gangs
social behavior. I am indebted more to Jean-Paul Sartre than James Short.
My theoretical inspiration is from Manuel Castells and Touraine, not Robert
Park or Frederic Thrasher. I prefer the poetry of Luis Rodriguez to the prose
of Malcolm Klein. As far as traditional criminology goes, I can only say,
De mortuis nil nisi bonum.
I am also uncomfortable with much of the practice of criminologists.
When academics attempt to do something, they typically act as designers
or evaluators of anticrime or at-risk youth programs. C. Wright Mills calls
this being an Advisor to the King, and it is a role that can, and has been,
performed ethicallyIrving Spergel comes to mind. More often, however,
the only beneciaries of this role are the advisers themselves, in the form
of research grants or heightened status, with results being written up in
what Mills calls the pretentious triviality of obscure journal articles.4
conclusion 135
Many criminologists, like U.S. journalists in the Iraq war, have become
embedded in the law enforcement bureaucracies that are waging war on
gangs, drugs, and terror, practicing a kind of domestic orientalism.5 While
most criminologists profess a liberal ideology, they may have not assimi-
lated Alvin Gouldners main point in his critique of Howard Becker: it is
to values, not factions, that we social scientists owe our allegiance.6
If gangs are indeed made up of alienated youth who are angry with an
unresponsive government, undying racism, and a blank future, then roles
other than those of adviser, consultant, or evaluator are more urgently
needed. Working these last years with communities torn by violence and
with gang members who need jobs and education more than prison, I have
struggled with understanding what role I, as a social scientist, can play. To
conclude, I would like to briey sketch out how my theory informs my
own actions and argue that we are not helpless even in the face of cold,
unforgiving conditions.
Social Movements and Social Actors

First, let me repeat: gangs are not going away no matter what we do. Con-
ditions are too dire, the task too dicult, the anger too deep. However, like
Bells Faces at the Bottom of the Well or Albert Camuss Sisyphus,7 I do not
think dim prospects of victory necessarily mean the destruction of ones soul.
Resistance to what might appear to be all-powerful forces need not be futile
and might contain traces of the elixir of freedom. Short of the breathtak-
ing transformations of the economy and polity I have favored throughout
my life, my research has helped me in several ways to make an impact today
on young lives. These are not by any means the only positive actions one
could take, but these are the ones I have chosen, informed by theory and
my own experience. I hope that they contain lessons for others who also
want to act as well as understand.
The Importance of History

First, we need to publicize gangs who have succeeded in making good. Both
street youth and the broader public need to know that something good can
come from the streets. Those on the bottom of the social structure are capa-
ble of profound, even noble, action.
The scholar in me has found a way to make use of some rusty aca-
demic tools, and I have become something of a historian. The story of the
136 conclusion
Conservative Vice Lords, told in chapter 6, holds major lessons for today.
The capacity of the CVL to transform itself into a prosocial organization
is both powerful as well as largely forgotten. Many of my Chicago students,
even those born in Lawndale, were unaware of the accomplishments of the
1960s CVL. Youth in Lawndale, and on streets everywhere, need to learn
the main lesson of the CVL, that a future other than drugs, violence, and
the streets is possible and in their own hands.
At the same time, the savage repression of the CVL, along with the other
gangs and the Black Panther Party, reveals the deep-seated racial hostility
that still persists in the halls of power. There can be no progress, Freder-
ick Douglass famously said, without struggle. What I have learned is that
anytime gangs have embarked on a real transformation, they were violently
opposed by police and others in authority. Change will not come easily,
and this means any accomplishments will be the result of struggle and sac-
rice on the part of our youth and us.
Publicizing the lessons of the 1960s CVL has become a major task of
my scholarship. My Web site, http://gangresearch.net, reaches hundreds
of thousands of people around the world. Its pages, Shattered Dreams,
are the most eective way I know to publicize the CVL legacy to a broad
audience. On the site I show in pictures, video, audio, and words of the
Vice Lords themselves what was done and, implicitly, what is still possible
from street youth and their organizations. I rmly believe social scientists
should not just expose poor economic conditions but also point out that
gang members have participated and still do participate in social move-
ments and work for the good of their communities.
In other words, there is hope for the streets, and it lies in the proven capac-
ity of gang members to act in their own and their communitys interest.
This means that social change does not fundamentally lie in the criminal
justice system, or in uplifting social programs, but in social movements.
The Key Importance of Social Movements

For both Touraine and Castells, social movements are crucial in the infor-
mation era, more signicant than class struggle or modernizing economies.
Touraine particularly focuses on the real nature of democracy:
It is not democracy that is triumphant today, but the market economy. To

some extent, the market economy is democracys antithesis, as the market
conclusion 137
attempts to prevent political institutions from intervening in its activity,

whereas democratic politics attempts to promote intervention so as to pro-
tect the weak from the domination of the strong.8
What both Castells and Touraine urge, in dierent ways, is for scholars
to use their talents to encourage social movements of all types. However,
the potential of gangs to create, or even be part of social movements, can-
not be taken for granted.
Luis Barrios and David Brotherton are sterling examples of how aca-
demics can shepherd and publicize gangs as social movements, as their work
on New York Citys Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation (ALKQN)
shows.9 Barrios and Brotherton have showcased the bright, all-too-brief,
ve-pointed star of the ALKQN in books, lms, and articles. They have
also highlighted the often forgotten role of women with the ALKQN for
respect and dignity. Like the 1960s CVL reported on in these pages and in
David Dawleys book, the ALKQN was attacked and soundly defeated by
the police, who dismissed its social activism as a cover for drug dealing.
Like the CVL, the ALKQNs brief prosocial phase is dead; all that lives on
is the memory of its members deeds, documented in a ne book.10 To deny
gangs capacity as social actors is what so much positivist criminology has
been busy doing for the past fty years, a project that I have taken sharp
issue with in this book.
But while A World of Gangs has explained how gangs have the capacity
to change in many ways, there are regrettably few examples of successful,
long-term gang transformations. That this may be due more to police re-
pression than the unwillingness of gang members is not the point here.
Gangs are not homogenous entities or protorevolutionary organizations.
In all gangs, like the ALKQN in New York and the CVL in Chicago, there
are contradictory tendencies and factions. Some members did see the polit-
ical rhetoric as a convenient cover to sell drugs and continue with violence
and a brutal culture of hypermasculinity. Others strongly argued for a more
community-based direction that stresses equality and the struggle for jus-
tice. Given the hopelessness on the streets, the lack of jobs, and the real-
ity that the 1960s CVL and 1990s ALKQN failed, it is not surprising that
so few gangs are tempted by social activism.
What I have learned is that gang members and their gangs are most
properly labeled what Touraine calls social actors who are fully capable
138 conclusion
of acting in their communitys interest, but also may not. This is what Saskia
Sassen means by gangs having a presence in cities.
The space of the city . . . becomes a place where informal or nonformal polit-
ical actors can be part of the political scene in a way that is much more di-
cult at the national level. . . . street-level politics make possible the formation
of new types of political subjects that do not have to go through the formal
political system.11
The recognition of gangs as social actors means they are capable of trans-
forming, if not likely to transform, into social movements, and much less
into what Castells calls a project identity that seeks to change the over-
all social structure. However, there are specic issues that vitally concern
gang members as well as other people in their communities. Under certain
conditions, gangs can actively work together with their neighbors and move
away from self-destruction. It is to these issues, I believe, that we should
give our most urgent attention.
Police Brutality
First among these issues is police brutality and corruption. Exposing police
misconduct is not an everyday activity for criminologists, who often feed
at the trough of law enforcement and do not want to put possible research
or evaluation grants at risk. But police brutality and corruption is such an
ever-present reality, particularly in black ghettos, that antipolice brutality
campaigns or demands for civilian control of police occur spontaneously
and regularly.
Even when such movements do not exist, debunking the lies and dis-
tortions by law enforcement in the prosecution of gang members can be
an important role for academics and human rights advocates. I have worked
as an expert witness and have done research to expose the long history of
police brutality and corruption in Chicago on my Web site. What is impor-
tant about this issue is that police misconduct not only aects gang mem-
bers but is an infectious racial disease that nearly everyone in black and
minority communities instantly recognizes.
Police brutality and corruption undermine the legitimacy of government
and mock any expectations that gang members should respect the law. Many
police also act as if there were a war going on and, following James Hahns
conclusion 139
reckless talk in Los Angeles,12 believe that no rules should apply. Politicians
are slow to criticize police, since they fear being labeled soft on crime
and losing the next election. Still, most people are aware that unconstitu-
tional and inhuman police practices abound on the streets. To paraphrase
Gil Scott-Heron, a police ocer can easily justify any action he or she takes
by saying the oender or crime was gang-related. While the laws of U.S.
society are increasingly repressive, we must insist that the guardians of law
and order abide by them.
Nothing written here denies or dismisses the reality of gang violence and
the harm it does to its victims and communities. Who among us can under-
stand how someone could just kill a man? A mothers murdered child
should prompt our empathy and sympathy, no matter who the victim is.
An entire, well-funded, criminal justice system exists to take vengeance on
oenders. But we also need to nd the courage to stand up and expose and
condemn police violence and lies.
I believe that the exposure of police misconduct is the more appropriate
and more necessary role for social scientists today, particularly for those
studying gangs.
Gentrication
Another issue that has great potential for drawing gangs into political action
is the secret war over space in our cities. In earlier times, gangs were used
by landlords as arsonists to burn down the very neighborhoods that made
up their turf to make way for more protable development. As cities trans-
form, the older neighborhoods become more valuable, and conict inten-
sies. The police harassment in areas like Lawndale is not conned to gangs
but to all youth, and, as my sixty-year-old Vice Lord in chapter 6 found
out, the not-so-young as well.
While gentrication can mean the introduction of wealth into a com-
munity for the betterment of all, that is not the way it usually works, at
least not in Chicago. Saving ones community, though, is a cause that can
unite everyone, male and female, young and old, gang members included.
This includes ghting for construction jobs and better schools that benet
gang members along with everyone else.13
But many community groups and citizens are reluctant to work with or
are even opposed to the participation of gangs or others from the street.
What I have argued in this book is that gangs are not merely social dynamite
140 conclusion
or social junk, lost forever and not able to function within broad com-
munity mobilizations. The extreme exibility of the form of the gang doc-
umented in these pages supports my belief in the ability of gangs and gang
members to change.
What is important within community-based movements is for those
of us who understand the deep alienation of youth to promote a policy
of both inclusion and nonviolence. We need to oppose the demonization
and exclusion of gang members from community organizations and social
movement by respectable citizens and stand forthrightly for cooperative,
nonviolent social action on the part of all, including gang members.14
While this may sound fanciful, the lessons of the 1960s social move-
ments may give cause to think again. Gangs were powerfully inuenced
by the nationalist, revolutionary, and social movements of those years. Like
the CVL, they shed many of their old clothes and worked against violence
and for rebuilding their communities. However, those same broader social
movements in the end failed to signicantly benet those on the bottom
of society, like the gangs. Consequently, when the movements subsided,
repression stepped up, and when the industrial economy collapsed, nihil-
ism and a rash of violence took over. We, and particularly our youth, are
still burdened with this devastating legacy.
The War on Terror and Gangs

We also cannot ignore the one-sided policies of repression both within the
United States and internationally. For example, as I write, the U.S. Gang
Deterrence and Community Protection Act of 2007 has gathered biparti-
san support. Domestically, this act federalizes many common crimes, which
are gang-related, applying a mandatory minimum of ve years to them
and the federal death penalty for any gang-related homicide. This bill
has gathered steam by the demonization of Mara Salvatrucha 13 and the
fanciful allegations of those like Newt Gingrich that gangs are allying with
al-Qaeda in an unholy alliance of terror.
As Elana Zilberg, Tom Hayden,15 and others have written, Mara Salva-
trucha is not invading the United States but is an American creation, formed
in the LA barrios to be joined by the sons and daughters of Salvadoran and
other Central American immigrants after they ed the U.S.-sponsored civil
wars. Trapped in barrios with few jobs or opportunities and gangs every-
where, young Central American kids did what poor kids everywhere do
conclusion 141
they joined the local gang. As they got into trouble, the U.S. Immigration
Service deported not only teenagers but an entire gang as well.
The ght against deportations, like that against gentrication, has the
potential to unite gang members with the broader community. My own
expert witness work has found that deportation often threatens the very
lives of some gang members. Broad support can be built for the basic human
right to have a life free of terror and resist deportation.
MS-13 is a gang without borders not because it is a cotraveler with
Osama bin Laden or Colombian drug lords but because of the history of
U.S. intervention in Central America and U.S. policies of deporting those
we forced to move to our shores in the rst place. The equation of gangs
with terrorists is absurd, but that has not stopped the mass media and a
motley crew of Republicans and Democrats from panicking the public to
support their latest crusade against children.
Not all the news is bad. In 2006 the presidents-elect of both Honduras
and Haiti called for talks with gangs and other armed groups. This is a stun-
ning rebuke to the U.S. policy of Mano Duro, the Spanish translation
of zero tolerance. To recognize gang members as people to be talked to
is a belief in their innate humanity and a willingness to try to understand
those who previously had been seen only as an impersonal enemy.
The UN also has adopted some promising approaches. When developing
policy toward child soldiers, the UN established guidelines of disarma-
ment, demobilization, and reconciliation, or DDR.16 This two-sided
policy is a good guide toward working with gangs as well, and not just in
the third world. It means that gangs who become active in social move-
ments, for their part, must actively work to stop the violence within their
own gang and with rivals. Democracy cannot tolerate violence, which, by
denition, dehumanizes the other. On the side of the government, the prin-
ciples of DDR mean that reconciliation, not war, is the aim of policy. This
is a far cry from where we are today.
My main point is this: I believe it is crucial for social movements to reach
out and include in their mobilizations the millions who are still left out,
including the very large number of young people who inhabit the world of
gangs. What I must admit is that while gangs today are involved with some
social movements in Chicago and elsewhere, on the whole their nihilism
prevents activism and traps gang members in a self-centered, desperate
142 conclusion
struggle for survival. Dim prospects of success, however, are not a reason
to stop trying.
Hip-Hop and Dont Stop

But political involvement is not the only answer, and may not even be the
most immediately important one. My analysis argues that cultural identity
is at the core of resistance to the unfettered power of markets. On the streets,
cultural identity means hip-hop and gangsta rap. Democracy, Touraine
says, is best dened as a will to reconcile rational thought, personal lib-
erty, and cultural identity.17
This means that the construction of street identities based on hip-hop,
even if they are oppositional and destructive, need to be recognized as a
legitimate expression of the frustrations of youth. Wasnt that how many
of our older generation had tried to understand James Dean in Rebel with-
out a Cause? Most of all, as Afrika Bambaataa said, hip-hop means the power
of youth to choose their own identities and change their lives. It means
young people can face the void and still keep on rapping.
But it does not mean that we need to sing the praises of identities that
deny the rights of othersparticularly identities that glorify violence and
drugs and aunt contempt for women. I have tried to show that while these
more destructive identities have ghetto roots, they are marketed worldwide
because the big media corporations control gangsta rappers. We need to
point out that the violence and misogyny of gangsta rap is not mainly a
message from the streets but a message from the suites, or corporate hip-
hop. We need to expose and oppose this individualist, consumerist, and
exploitative music for its willful, destructive misleading of our youth.
But hip-hops power is important because it is the voice not just of gangs
or the streets but of youthful rebellion. It is not just the voice of African
Americans, but is a black Atlantic sound, mixing cultures in a display of how
diversity can make meaning in all our lives. In other words, as a resistance
identity hip-hop has the power to unite people and demand basic human
rights for all. Hip-hop is not a social movement but contains the seeds of
many such movements, impatient to emerge. Teachers, youth counselors,
academics, and all of us trying to reach out to gang youth have to rst
learn that h-i-p-h-o-p spells rebellion. We need to join it, not ght it.
I end with lines from The Rose That Grew from Concrete, by raps
poet laureate, Tupac Shakur:
conclusion 143
Did you hear about the rose that grew

from a crack in the concrete?
Proving natures law is wrong it
learned to walk without having feet.
Funny it seems, but by keeping its dreams
it learned to breathe fresh air.
Long live the rose that grew from concrete
when no one else ever cared.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. The reader will be relieved that I have ignored criminologys nit-picking deni-
tional xation on what is a gang. For example, see Richard A. Ball and G. David
Curry, The Logic of Denition in Criminology: Purposes and Methods for Dening
Gangs, Criminology 33 (1995): 22546.
2. Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, vol. 1 of The Information Age:
Economy, Society, and Culture (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2000), 303. See also Castells,
End of Millennium, 2nd ed., vol. 3 of The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture
(Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2000); Castells, The Power of Identity, 2nd ed. vol. 2 of The
Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2004).
3. Malcolm Klein, Hans-Jurgen Kerner, Cheryl L. Maxson, and Elmar G. M. Weite-
kamp, eds., The Eurogang Paradox: Street Gangs and Youth Groups in the U.S. and
Europe (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer, 2001); Scott H. Decker and Frank M.
Weerman, eds., European Street Gangs and Troublesome Youth Groups (Lanham, Md.:
AltaMira, 2005).
4. Ted Robert Gurr, Peoples versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century (Wash-
ington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2000); Ted Robert Gurr and Bar-
bara Har, Ethnic Conict in World Politics (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994).
5. Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, vol. 2 of The Information Age: Economy,
Society, and Culture (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1997), 66.
6. I sharply depart from my colleagues by arguing that race has often been more
important than space in understanding gangs. See also John M. Hagedorn, Race Not
Space: A Revisionist History of Gangs in Chicago, Journal of African American History
91 (2006): 194208.
7. West denes nihilism in part as the lived experience of coping with a life of hor-
rifying meaninglessness, hopelessness, and (most important) lovelessness (Race Matters
145
146 notes to introduction
[New York: Vintage, 1993], 2223). In his later work, West expands nihilism to be a
much broader malady. See Cornel West, Democracy Matters: Winning the Fight against
Imperialism (New York: Penguin, 2004).
8. Gus Russo, The Outt: The Role of Chicagos Underworld in the Shaping of Mod-
ern America (New York: Bloomsbury, 2001).
9. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor
(New York: Knopf, 1996).
10. Alain Touraine, Beyond Social Movements, in Social Movements: Critiques,
Concepts, Case-Studies, ed. Stanford M. Lyman (New York: New York University Press,
1995), 184.
11. Philippe Bourgois, In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995), 326.
12. bell hooks, We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity (New York: Routledge,
2004), 151, 27.
13. John M. Hagedorn and Mary L. Devitt, Fighting Female: The Social Construc-
tion of the Female Gang, in Female Gangs in America: Essays on Girls, Gangs, and Gen-
der, ed. Meda Chesney-Lind and John M. Hagedorn (Chicago: Lakeview, 1999), 25676.
14. Cornel West, preface to Hip Hop and Philosophy: Rhyme 2 Reason, ed. Derrick
Darby and Tommie Shelby (Chicago: Open Court, 2005), xixii.
15. Ayazi-hashjin Sherry, Rap and Hip Hop: Voices of a Generation (New York: Rosen,
1999), 11.
16. Tricia Rose, Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary Amer-
ica (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1994), 101.
17. Derrick Bell, Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism (New
York: Basic Books, 1992).
18. Michael Eric Dyson, Holler If You Hear Me (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 64.
19. Bourgois, In Search of Respect; Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Vio-
lence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City (New York: Norton, 1999).
20. Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1991); Sassen, The Global City: One Setting for New Types of
Gang Work and Political Culture? in Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives to Tradi-
tional Criminology, ed. John M. Hagedorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006),
11233.
21. UN-Habitat, Slums of the World: The Face of Urban Poverty in the New Millen-
nium? (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2003); Har-
vey Warren Zorbaugh, The Gold Coast and the Slum: A Sociological Study of Chicagos
Near North Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929); Mike Davis, Planet of
Slums (London: Verso, 2006).
22. Loc Wacquant, The New Peculiar Institution: On the Prison as Surrogate
Ghetto, Theoretical Criminology 4 (2000): 37789.
23. Turns out, even gangs have gone global is the opening line of the FBI syn-
opsis of its top criminal investigative executive, Chris Swecker.
notes to introduction 147
24. CNN, news report, June 10, 2002. Jose Padilla, former member of Chicagos
Maniac Latin Disciples, is arrested and charged with trying to build and explode a
radioactive dirty bomb. He is held as an enemy combatant without charge and lit-
tle availability to counsel. For legal background, see http://www.humanrightsrst.org/
us_law/inthecourts/supreme_court_padilla.htm.
25. For example, the Gang Deterrence and Community Protection Act of 2005.
Here is Robert Cliord, head of an FBI task force investigating gang terrorist links in
Central America: The FBI, in concert with the U.S. intelligence community and
governments of several Central American republics, have determined that there is no
basis in fact to support this allegation of al-Qaeda or even radical Islamic ties to MS-
13 (Mara Salvatrucha) (USA Today Online, February 23, 2005, updated February 24,
2005, http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-23-gang-salvador_x.htm).
26. For example, Senator Dianne Feinstein: The bottom line is that gangs represent
a serious national threat, and the problem calls for a serious national response (http://
feinstein.senate.gov/05releases/r-gangbill-intro.htm); Max G. Manwaring, Street Gangs:
The New Urban Insurgency (Carlisle, Penn.: Strategic Studies Institute, 2005). If the
struggle against political enemies is dened as a struggle against evil, it will turn into
a holy war. And in holy war there can be no compromise. Evil cannot be converted;
it must be eliminated (Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the
Cold War, and the Roots of Terror [New York: Pantheon Books, 2004]). We are still
reliving Ronald Reagans evil empire.
27. C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (London: Oxford University Press,
1959), 177.
28. Diego Vigil, A Rainbow of Gangs: Street Cultures in the Mega-City (Austin: Uni-
versity of Texas Press, 2002), 7.
29. Aside from works by Joan Moore, Luis Barrios, David Brotherton, Diego Vigil,
and Tom Hayden, see Jim Shorts careful discussion of this issue in Gangs, Politics,
and the Social Order, in Delinquency, Crime, and Society, ed. James F. Short Jr. (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 12963.
30. For a clear-sighted discussion of the pitfalls of government-funded research,
see Roland Chilton, Viable Policy: The Impact of Federal Funding and the Need for
Independent Research Agendas, Criminology 39 (2001): 18.
31. http://www.uic.edu/cuppa/gci/.
32. Hagedorn, Race Not Space; John M. Hagedorn, Race, Space, and the Institu-
tional Gang: The Chicago School Reconsidered, in Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives
to Traditional Criminology, ed. Hagedorn.
33. Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives to Traditional Criminology.
34. Klein et al., Eurogang Paradox.
35. Luke Dowdney, ed., neither War nor Peace: International Comparisons of Chil-
dren and Youth in Organized Armed Violence (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 2005).
36. J. M. Hagedorn and F. Gutirrez, Chicago and Medelln: A History of Orga-
nized Armed Violence. Unpublished paper.
148 notes to chapter 1
37. John M. Hagedorn and Brigid Rauch, Housing, Gangs, and Homicide: What
We Can Learn from Chicago, Urban Aairs Review 42 (2007): 43556.
1. GHET TO, FAVEL A, AND TOWNSHIP

1. Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, New Left Review 26 (MarchApril 2004), http://
www.newleftreview.net/NLR26001.8html (accessed November 13, 2006).
2. Dowdney, neither War nor Peace.
3. Philip Selznick, Leadership in Administration: A Sociological Interpretation (Berke-
ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957); John M. Meyer and Brian
Rowan, Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony,
American Journal of Sociology 83 [1997]: 34062.
4. Malcolm Klein, Resolving the Eurogang Paradox, in Klein et al., Eurogang
Paradox, 721. For a more theoretical view, see Cheryl L. Maxson and Malcolm Klein,
Play Groups No Longer: Urban Street Gangs in the Los Angeles Region, in From
Chicago to L.A.: Making Sense of Urban Theory, ed. Michael J. Dear (Thousand Oaks,
Calif.: Sage, 2000), 23966.
5. W. I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant, ed. E. Zaretsky, 5 vols.
(191820; rpt. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 45 note 1.
6. Frederic Thrasher, The Gang (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927).
7. UN-Habitat, Challenge of the Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements (Nai-
robi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2003); see also UN-
Habitat, Slums of the World. The term slum includes the traditional meaning, that is,
housing areas that were once respectable or even desirable, but which have since dete-
riorated, as the original dwellers have moved to new and better areas of cities. The
condition of the old houses has then declined, and the units have been progressively
subdivided and rented out to lower-income groups. A typical example is the inner city
slums of many historical towns and cities in both the industrial and the developing coun-
tries. The term slum has, however, come to include also the vast informal settlements
that are quickly becoming the most visual expression of urban poverty. The quality of
dwellings in such settlements varies from the simplest shack to permanent structures,
while access to water, electricity, sanitation and other basic services and infrastructure
tends to be limited. Such settlements are referred to by a wide range of names and
include a variety of tenurial arrangements (UN-Habitat, Challenge of the Slums, 8).
8. The UN calculates that worldwide 1.3 billion people live on less than US$1 a day,
its ocial measure of extreme poverty, and 2.8 billion live on less than $2 per day (United
Nations, Report on the World Social Situation [New York: UN Department of
Social and Economic Aairs, 2005]).
9. Davis, Planet of Slums, 9.
10. Ibid., 6.
11. Mohammed Ibrahim, An Empirical Survey of Children and Youth in Orga-
nised Armed Violence in Nigeria: Egbesu Boys, OPC, and Bakassi Boys as a Case
Study, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 4.
notes to chapter 1 149
12. UN-Habitat, Slums of the World.

13. http://www.crin.org/docs/edu_youth_conict.pdf (accessed August 11, 2006).
14. Charles Green, Manufacturing Powerlessness in the Black Diaspora: Inner-City
Youth and the New Global Frontier (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 2001), 16.
15. See Herbert C. Covey, Street Gangs throughout the World (Springeld, Ill.:
Thomas, 2003).
16. UN-Habitat, Street Children and Gangs in African Cities: Guidelines for Local
Authorities (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, 2000).
For example, according to the introduction, Local authorities have a major role to
play in improving the living conditions of street children and gangs. The main frame-
work for improving the living conditions for children is set out in the UN Conven-
tion on the Rights of the Child, in four broad areas: survival, development, protection
and participation (v).
17. See especially Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diusion of Power in
the World Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
18. See, for example, the essays gathered in Robert Park, Race and Culture
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940).
19. William Foote Whyte, Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian
Slum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943); Loc Wacquant, Three Pernicious
Premises in the Study of the American Ghetto, International Journal of Urban and
Regional Planning 21 (1997): 34153; William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States
(Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 1998).
20. The Fourth World comprises large areas of the globe, such as much of Sub-
Saharan Africa, and impoverished areas of Latin America and Asia. But it is also present
in literally every country, and every city, in this new geography of social exclusion
(Castells, End of Millennium, 3:168). Castells follows William Julius Wilsons under-
class argument that economic restructuring has resulted in a truly disadvantaged left
out of or, to use Castellss term, socially excluded from mainstream society (William
Julius Wilson, The Declining Signicance of Race [Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1978]; Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987]).
21. Castells, End of Millennium, 3:200; United Nations, Report on the World Social
Situation, chap. 2; Davis reports that forty-six countries are poorer today than in 1990
(Planet of Slums, 163).
22. Zygmunt Bauman, Globalization: The Human Consequences (New York: Colum-
bia University Press, 1998).
23. Strange points out that in the West, Reform, these days, is apt to mean cutting
back on the activities of government, shrinking the bureaucracy and imposing hus-
bandry and economy on government oces. It used, within living memory, to mean
the exact opposite: using the authority of government to impose more humane and reg-
ulated behavior on business and the private sector in general (Retreat of the State, xii).
25. Manuel Castells, End of Millennium (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1998), 185 note 39.
26. Joan Moore argued that Mexican gangs in East Los Angeles were quasi-
institutionalized, in a formulation that anticipated this work (Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs,
and Prison in the Barrios of Los Angeles [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978],
40). Much earlier, Everett Hughes used the term bastard institutions to describe Chi-
cagos rackets, though not specically referring to gangs, as illegitimate distributors
of legitimate goods and services; others satisfy wants not considered legitimate. . . .
Some of these bastard institutions are directly against the law, or the declared moral
values of society. While Hughes was writing in an era of more substantial mobility,
his conclusions bear repeating: These bastard institutions should be studied not merely
as pathological departures from what is good and right, but as part of the total complex
of human activities and enterprises (Everett Hughes, Bastard Institutions, in The
Sociological Eye: Selected Papers, ed. Everett Hughes [Chicago: Aldine, 1971], 99).
27. Philip Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study of Politics and Organization
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1949).
28. Ibid., 17, 21. Even a casual reading of Selznicks classic Leadership in Adminis-
trations description of the process of institutionalization can see its applicability to per-
sisting gangs.
29. The student, familiar with sociological theory, went on: My experience and
introduction into the gang is extremely contradictory to Thrashers theory. This was
by no means a spontaneously formed group of individuals. Everything was painstak-
ingly planned and symbolic. His phrase espirit de corps did not capture the essence
of this organization. These men standing before me were not little boys who grew up
with one another. Most of the brothers came from dierent sets and communities.
The rituals were not childs play but rather matters of life and death. We were not inte-
grated through conict but rather through necessity. We all were in need of something.
Whether it was money, popularity, attention, a family, or support, the gang was will-
ing to articially ll a void.
30. Selznick, Leadership in Administration, 1718.
31. For a brief overview of the various perspectives of institutional and neo-
institutional theory, see W. Richard Scott, Institutions and Organizations (Thousand
Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995).
32. John M. Meyer and Brian Rowan, in a classic essay, describe institutions as
dramatic enactments of the rationalized myths pervading modern society (Institu-
tionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony). See also Selznicks
discussion of socially integrating myths. He concludes by summarizing that myths
are institution builders (Leadership in Administration, 15152).
33. Jack Katz and Curtis Jackson-Jacobs, The Criminologists Gang, in The Black-
well Companion to Criminology, ed. Colin Sumner (New York: Blackwell, 2003), 92.
I would add, mythmaking is also a central activity for males in the academy.
34. Selznick, Leadership in Administration.
35. Marshall W. Meyer and Lynne G. Zucker, Permanently Failing Organizations
(Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1989).
36. Andrew V. Papachristos, A.D., After the Disciples: The Neighborhood Impact of
Federal Gang Prosecution (Chicago: New Chicago Schools Press, 2001).
37. Chicago Black Gangster Disciple member, interview with author, Chicago, 2003.
38. For a more detailed discussion of the concept, see John M. Hagedorn, Gangs,
Institutions, Race, and Space: The Chicago School Reconsidered, in Hagedorn,
Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives to Traditional Criminology, 2664.
2. STREET INSTITUTIONS
1. Hagedorn, Gangs, Institutions, Race, and Space.
2. Rod Emery, The Blueprint: From Gangster Disciple to Growth and Development
(Elgin, Ill.: Morris, 1996). See also the Gaylords ocial history, Michael Scott, Lords
of Lawndale: My Life in a Chicago White Street Gang (Bloomington, Ind.: AuthorHouse,
2004).
3. Luke Dowdney, Children of the Drug Trade: A Case Study of Children in Organ-
ised Armed Violence in Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 2003).
4. Andre Standing, The Threat of Gangs and Anti-Gangs Policy (Cape Town: Insti-
tute for Security Studies, 2005).
5. Wacquant, New Peculiar Institution.
6. Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 34.
7. James Jacobs, Stateville: The Penitentiary in Mass Society (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1977), 146.
8. David Dawley, A Nation of Lords: The Autobiography of the Vice Lords (Prospect
Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1992).
9. John R. Fry, Locked-Out Americans: A Memoir (New York: Harper and Row,
1973), 24.
10. Irving A. Spergel, The Youth Gang Problem: A Community Approach (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1995).
11. Irvin Kinnes, From Urban Street Gangs to Criminal Empires: The Changing Face
of Gangs in the Western Cape (Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies, 2000); Dowd-
ney, Children of the Drug Trade, 43. Chicagos prison-gang connection was rst laid
out in the classic work of James Jacobs, Stateville.
12. The academic left has typically failed to understand the signicance and reality
of the streets. For example: Marginals have no privileged role to play in the ght against
dictatorship and for socialism. They have no organization with which to develop the
struggle. On the contrary, it was the revolutionary left that lost its organization dur-
ing the dictatorship and the marginals who built organizations in the favelas (Joo
Quartim, Dictatorship and Armed Struggle in Brazil [London: NLB, 1971], 153).
14. Jorge Atilio Silva Iulianeli, Luiz Paulo Guanabara, Paulo Cesar Pontes Fraga, and
Tom Blickman, Drugs and Conict (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 2004), 27.
15. Ted Legget, Terugskeit: Growing Up on the Street Corners of Mannenberg,
South Africa, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 292311.
16. These three cities are not the only ones that produced institutionalized gangs
in the 1960s. In Jamaica, the political battles of the Peoples National Party (PNP) and
the Jamaica Labor Party (JLP) after independence in the 1960s led to the recruitment of
area gangs to join gunplay with politics. In Medelln and Cali, Colombia, the revolu-
tionary groups formed in the 1960s like Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia
(FARC) (and later the drug cartels) provided an organizational outlet for the hundreds
of youth gangs that have ourished in those cities. See Laurie Gunst, Born Fi Dead:
A Journey through the Jamaican Posse Underworld (New York: Holt, 1995); Francisco
Gutirrez Sanin and Ana Maria Jaramillo, Crime, [Counter]insurgency, and the Pri-
vatization of Security: The Case of Medelln, Colombia, Environment and Urban-
ization 16 (2004): 114; Ivan Dario Ramirez, Medelln: The Invisible Children of the
Social and Armed Conict, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 17494; World Bank,
Cali, Colombia: Toward a City Development Strategy (Washington, D.C.: International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, 2002).
17. After oil, the second largest international commodity traded in the world is
drugs (S. Cohen, Crime and Politics: Spot the Dierence, British Journal of Sociol-
ogy 47 [1996]: 12).
18. Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).
19. See Dowdney, neither War nor Peace; Kinnes, From Urban Street Gangs to Crim-
inal Empires; and Andre Standing, The Social Contradictions of Organised Crime on
the Cape Flats (Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies, 2003).
20. Michael Morgensen, Corner and Area Gangs in Inner-City Jamaica, in Dowd-
ney, neither War nor Peace, 22945.
21. Iulianeli et al., Drugs and Conict.
22. Oscar Newman, Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design (New
York: Collier Books, 1972).
23. Lydia Richardson and Adale Kirsten, Armed Violence and Poverty in Brazil: A
Case Study of Rio de Janeiro and Assessment of Viva Rio for the Armed Violence and Poverty
Initiative (London: UK Department of International Development, 2005).
25. See Lucia Macorro, A Tale of Two Cities. Unpublished paper.
26. Dowdney, neither War nor Peace. In Vigrio Geral in 1992, responding to the
killing of two corrupt police ocers, a full-scale invasion of the favela resulted. After
ring randomly on residents and killing twenty-three, the police reboarded their heli-
copters and ew o. In another favela, Rocinha, in January 2004, 1,200 police occupied
the favela to stop a gang war. They failed (Richardson and Kirsten, Armed Violence
and Poverty in Brazil, 27).
28. Venkatesh, American Project, 85.
29. Chicago Gang History Project, interview with author, Chicago, 2003.
30. See Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago,
19401960, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
31. Susan J. Popkin, The Hidden War: Crime and the Tragedy of Public Housing in
Chicago (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 67.
32. See Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago,
19401960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Thomas Lee Philpott,
The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform: Chicago,
18801930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
33. For a history of the spatial segregation of Cape Towns gangs, see Don Pinnock,
The Brotherhoods: Street Gangs and State Control in Cape Town (Cape Town: David Philip,
1984). For a more detailed comparison between Chicago and South African conditions,
see John M. Hagedorn, Gangs in Late Modernity, in Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global
City: Alternatives to Traditional Criminology.
34. Legget, South Africa Country Report, in Terugskeit.
35. Gangs in Kingston, Jamaica, were also based on neighborhoods aligned with
political factions in the Manley-Seaga years. For Jamaica, see Morgensen, Corner and
Area Gangs in Inner-City Jamaica; and Gunst, Born Fi Dead. Segregation and volun-
tary separation also characterize the growth of armed groups in Belfast and Mumbai.
36. See the almost identical story of Los Angeles gangs in Alejandro A. Alonso,
Racialized Identities and the Formation of Black Gangs in Los Angeles, Urban Geog-
raphy 25 (2004): 65874. Cf. Hagedorn, Race Not Space, a revisionist history of Chi-
cago gangs.
37. Felix Padilla, The Gang as an American Enterprise (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rut-
gers University Press, 1992). Ethnic identity was also crucial for Latino gangs. The Latin
Kings had its origins in the 1950s as a Puerto Rican street gang, but aggressively re-
cruited youth in all Latino neighborhoods and grew powerful in the 1960s. During
the same time the Young Lords, which also began as a street gang, turned political, but
stayed allPuerto Rican and did not recruit youth. Consequently, the Young Lords did
not survive the repression of the late 1960s. The Latin Kings, on the other hand, thrived
in prison and still have thousands of members in Chicago and branches around the
world (Chicago Gang History Project, interview with author, Chicago, 2003).
38. Ric Curtis and Travis Wendel, Lockin Niggas Up Like Its Goin Out of Style:
The Diering Consequences of Police Interventions in Three Brooklyn New York Drug
Markets. Unpublished manuscript, New York City, 2003.
39. See Macorro, Tale of Two Cities.
40. Jailson Souza de Silva and Andre Urani, Brazil: Children in Drug Tracking: A
Rapid Assessment (Geneva: International Labor Organization, International Programme
on the Elimination of Child Labour, 2002).
41. A 1967 law, passed under the military dictatorship, prohibited even the discus-
sion of racism (Benedita da Silva, Benedita da Silva: An Afro-Brazilian Womens Story
of Politics and Love [Chicago: Food First Books, 1997], 133).
42. Victor Ramos, The Pedagogy of Drums: Music and Art as Mediators between
Youngsters from Favelas and Policemen in Brazil (presented at Conference on Music

and Cultural RightsTrends and Prospects, Pittsburgh, 2005).
43. For example, the Vigrio Geralbased rap group, Grupo Cultural Afro Reggae.
44. Another clear-cut example of institutionalization of gangs in South Africa is
the Marashea gangs around the gold mines near Johannesburg. Gary Kynochs book,
though he never uses the term, is a perfect illustration of how gangs institutionalize.
This is a representative conclusion: The gangs negotiated the hazardous terrain of
apartheid sometimes by challenging, but more often by adapting to, the urban con-
ditions imposed by the South African state (Gary Kynoch, We Are Fighting the World:
A History of the Marashea Gangs in South Africa, 19471999 [Athens: Ohio University
Press, 2005], 90). An ethnic element is involved as well, as Marashea gangs are Basotho
from Lesotho and warred continuously among themselves but also against the Xosha
and Zulu.
45. See Pinnock, Brotherhoods; Kinnes, From Urban Street Gangs to Criminal Empires.
Mandrax is a tablet that was used as a sleeping pill. It is smoked to give a greater rush
and is thought to be highly addictive. The central ingredient is methaqualone and is
now largely imported by the gangs from Pakistan and India. See http://www.drugaware
.co.za/mandrax.html. Dagga is marijuana.
46. Kinnes, From Urban Street Gangs to Criminal Empires.
47. Clive Glaser, Bo-Tsotsi: The Youth Gangs of Soweto, 19351976 (Portsmouth, N.H.:
Heinemann, 2000).
48. Luis Rodriguez suggests that the favoring of criminals over militants may be a
conscious policy of the state . While the evidence is weaker for this proposition in Chi-
cago and Rio, in Cape Town there is ample evidence to support Rodriguezs view. See
Luis Rodriguez, Hearts and Hands: Creating Community in Violent Times (New York:
Seven Stories, 2001).
49. Bill Dixon and Lisa-Marie Johns, Gangs, Pagad, and the State: Vigilantism and
Revenge Violence in the Western Cape (Cape Town: Center for the Study of Violence
and Reconciliation, 2001).
50. Suren Pillay, Problematizing the Making of Good and Evil: Gangs and Pagad,
Critical Arts: A Journal of South-North Cultural and Media Studies 16 (2002): 61.
51. Standing, Threat of Gangs and Anti-gangs Policy. He goes on, The percep-
tion of political exclusion among the colored community plays a major role in moti-
vational and causal factors that keep people involved in gang activity.
52. There are also conicts between coloured and Indian or Malaysian. Gang-
sters are often seen as Eur-African (Pillay, Problematizing the Making of Good and Evil).
53. Dixon and Johns, Gangs, Pagad, and the State.
54. For a typical view, see Chicago Crime Commission, Gangs: Public Enemy
Number One (1995) and The New Faces of Organized Crime (1997). A more recent
attempt to redene many street gangs as organized crime is Sean Grennan and Marjie
T. Britz, Organized Crime: A Worldwide Perspective (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/
Prentice Hall, 2006).
55. Dowdney, neither War nor Peace.

56. Ibid., 31; Alba Zaluar, Violence in Rio de Janeiro: Styles of Leisure, Drug Use, and
Tracking (New York: UNESCO, 2005), 3139.
57. Dowdney, neither War nor Peace. The mythologizing of gang leaders and drug
dealers is best exemplied by the Mexican narcocorrido, traditional folk songs often com-
missioned by trackers (Elijah Wald, Narcocorrido: A Journey into the Music of Drugs,
Guns, and Guerrillas [New York: Rayo/HarperCollins, 2001]; Luis Astorga, The Social
Construction of the Identity of the Tracker [New York: UNESCO, 2005], 3946).
58. Standing, Threat of Gangs and Anti-gangs Policy.
59. Karl E. Weick, Educational Organizations as Loosely Coupled Systems, Admin-
istrative Science Quarterly 21 (1976): 119.
60. Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environment: Manag-
ing Dierentiation and Integration (Homewood, Ill.: Irwin, 1969); John M. Hagedorn,
Neighborhoods, Markets, and Gang Drug Organization, Journal of Research in Crime
and Delinquency 32 (1994): 197219.
61. For example, I was told the Conservative Vice Lords today consist of the Albany
Vice Lords, Cicero Insane Vice Lords, Conservative Vice Lords, Ebony Vice Lords,
Four Corner Hustler Vice Lords, Imperial Insane Vice Lords, Maa Insane Vice Lords,
Traveling Vice Lords, Undertaker Vice Lords, Unknown Vice Lords, and the only Latino
Vice Lords are the Spanish Vice Lords not to be misconceived with the Spanish Lords
that are not part of the Vice Lords (interview with author, Chicago, 2004). There are
more Vice Lord chapters, though, than this list.
62. See sample constitutions in George Knox, An Introduction to Gangs (Chicago:
Wyndham Hall, 1996).
63. Chicago Gang History Project, interview with author, Chicago, 2003. The Mil-
waukee Kings are not to be confused with the Latin Kings, a sworn enemy.
64. Moore, Homeboys.
65. Chicago Unknown Vice Lord member, interview with author, Chicago, 2003.
66. If gangs have a history, it means they will inevitably go through stages of youth,
adulthood, and old age (Meyer and Zucker, Permanently Failing Organizations). This
is a characteristic of the population ecology school of organizational theory.
67. Consider this scene, reminiscent of Al Capone, of Cape Towns Hard Livings
leader, Rashied Staggie: The act of throwing money from a moving car was quite a
spectacle. Staggie would rst drive his car up and down the street and tell the children
that he would be throwing money out when he returned. As a consequence, hundreds
of people, including adults, were drawn into the street. They would wait for the car
to pass and everyone would scramble at the rst sight of uttering money. Adults,
children, old and young would run around to get their hand on some money. In this
way, the gang leader would sometimes throw R20,000 [US$3,500] out of his car win-
dow for the community. This allowed Staggie to win large sections of the commu-
nity to his side when he was in trouble with the law (Kinnes, From Urban Street Gangs
to Criminal Empires).
68. Maxson and Klein, Play Groups No Longer. Dears edited volume, From Chi-
cago to L.A.: Making Sense of Urban Theory, contains the basic assumptions and claims
of the Los Angeles school. See also the argument by Katz and Jackson-Jacobs in The
Criminologists Gang.
69. Malcolm Klein, The Value of Comparisons in Street Gang Research, Journal
of Contemporary Criminal Justice 21 (2005): 12552.
3. THE PROBLEM WITH DEFINITIONS

1. Conerly Casey, Mediated Hostility: Media, Aective Citizenships, and Genocide
in Northern Nigeria, in Genocide, Truth, and Representation: Anthropological Approaches,
ed. Alexander Hinton and Kevin ONeill (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008).
The actual quote was taken from an earlier version of this chapter, reprinted by permis-
sion of the author.
2. Jack A. Goldstone, States, Terrorists, and the Clash of Civilizations, in Under-
standing September 11, ed. Craig Calhoun, Paul Price, and Ashley Timmer (New York:
New Press, 2002), 151.
3. Klein, Resolving the Eurogang Paradox, 10.
4. Covey, Street Gangs throughout the World, 69.
5. Decker and Weerman, European Street Gangs and Troublesome Youth Groups. The
Eurogang denition of a gang is any durable, street-oriented youth group whose
involvement in illegal activity is part of their group identity (ibid., 288). The editors,
and Klein in a preface, insist that the most important contribution of the Eurogang
research is perhaps the utility of the denition of a street gang (ibid., 304).
6. Not all urbanists were optimists. Spenglers dismay over the results of urban-
ism was the most extreme case, and Webers insight of the iron cage of modernity was
similarly bleak. The Chicago school, however, perhaps reecting American vigor, coun-
tered European pessimism with the notion that the city can create the conditions for
freedom. See the introduction in Richard Sennett, ed., Classic Essays on the Culture of
Cities (Englewood Clis, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969). More on this in chapter 6.
7. Alain Touraine, Can We Live Together? Equality and Dierence (Stanford, Calif.:
Stanford University Press, 2000).
8. Richard Wright, Native Son (New York: Harper and Row, 1940), 392; Frantz
Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1963).
9. Cypress Hill, Here Is Something You Cant Understand, Stone Raiders (Colum-
bia Records, 2001).
10. West, Race Matters.
11. Norman Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners (1939; rpt. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1994); Robert A. Nisbet, History of the Idea of Progress (New York: Basic
Books, 1980).
12. Strange, Retreat of the State, 4; The new power system is characterized . . . by
the plurality of sources of authority . . . the nation being just one of these (Castells,
Power of Identity, 303).
13. Arundhati Roy, Public Power in an Age of Empire, Democracy Now, August
2004, http://www.democracynow.org/static/Arundhati_Trans.shtml (accessed Decem-
ber 22, 2005).
14. Castells, Rise of the Network Society, 141. Touraine argues that it is not con-
ducive to democracy when the weakening of the state subordinates the whole of soci-
ety to the interests of those with the strongest market position (Can We Live Together?
232). One typical example is Kenya, where a Structural Adjustment Plan (SAP) by the
World Bank and IMF was implemented in the early 1990s. Resistance by the Kenyan
state was met by stopping international loans, and the government was forced to
freeze employment of teachers and civil service. An end to price supports sent com-
modity prices skyrocketing, and students were forced to drop out of college because
of sharp rises in the price of education. Unemployment and poverty shot up as the
economy ground to a halt. Edwin Gimode pointed out that the result was a poten-
tially large criminal army (An Anatomy of Violent Crime and Insecurity in Kenya:
The Case of Nairobi, 19851999, Africa Development 26 [2001]: 295335).
15. Green, Manufacturing Powerlessness.
16. Quoted in ibid., 388.
17. Quoted in ibid., 357.
18. Steve Reyna, Imagining Monsters: A Structural History of Warfare in Chad
(19681990), in Globalization, the State, and Violence, ed. Jonathan Friedman (Walnut
Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 2003), 279307.
20. Basil Davidson, The Black Mans Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-
State (New York: Times Books, 1992); Harvey W. Zorbaugh, The Natural Areas of the
City, in Studies in Human Ecology, ed. George A. Theodorson (1926; rpt. Evanston,
Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1961), 4549.
21. Steve Sampson, Trouble Spots: Projects, Bandits, and State Fragmentation, in
Friedman, Globalization, the State, and Violence, 337.
22. Jean-Franois Bayart, Stephen Ellis, and Batrice Hibou, The Criminalization of
the State in Africa (Oxford: International African Institute, 1999), 88; Reno, Warlord
Politics and African States. Castells uses the term Predator State (End of Millennium).
23. This argument is developed in Kajsa Ekholm Friedman, State Classes: The
Logic of Rentier Power, and Social Disintegration, in Friedman, Globalization, the State,
and Violence, 34377.
24. Davidson, Black Mans Burden, 12.
25. Reno, Warlord Politics and African States, 207. Reno chillingly summarizes, There
is a strong possibility that sub-Saharan Africa is returning to the heart of darkness (114).
26. Gimode, Anatomy of Violent Crime and Insecurity in Kenya, 329.
27. Lately, U.S. gang culture has penetrated Central America, as the children of
refugees of civil war returned home, either by choice or by deportation, and im-
planted gangs like Mara Salvatrucha in Central America. See especially Elana Zilberg,
Banished from the Kingdom, American Quarterly 56 (2004): 75979.
28. The extraordinary growth in the drug trac industry since the 1970s has trans-
formed the economics and politics of Latin America (Castells, End of Millennium,
195).
29. For example, Deborah Poole and Gerardo Rnique, Peru: Time of Fear (Lon-
don: Latin American Bureau, 1992); and Elaine Shannon, Desperados: Latin Drug Lords,
U.S. Lawmen, and the War America Cant Win (New York: Viking, 1988); Gutirrez Sanin
and Jaramillo, Crime, [Counter]insurgency, and the Privatization of Security; World
Bank, Cali, Colombia.
30. Louise Shelley, Corruption and Organized Crime in Mexico in the Post-PRI
Transition, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 17 (2001): 21328. See also Castellss
discussion of the PRI in End of Millennium, 27686.
31. Paul Chevigny, The Edge of the Knife: Police Violence in the Americas (New York:
New Press, 1995), 143.
32. Castells, Rise of the Network Society, 256306.
33. Triads in China institutionalized in the eighteenth century as opposition to the
Qing Dynasty. Like Italys Maa, Triads began as an opponent of foreign (Manchu)
rule and then adapted to changed conditions by providing protection and control-
ling illegal goods. And like the Sicilians, Triad inuence is felt all over the world. In
Japan, the Yakuza rose to prominence through corruption from the vast arsenal and
storehouses of the U.S. military after World War II and the Korean War. See Martin
Booth, The Dragon Syndicates: The Global Phenomenon of the Triads (New York: Car-
roll & Graf, 1999); Robert Whiting, Tokyo Underworld: The Fast Times and Hard Life
of an American Gangster in Japan (New York: Vintage, 2000).
34. In Indias teaming cities, gangs are a well-publicized problem, with a clear Hindu-
Muslim divide. Mumbais Shiv Sena and its strongman, Bal Thackeray, uses mitra
mandals, or groups of tough youth, as voting gangs both to keep the Sena in power
and as shock troops against Muslims. In turn, the Muslim community has lent con-
ditional support to the gangster Dawood Ibrahim, who has skillfully combined reli-
gious politics with his lucrative underground empire. See also Julia M. Eckert, The
Charisma of Direct Action: Power, Politics, and the Shiv Sena (New Delhi: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2003); Suketu Mehta, Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found (New York:
Knopf, 2004); S. Hussain Zaidi, Black Friday: The True Story of the Bombay Bomb Blasts
(New Delhi: Penguin, 2002).
35. Alfred W. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia (New York: Harper
and Row, 1972).
37. Gary LaFree, Losing Legitimacy: Street Crime and the Decline of Social Institu-
tions in America (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998).
38. Suzella Palmer and John Pitts, Othering the Brothers: Black Youth, Racial Sol-
idarity, and Gun Crime, unpublished manuscript (2005); John Pitts, The New Politics
of Youth Crime: Discipline or Solidarity? (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2000).
39. Elijah Anderson, The Ideologically Driven Critique, American Journal of
Sociology 107 (2002): 154647. This is Andersons detailed rebuttal of Wacquants crit-
icism of Andersons social disorganization approach.
41. Dixon and Johns describe South Africa in the mid-1990s as a fragile transi-
tional State (that) views street gangsters, organised crime syndicates, armed vigilantes
and civil society anti-crime groups as, to varying degrees, a threat to its jealously guarded
monopoly on the use of legitimate coercive force (Gangs, Pagad, and the State, 42).
42. Henry A. Giroux, Fugitive Cultures: Race, Violence, and Youth (New York: Rout-
ledge, 1996).
43. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993), 336.
44. Craig Calhoun, Critical Social Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), 45.
45. Finn-Aage Esbensen, L. Thomas Winfree Jr., and Terrance Taylor, Gangs and
Denitional Issues, Crime and Delinquency 47 (2001): 10530.
46. James F. Short and Fred L. Strodtbeck, Group Process and Gang Delinquency
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Joan W. Moore, Going Down to the Barrio:
Homeboys and Homegirls in Change (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991).
47. If any further categorization makes sense, it is between those gangs that in-
stitutionalize and those that do not, and to dierentiate those from majority and minor-
ity ethnic groups (Hagedorn, Gangs in Late Modernity).
4. FROM CHICAGO TO MUMBAI

1. Michel Wieviorka, The New Paradigm of Violence, in Friedman, Globaliza-
tion, the State, and Violence, 129.
2. John P. Sullivan, Gangs, Hooligans, and AnarchistsThe Vanguard of Net-
war in the Streets, in Networks and Netwars, ed. John Arquilla and David Ronfeld
(Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand National Defense Research Institute, 2001), 99128. See
also Manwaring, Street Gangs.
3. Sampson, Trouble Spots, 327.
4. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity (Glencoe, Ill.:
Free Press, 1960).
5. Martin Sanchez Jankowski, Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Soci-
ety (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
6. Klein, Resolving the Eurogang Paradox, 719.
7. Ibrahim Abdullah, Youth, Culture, and Rebellion: Understanding Sierra Leones
Wasted Decade, Critical Arts: A Journal of South-North Cultural and Media Studies 16
(2002): 1937.
8. Susan Shepler points out in an unpublished paper that there also is a long-
standing cultural context in Sierra Leone of violence by youth and a quite dierent
denition of youth and childhood than in the West (The Social and Cultural Con-
text of Child Soldiering in Sierra Leone, paper presented at the PRIO workshop,
Techniques of Violence in Civil War, Oslo, August 2124, 2004).
9. Gutirrez Sanin and Jaramillo, Crime, [Counter]insurgency, and the Privatization
of Security; Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict, Colombias War on Chil-

dren (New York: Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict, 2004).
10. Human Rights Watch, Youll Learn Not to Cry: Child Combatants in Colom-
bia (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2003), 54. One other group with large numbers
of females and young girls participating as armed combatants is the Tamil Tigers, the
Liberation Tigers of Tamel Eelam in Sri Lanka. See, for example, Cynthia Brown and
Farhad Karim, Playing the Communal Card: Communal Violence and Human
Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995).
11. Alonso Salazar, Young Assassins of the Drug Trade (New York: North America
Congress on Latin America, 1994); Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict, Colom-
bias War on Children.
12. See also Ramirez, Medelln.
13. COAV Bulletin, http://www.coav.org.br/frame.asp?url=/publique/cgi/cgilua.exe/
sys/start.htm?UserActiveTemplate=%5Fen&infoid=1846&sid=114 (accessed April 2,
2006).
14. Rob White, Youth Gang Research in Australia, in Studying Youth Gangs, ed.
James F. Short and Lorine A. Hughes (Lanham, Md.: AltaMira, 2006), 16180.
15. Cameron Hazelhurst, Observing New Zealand Gangs, 19502000: Learning
from a Small Country, in Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global City: Criminology Reconsidered.
16. Joachim Kersten, Youth Groupings, Identity, and the Political Context: On
the Signicance of Extremist Youth Groupings in Unied Germany, in Hagedorn,
17. Klein, Value of Comparisons in Street Gang Research. For example, see Mau-
reen Cains statement that in Trinidad and Tobago, Western views of aging out of
crime are not valid. It doesnt happen like that (Crime and Criminology in the Caribbean:
An Introduction [Kingston], vii).
18. Gimode, Anatomy of Violent Crime and Insecurity in Kenya, 332. The situ-
ation in Nairobi resembles Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where youth gangs with names
like the Posta Group, Ja la Ku, and Kariakoo Group function as unsupervised youth.
Signicantly, often not discussed in gang studies, both Nairobi and Dar es Salaam have
a structured racial hierarchy left over from colonialism of whites, Asians, Arabs, and
Africans on the bottom (Green, Manufacturing Powerlessness in the Black Diaspora).
19. David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End
of Empire (New York: Norton, 2005), 189, 196.
20. Covey, Street Gangs throughout the World, 191; see also his comments on the Mid-
dle East: The presence of street gangs in the Middle East is dicult to ascertain given
the political turmoil characteristic of the region. Dierentiating law-violating groups,
organized crime, politically motivated groups, or organizations is dicult (196).
21. Chinese youth gangs are not simply expressions of adolescent mischief or young
adulthood. . . . They are consciously formed by adults (within Chinatown) or by for-
mer gangs members (outside of Chinatown) rather than by noncriminal adolescents
(Ko-lin Chin, Chinatown Gangs: Extortion, Enterprise, and Ethnicity [New York: Oxford
University Press, 1996], 1920).
22. Patricia Bibes, Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism, Journal of Con-
temporary Criminal Justice 17, no. 2 (2001): 24358.
23. Kynoch, We Are Fighting the World, 3.
24. Emery, Blueprint, 14.
25. Interview with author, Chicago, 2003.
26. Moore, Homeboys, 361, 129.
27. Dowdney, Children of the Drug Trade, 52.
28. Marlon Carranza, Detention or Death: Where the Pandillero Kids of El Sal-
vador Are Heading, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 20928.
29. Zilberg, Banished from the Kingdom, 763.
30. Donna Decesare, From Civil War to Gang War: The Tragedy of Edgar Bolanos,
in Gangs and Society: Alternative Perspectives, ed. Louis Kontos, David Brotherton, and
Luis Barrios (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 283313.
31. Children in Organised Armed Violence, From Guerrillas to Gangs, Paran
Online, November 18, 2002, http://www.paranaonline.org.br.
32. For Ecuador, see Kleber Loor, Ecuadors Pandillas and Naciones: A Dreadful
Reality and a Challenging Task: From Victims to Victimizers, in Dowdney, neither
War nor Peace, 195208.
33. See, for example, Wieviorka, New Paradigm of Violence, 10739.
34. Donal B. Cruise OBrien, A Lost Generation? Youth Identity and Decay in
West Africa, in Postcolonial Identities in Africa, ed. Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger
(London: Zed Books, 1996), 5574.
35. Friedman, State Classes, 367, 369.
36. Asef Bayat, Cairos Poor: Dilemmas of Survival and Solidarity, Middle East
Report 202 (Winter 1996): 6.
37. Castells, End of Millennium.
38. Alexander Salagaev, Evolution of Delinquent Gangs in Russia, in Klein et al.,
Eurogang Paradox, 195202.
39. Gloria La Cava and Rafaella Y. Nanetti, Albania: Fight the Vulnerability Gap
(Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2000), 16, 31.
40. John C. McCall, Juju and Justice at the Movies: Vigilantes in Nigerian Pop-
ular Videos, African Studies Review (December 2004), http://www.umass.edu/anthro/
asr/ (accessed November 4, 2005).
41. Julia M. Eckert, The Charisma of Direct Action: Power, Politics, and the Shiv Sena
(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003). The comparison of Richard J. Daley and
Bal Thackeray is almost too exact to have escaped previous notice.
42. Suketu Mehta, Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found (New York: Knopf,
2004).
43. Arjun Appadurai, Spectral Housing and Urban Cleansing: Notes on Millennial
Mumbai, Public Culture 12 (2000): 62751.
44. Clive Glaser, Bo-Tsotsi: The Youth Gangs of Soweto, 19351976 (Portsmouth, N.H.:
Heinemann, 2000); James Curry, David Philip, and John M. Hagedorn, Gangs in Late
Modernity, in Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives to Traditional Crimi-
nology; Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Boston: Little, Brown, 1994); John
M. Hagedorn, Gangs in Politics, in Youth Activism: An International Encyclopedia, ed.
Lonnie R. Sherrod, Constance Flanagan, and Ron Kassimir (London: Blackwell, 2004).
45. Alonso, Racialized Identities and the Formation of Black Gangs in Los Angeles,
666. See also the history of black and other LA gangs in Vigil, Rainbow of Gangs.
46. Ibid., 668.
47. Alexander Cockburn, Blood Money, New Statesman and Society (1992), http://
gangresearch.net/GangResearch/Policy/cripsbloodsplan.html (accessed November 1,
2005). Tom Hayden adds, When the Panthers were demolished, nonpolitical ghting
gangs symbolized by the Crips emerged in the vacuum (Street Wars: Gangs and the
Future of Violence [New York: New Press, 2004], 167).
48. David Brotherton and Luis Barrios, Between Black and Gold: The Street Politics
of the Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation (New York: Columbia University Press,
2003); David C. Brotherton, Toward the Gang as a Social Movement, in Hagedorn,
50. Morgensen, Corner and Area Gangs of Inner-City Jamaica.
51. Gunst, Born Fi Dead, 104.
52. People just grow in da system. You live what you learn, generation after gen-
eration (area gang member, quoted in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 239).
53. Economist, November 4, 2004. See also Covey, Street Gangs throughout the World.
54. See also Marie Smythe and Patricia Campbell, Young People and Armed Vio-
lence in Northern Ireland, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 26069.
55. Caracas Journal, March 6, 2006, http://www.thedailyjournalonline.com/article
.asp?ArticleId=228558&CategoryId=12393.
56. Poole and Rnique, Peru.
57. Luis Martinez, Youth, the Street, and Violence in Algeria, in Alienation or Inte-
gration of Arab Youth, ed. Roel Meijer (Padistow, UK: Curzon, 2000), 83105.
58. Robert Muggah, Securing Haitis Transition: Reviewing Human Insecurity and
the Prospects for Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (Geneva: Small
Arms Survey, 2005), 31.
59. What is happening today in the suburbs is true angera No to permanent
stigmatisation, to insults and daily acts of discrimination, Mouloud Aounit, secretary-
general of the Movement of Struggle against Racism, told the crowd (BBC News,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4430540.stm [accessed November 12, 2005]). See
also David Brooks, Gangsta, in French, New York Times, November 10, 2005.
60. Oskar Verkaaik, Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004), 87.
61. Walter Miller, Youth Gangs in the Urban Crisis Era, in Short, Delinquency,
Crime, and Society, 91122. For a more balanced yet skeptical view of gangs and poli-
tics, see Short, Gangs, Politics, and the Social Order, in Short, Delinquency, Crime,
and Society, 12963.
62. W. Durant, The Renaissance: A History of Civilization in Italy from 13041576
A.D. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1953), 150. And the Christian gang tradition may
go back even farther. In the fth century, Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, employed shock
troops, called parabalani, against the enemies of the faith. They were viewed with
such terror that the emperor himself had to ask that their numbers be limited to 500
(Charles Freeman, The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of
Reason [New York: Knopf, 2003], 268).
63. C. Brown and F. Karim, Playing the Communal Card: Communal Violence
and Human Rights (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1995), 20.
64. Heres how U.S. Ambassador Warren Zimmermann described the Tigers:
The dregs of societyembezzlers, thugs, even professional killersrose from the
slime to become freedom ghters and national heroes (Origins of a Catastrophe [New
York: Times Books, 1999], 152). Mary Kaldor reports that the UN determined there
were eighty-three paramilitary groups on the territory of the former Yugoslavia (New
and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University
Press, 1999], 47).
65. James Ron, Territoriality and Plausible Deniability: Serbian Paramilitaries in
the Bosnian War, in Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability, ed.
Bruce A. Campbell and Arthur D. Brenner (New York: St. Martins, 2000), 287312.
See also Kaldor, New and Old Wars.
66. I am indebted to Erin Conley, PhD student in criminal justice at the University
of IllinoisChicago, for discussions on her dissertation research on death squads.
67. Bruce Campbell, Death Squads: Denition, Problems, and Historical Context,
in Campbell and Brenner, Death Squads in Global Perspective, 2.
68. Ibrahim, Empirical Survey of Children and Youth, 24659.
69. Human Rights Watch, The Bakassi Boys: The Legitimation of Murder and Torture
(New York: Human Rights Watch, 2002), http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/nigeria2/
(accessed November 6, 2005).
70. Peter Ekeh, Bakassi Boys, Urhobo Historical Society, http://www.waado.org/
NigerDelta/Documents/ConstitutionalMatters/PoliceVigilante/ReviewBakassiBoys
-Ekeh.html (accessed November 6, 2005).
71. Ibid., 255.
72. Ibid., 257.
73. Ibid., 249.
74. Donald M. Nonini, American Neoliberalism, Globalization, and Violence,
in Friedman, Globalization, the State, and Violence, 187.
75. Agnes Zenaida V. Camacho, Children and Youth in Organised Armed Vio-
lence in the Philippines, in Dowdney, neither War nor Peace, 27091.
76. Agnes Zenaida V. Camacho, Children and Youth in Organised Armed Violence
in the Philippines (Rio de Janeiro: University of the Philippines, Center for Integrative
and Development Studies, Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights program, 2005),
36. See also the chilling interview with a child hit man on page 33.
77. I am indebted to papers by my student Nixon Camillien for a deeper under-
standing of Haitian conditions.
78. Wozo Productions, video history of Haitis rebellion, http://www.wozoproductions
.org/pages/video_pages/video_six.htm (accessed November 7, 2005).
79. Human Rights Watch, Haiti: Hundreds Killed Amid Rampant Impunity,
April 14, 2005.
80. The recruitment of street children by local gang chiefs in the commission of
violent crimes is not uncommon, given the desperate poverty of the kids and the coer-
cive intimidation of non-cooperatives by the gangs (J. Christopher Kovats-Bernat,
Anti-Gang, Arimaj, and the War on Street Children, Peace Review 12 [2000]: 417).
This was written about conditions during Aristides reign.
5 . NO WAY O UT
1. Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1987); Eckard V. Toy Jr., Right-Wing Extremism from the Ku
Klux Klan to the Order: 19151988, in Violence in America: Protest, Rebellion, Reform,
ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1989), 13152; David Mark Chalmers,
Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan (New York: Watts, 1981).
2. Pete Simi, Hate Groups or Street Gangs? The Emergence of Racist Skinheads,
in Studying Youth Gangs, ed. James F. Short Jr. and Oorine A. Hughes (Lanham, Md.:
AltaMira, 2006), 150.
3. Scott, Lords of Lawndale, 167.
4. Ibid., 169.
5. Ibid., 179.
6. Ibid., 95, 109.
7. Walter Miller, White Gangs, in Modern Criminals, ed. James F. Short (New
Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1970), 4584; Spergel, Youth Gang Problem.
8. Moore, Going Down to the Barrio; Vigil, Rainbow of Gangs; Carl Taylor, Dan-
gerous Society (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1989); Padilla, Gang as
an American Enterprise.
9. Malcolm Klein, citing Short and Strodtbecks work, argues that the similarities
between gangs of dierent ethnic backgrounds far exceeds their dierences, thus elim-
inating any need to examine the impact of structures of racism (Klein, The American
Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control [New York: Oxford University Press,
1995], 7071, 10510; Short and Strodtbeck, Group Process and Gang Delinquency).
10. Spergel, Youth Gang Problem, 16163.
11. This is the standard method of social science. See, for example, Robert J. Samp-
son, Urban Black Violence: The Eect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption,
American Journal of Sociology 93 (1987): 34882.
12. Wacquant, Three Pernicious Premises in the Study of American Ghetto.

13. The ethnic group-, class-, and nation-based perspectives all neglect the speci-
city of race as an autonomous eld of social conict, political organization, and cultural/
ideological meaning (Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the
United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s [New York: Routledge, 1994]).
14. Thrasher, Gang, 38182.
15. Ibid., 392.
16. It is probably the breaking down of local attachments and the weakening of
the restraints and inhibitions of the primary group, under the inuence of the urban
environment, which are largely responsible for the increase of vice and crime in great
cities (Robert Park, The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior
in the Urban Environment, in Classic Essays on the Culture of Cities, ed. Richard Sen-
nett [Englewood Clis, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969], 112). See also, in the same volume,
Georg Simmel, The Metropolis and Mental Life, 4760. This volume has an excel-
lent overview of these issues.
17. mile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1933).
See also Thomas and Znaniecki, Polish Peasant.
18. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 19141991 (New
York: Vintage, 1997). See also Jock Young, The Exclusive Society (London: Sage, 1999).
19. Robert K. Merton, Social Structure and Anomie, American Sociological Review
3 (1938): 67282.
20. Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity; Frances Fox Piven and Richard
A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon,
1971). Cloward was a key architect of the National Welfare Rights Organization.
21. Touraine, Can We Live Together? 12527.
22. George Jackson, Blood in My Eye (New York: Random House, 1972).
23. hooks, We Real Cool, 15. Tom Hayden also argues that the mushrooming of gang
violence was the result of the failure of the civil rights movement to take root in the
north (Street Wars, 23).
24. See also Rodriguez, Hearts and Hands.
25. West, Race Matters.
26. Ibid., 24, 28. Compare this with W. E. B. DuBois, writing in 1902 about the
end of Reconstruction: Whatever of good may have come in these years of change,
the shadow of a deep disappointment rests upon the Negro people (The Souls of Black
Folk [1902; rpt. New York: Penguin Books, 1989], 7).
27. All told the civil rights movement succeeded in directing signicant economic
and social benets of the middle-class social order to people of color. . . . the black
middle class doubled in size between 1960 and 1980 to 36% of all blacks (Andrew L.
Barlow, Between Fear and Hope: Globalization and Race in the United States [Lanham,
Md.: Rowman and Littleeld, 2003], 173).
28. Tupac, I Wonder If Heaven Got a Ghetto, R U Still Down? (Remember Me)
(Interscope, 1997).
29. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged; John M. Hagedorn, People and Folks: Gangs, Crime,
and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City (1988; rpt. Chicago: Lakeview, 1998).
30. David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2005), 171.
31. Sanyika Shakur, Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member (New York:
Penguin Books, 1993), 220.
32. Robert B. Reich, The Work of Nations (New York: Vintage, 1991).
33. Im thinking here of President Lula of Brazil. Lula was the hero of the World
Social Forum last year. This year hes busy implementing IMF guidelines, reducing pen-
sion benets and purging radicals from the Workers Party. Im thinking also of the
former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela. Within two years of taking oce
in 1994, his government genuected with hardly a caveat to the Market God. It insti-
tuted a massive program of privatization and structural adjustment that has left millions
of people homeless, jobless and without water and electricity (Arundhati Roy, Nation,
February 9, 2004, http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040209/roy).
34. Alain Touraine, Critique of Modernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), 2. This has also
long been a theme of Latin American scholars. See Andre Gunder Frank, Latin Amer-
ica: Underdevelopment or Revolution: Essays on the Development of Underdevelopment
and the Immediate Enemy (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).
35. Ralph Fevre, The Demoralization of Western Culture: Social Theory and the Dilem-
mas of Modern Living (London: Continuum, 2000), 1.
36. John Gray, Enlightenments Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern
Age (London: Routledge, 1995), 15.
37. Zygmunt Bauman, Community: Seeking Safety in an Insecure World (Cambridge:
Polity, 2001), 113.
38. Castells, Power of Identity, 9. For example, Maryse Esterle-Hedibel points out
that Algerian Muslim youth form gangs in reaction to and in defense against the
outside world, with a sign reversal of the stigma, making it a part of its identity
(Youth Gangs in France: A Socio-Ethnographic Approach, in Klein et al., Eurogang
Paradox, 205).
39. Touraine, Beyond Social Movements, 183.
40. Castells, Power of Identity, 64.
41. Ibid.
42. Shakur, Monster, 22526.
44. DuBois left the United States for Ghana near the end of his life: I just cant
take anymore of this countrys treatment. . . . Chin up, and ght on, but realize that
American Negroes cannot win (quoted in Henry Louis Gates and Cornel West, The
Future of the Race [New York: Knopf, 1996]). On the increasing levels of racism in the
United States, see Barlow, Between Fear and Hope.
45. Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (New York: Orion, 1965), xii.
46. Omi and Winant, Racial Formation in the United States; Kimberl Crenshaw,
Critical Race Theory (New York: New Press, 1995); bell hooks, Aint I a Woman? Black
Women and Feminism (Boston: South End, 1981).
47. Robin D. G. Kelley, Yo Mamas Disfunktional!: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban
America (Boston: Beacon, 1997).
48. Bell, Aint I a Woman? ix.
49. Ibid., 12. See also Touraines comments that in these times the Subject is a
tragic gure that is ghting for survival in a rapidly decaying world (Can We Live
Together? 83).
50. Tupac, Keep Ya Head Up, Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. (Interscope, 1993).
51. Howard Winant, The World Is a Ghetto: Race and Democracy since World War
II (New York: Basic Books, 2001).
52. Gunnar Myrdal, Richard Mauritz, Edvard Sterner, and Arnold Rose, An Amer-
ican Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1944).
53. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (1979; rpt. New York: Vintage, 1994).
54. Kersten, Youth Groupings, Identity, and the Political Context.
55. Pitts, New Politics of Youth Crime.
56. Davidson, Black Mans Burden.
57. Arjun Appadurai, Dead Certainty: Ethnic Violence in the Era of Globaliza-
tion, in Globalization and Identity: Dialectics of Flow and Closure, ed. Birgit Meyer
and Peter Geschiere (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), 30524; for an analytic treatment, see
Castells, End of Millennium.
58. Nina Glick Schiller and Georges Fouron, Killing Me Softly: Violence, Glob-
alization, and the Apparent State, in Friedman, Globalization, the State, and Violence,
20348.
59. Said, Orientalism, 45.
60. Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (New York: Vintage, 1947).
61. Elijah Anderson, Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 167.
62. Ibid., 182.
63. Cohen, Crime and Politics, 16.
64. Richard Sennett, Flesh and Stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilization
(New York: Norton, 1994).
65. Bell, Faces at the Bottom of the Well, 12.
66. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk, 17374.
67. Touraine, Critique of Modernity.
68. Jennifer L. Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the
Soul of the Nation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
69. Wilson, Declining Signicance of Race; Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged.
70. John M. Hagedorn, Post-Industrial Gang Violence, in Youth Violence, ed.
Michael Tonry and Mark H. Moore (1988; rpt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1998), 457511; Hagedorn, People and Folks.
6. A TALE OF T WO GANGS
1. The argument of this chapter builds on Hagedorn, Race Not Space.
2. This is academically called racial formation (Omi and Winant, Racial Forma-
tion in the United States, 55.).
3. Herbert Asbury, The Gangs of New York: An Informal History of the Underworld
(New York: Thunders Mouth, 2001); Martin Scorsese, Gangs of New York (Miramax
Films, 2002). See also John M. Hagedorn, The Gangs of . . . , Chicago Tribune, Jan-
uary 19, 2003, http://gangresearch.net/Archives/UIC/Courses/history/The%20Gangs
%20of%20.%20.%20.html.
4. Eric H. Monkkonen, Murder in New York City (Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 2001), 120. In fact, Monkkonen calculated that the prots from graft and
patronage at that time was at a scale to the prots made in the 1990s by gangs from the
sale of cocaine (73).
5. Steven P. Erie, Rainbows End: From the Old to the New Urban Ethnic Politics
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
6. Thrasher, Gang, 74. On page 456, Thrasher states that 304 of the gangs were
social athletic clubs. Numbers were not Thrashers strong suit. It has been suggested that
the number 1,313 that Thrasher claimed was the actual number of gangs in Chicago in
fact was the address of a red light house of vice near Thrashers outreach headquarters.
7. Carter H. Harrison [II], Growing Up with Chicago: Sequel to Stormy Years
(1944), 22930; Political History of Bridgeport, http://www.uic.edu/orgs/LockZero/
V.html (accessed January 4, 2006).
8. Richard C. Lindberg, The City That Never Was Legit, http://www.ipsn.org/
chiviol.html (accessed January 16, 2006).
10. Edwin H. Sutherland, Criminology (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1924), 156.
12. Ibid., 470.
13. Asbury, Gangs of New York.
14. Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley:
His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (Boston: Little Brown, 2000), 33.
15. The Negro population increased from 44,103 in 1910 to 109,594 in 1920, an
increase of 148 percent (The Negro in Chicago [Chicago: Chicago Commission on
Race Relations, 1922], 2). All facts, unless otherwise cited, come from this report.
16. Ibid. Twenty-three blacks and fteen whites were killed in the riots, with 537
injured and over a thousand left homeless in the twelve days of rioting.
17. Ibid., 1112.
18. Anthony M. Platt and University of California Berkeley, Center for the Study
of Law and Society, The Politics of Riot Commissions, 19171970: A Collection of Ocial
Reports and Critical Essays (New York: Macmillan, 1971).
19. Harry Haywood, Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Commu-
nist (Chicago: Liberator, 1978), 8183.
20. William M. Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (1970; rpt.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 55. Tuttle corrects inaccuracies in the orig-
inal Race Relations Commission Report.
21. Negro in Chicago.
22. McDonough is still revered in the HAA. Former president Ray Murphy told
of McDonoughs love of eating and the belief among club members that McDonough
ate himself to death in 1934 (Tamara Kerrill, Where Friendship Is the Password, Chi-
cago Sun-Times, March 17, 1996).
24. Ibid., 202.
25. Ibid., 216.
26. Sociologists at the University of Chicago . . . viewed negroes as just another
ethnic group whose segregation was largely voluntary and would prove to be only tem-
porary. They subjected Chicagos social life to blinding scrutiny, but they never saw
the dierence between the ethnic enclave and the black ghetto (Philpott, Slum and
the Ghetto, 139, 141).
27. Ibid., 199.
28. See, for example, Jesse Bernard, The Sociology of Community (Glenview, Ill.:
Scott, Foresman, 1970).
29. Michael E. Funchion, Irish Chicago: Church, Homeland, Politics, and Class
The Shaping of an Ethnic Group, 18701900, in Ethnic Chicago: A Multicultural Por-
trait, ed. Melvin G. Hollis and Peter dA. Jones (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1984),
5792.
30. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk.
31. Kerrill, Where Friendship Is the Password.
32. Mike Royko, Boss (New York: Signet, 1971), 128.
33. Cohen and Taylor, American Pharaoh, 10. For a review of mainstream political
science, see William J. Grimshaw, Revisiting the Urban Classics: Political Order, Eco-
nomic Development, and Social Justice, Policy Studies Journal 24 (1996): 23044.
34. Nathan Thompson, Kings: The True Story of Chicagos Policy Kings and Numbers
Racketeers (Chicago: Bronzeville, 2003). See also the talks of Timuel Black and Euseni
Perkins to the Chicago Gang History Project at the Great Cities Institute, University
of IllinoisChicago.
35. David K. Fremon, Chicago Politics Ward by Ward (Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press, 1988), 159.
36. Cohen and Taylor, American Pharaoh, 271.
37. http://www.ipsn.org/chiviol.html.
38. Fremon, Chicago Politics Ward by Ward, 159.
39. Dawley, Nation of Lords.
40. Bennie Lee, http://gangresearch.net/ChicagoGangs/vicelords/Bennielee.html.
41. In the Chicago Daily News of July 18, 1968, President Alfonso Alford said, We
are not a gang; we are a corporation, nonprot and legally constituted in the State of
Illinois (http://gangresearch.net/cvl/cvlhistorynal/notagang.html).
42. Ibid.
43. Kups Column, Chicago Sun-Times, February 28, 1969.
44. Euseni Eugene Perkins, Explosion of Chicagos Black Street Gangs (Chicago:
Third World, 1987).
45. http://gangresearch.net/ChicagoGangs/gangsandghetto/Perkins.htm. Lee adds,
Fred Hampton was assassinated because he became a political threat to the Illinois
politicians. He helped to organize the LSD movement, pulling the minds of the Street
Gang leaders to think in terms of the Civil rights movement (ibid.).
46. Royko, Boss, 210.
48. http://gangresearch.net/ChicagoGangs/blackstonerangers/Fry/waralafry.html;
Chicago Historical Association archives.
49. John Fry, counselor to the Blackstone Rangers, explains: Crime is no longer
what a judge determines criminals do, or what policemen report that criminals do;
crime has become a state of the criminals mind; crime is a propensity toward crime.
Crime inheres in the gang member as his essence. Wherever he goes, crime goes with
him. Whomever he meets is infected. He is a virus set loose to plague the city. By
all means, action must be taken to prohibit contact between the virus-carriers and
the uncontaminated. The police, with such a vision, cannot be faulted for striving
to preserve the precious dierence between the sick and the healthy by quarantin-
ing the plague area (http://gangresearch.net/ChicagoGangs/blackstonerangers/Fry/
waralafry.html).
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Adolph Reed Jr., Demobilization in the New Black Political Regime: Ideologi-
cal Capitulation and Radical Failure in the Postsegregation Era, in The Bubbling Caul-
dron: Race, Ethnicity, and the Urban Crisis, ed. Michael Peter Smith and Joe R. Feagin
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 182208.
59. Lise McKean and Jody Raphael, Drugs, Crime, and Consequences: Arrests and
Incarceration in North Lawndale (Chicago: Center for Impact Research, 2002).
60. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged.
61. Omi and Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 55. The demonization
of gangs can be seen as part of the racial formation of the Democratic machine in
Chicago.
7. RECONSIDERING CULTURE
1. Kelley, Yo Mamas Disfunktional!
2. Ruth Rosner Kornhauser, Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic
Models (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978). See the opening line of her inu-
ential book: Culture in the modern world is everywhere at bay (1).
3. Ronin Ro, Gangsta: Merchandizing the Rhymes of Violence (New York: St. Mar-
tins, 1996).
4. Rose, Black Noise, 5.
5. Wests views on hip-hop culture may have been responsible for his departure
from Harvard. After some time, Sealey interjected a question about the distinction
between high culture and popular culture, citing Wests leave-taking of Harvard
(Leave-taking! I was pushed out! West said, reenacting the boot he received) and
the friction it caused (The clash! West corrected him) as a collision between Wests
desire to blend all that there is to be blended with education with what perhaps Har-
vard wants to see itself as. West compared Harvard president Larry Summerss judg-
ment of the album without having listened to it to what DuBois called the a priori
approach to the Negro. Summers assumed it must be about G-strings, bling-bling,
and so forth, West said, whereas the professor called it danceable educationan
attempt to engage listeners with paideia and wake them up to the struggle for freedom
and decency the music is rooted in. A new album is on its way, according to West. See
http://www.hiphopconvention.org/issues/education/cornel.cfm (accessed February 3,
2006).
6. The Nazi holocaust would undermine this Enlightenment worship of technol-
ogy and spark the beginnings of a postmodern critique (Max Horkheimer and Theodor
W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment [1944; rpt. New York: Continuum, 1998]).
7. Ulf Hannerz, Soulside: Inquiries into Ghetto Culture and Community (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1969), 183.
8. Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 61.
9. Robert J. Sampson and William Julius Wilson, Toward a Theory of Race, Crime,
and Urban Inequality, in Crime and Inequality, ed. John Hagan and Ruth D. Peterson
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), 38, 41, my emphasis.
10. This was also my argument in People and Folks.
11. Perhaps Wilsons views are not so far from mine. He advocates class-based uni-
versal solutions, since there is little hope the two political parties will act to solve a
primarily racial problem. See Wilson, Truly Disadvantaged, 155.
12. Walter Miller, Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delin-
quency, Journal of Social Issues 14 (1958): 519.
13. Hagedorn, People and Folks, 113.
14. For the centrality of race for white gang members, see the remarkable biogra-
phy of the Gaylords by Michael Scott, Lords of Lawndale.
15. Anderson, Streetwise, 208.
16. Anderson, Code of the Street, 34.
17. These two types of families will be familiar to readers of Hannerzs Soulside.
18. Ibid., 36.
19. Ibid., 84.
20. Bourgois, In Search of Respect, 326; Lisa Maher and Kathleen Daly, Women in
the Street-Level Drug Economy: Continuity or Change? Criminology 34 (1996): 465
92; Paul Willis, Learning to Labor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).
21. William Eric Perkins, Droppin Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip
Hop Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996).
22. Touraine, Critique of Modernity, 198. In his most recent book, Touraine refers
to the dissociation of culture and social structure as demodernization (Can We Live
Together? 25).
23. James D. Fearon and David D. Latain, Violence and the Social Construction
of Ethnic Identity, International Organization 54 (2000): 84577; Stuart Hall, Eth-
nicity: Identity and Dierence, Radical America 23 (1989): 920.
24. Touraine, Can We Live Together?
25. Ibid., 320. For a clear exposition of the culture of the street and elite, see Jonathan
Friedman, Globalization, Dis-Integration, Re-organization: The Transformations of
Violence, in Friedman, Globalization, the State, and Violence, 134.
26. Castells, End of the Millennium, 383.
27. Bourgois, In Search of Respect, 326.
28. Resistance identity, thus, in Castellss terms, becomes a project identity (Power
of Identity, 8).
29. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Min-
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 13.
30. bell hooks, Postmodern Blackness, Postmodern Culture 1 (1990): 15.
31. Alain Touraine, Return of the Actor (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1988), 104.
32. Alain Touraine, What Is Democracy? (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998), 110.
8. STREET WARS
1. This chapter is not intended to be a thoroughgoing academic critique of hip-
hop, nor do I pretend to be a music critic. My intention is solely to understand how
hip-hop lends meaning to the lives of gang members as a subset of youth as a resis-
tance identity and how the publics understanding of gangs is shaped by music.
2. Bakiri Kitwana, Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis of American
Culture (New York: Basic Civitas, 2002).
3. Hip-hop, with all due respect to Chuck D, is not the black CNN.
4. Many ne histories of hip-hop exist. See, for example, Rose, Black Noise; and
Bakiri Kitwana, Rap on Gangsta Rap: Who Run It? Gangsta Rap and Visions of Black Vio-
lence (Chicago: Third World, 1994); Kitwana, Hip Hop Generation. I am also indebted
to Katie Kaminski, whose research project was to put up the informative Gangs and
Hip Hop site on gangresearch.net (http://www.uic.edu/orgs/kbc/hiphop/index.htm).
5. Perkins, Droppin Science.

6. Giles Oakley, The Devils Music: A History of the Blues (New York: Taplinger,
1977).
7. Imamu Amiri Baraka, Blues People: Negro Music in White America (New York:
Morrow, 1999).
9. S. Craig Watkins, Hip Hop Matters: Politics, Pop Culture, and the Struggle for the
Soul of a Movement (Boston: Beacon, 2005), 23.
11. Ibid., 34.
12. Watkins, Hip Hop Matters, 22.
13. Cornel West, preface to Darby and Shelby, Hip Hop and Philosophy, xi.
14. Oakley, Devils Music.
15. For example, the mixed black and Mexican group, Cypress Hill.
16. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).
17. Hardcore takes its name from its community-centered, responsive lyrics, hard
potent beats, and the use of the rappers voice as a rhythmic instrument. Gangsta rap
is typically, though not always, hardcore (Kitwana, Rap on Gangsta Rap).
18. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: Dell, 1968), 14.
19. Quotations from Straight from the Streets, Keith ODerek and Robert Corsini
(Los Angeles: Upfront Productions, 1999).
20. Robin D. G. Kelley, Kickin Reality, Kickin Ballistics: Gangsta Rap and Post-
industrial Los Angeles, in Perkins, Droppin Science, 117.
21. hooks, Postmodern Blackness.
22. West, Democracy Matters, 21.
23. Alison Stateman, RAD RAP: Can the Hip-Hop Industry Turn the Beat
Around? 1997, http://www.prsa.org/juntop97.html (accessed December 2000).
24. Watkins gives a complete description of the introduction of Soundscan (Hip
Hop Matters).
25. Kitwana, Rap on Gangsta Rap, 25.
26. Bruce Haring, USA Today, 1996, http://www.usatoday.com/life/enter/music/
lem576.htm (accessed September 1997).
27. Kitwana, Rap on Gangsta Rap.
28. Hip-hops promise of prots brings to mind Hunter S. Thompsons stinging
line: The music business is a cruel and shallow money trench, a long plastic hallway
where thieves and pimps run free, and good men die like dogs. Theres also a negative
side (http://urbanlegends.about.com/od/dubiousquotes/a/hunter-thompson.htm).
29. Watkins, Hip Hop Matters, 47.
30. KRS-One, interview, Tenacity of the Cockroach: Conversations with Enter-
tainments Most Enduring Outsiders, Onion, April 2001.
31. Kelley, Kickin Reality, Kickin Ballistics, 147.
32. bell hooks, Misogyny, Gangsta Rap, and the Piano, Z Magazine, February
1994, http://race.eserver.org/misogyny.html (accessed February 2006).
33. Mike Davis, City of Quartz (New York: Vintage, 1990), 87.
34. Kelley, Kickin Reality, Kickin Ballistics, 147.
35. Ibid., 136.
36. John M. Hagedorn, The Emperors New Clothes: Theory and Method in Gang
Research, Free Inquiry for Creative Sociology 24 (1996): 11122; Hagedorn, People and Folks.
37. Jean Baudrillard, Simulations (New York: Semiotext(e), 1983).
38. See Carl Husemoller Nightengale, On the Edge: A History of Poor Black Children
and Their American Dreams (New York: Basic Books, 1993),
39. http://www.globaldarkness.com/articles/true_meaning_of_hip_hop_bambaata
.htm.
40. http://www.urbanbassline.com/nightclub_guide/krs1.htm.
41. For the best biography of Tupac, see Michael Eric Dyson, Holler If You Hear
Me (New York: Basic Books, 2001).
42. hooks, Postmodern Blackness, 11.
43. West, Race Matters, 48.
44. Craig Calhoun, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity, in Calhoun, Crit-
ical Social Theory, 936; hooks, Postmodern Blackness.
45. Salt-N-Pepa, Tramp, Hot, Cool, and Vicious (Next Plateau, 1986).
46. My student Iris Rivera has done important research for her forthcoming disser-
tation on the destructiveness of gangsta rap on female identity.
47. Nancy Guevara, Women Writin, Rappin, Breakin, in Perkins, Droppin Sci-
ence, 51.
48. See Joan W. Moore, Female Gangs: Gender and Globalization, in Hagedorn,
Gangs in the Global City.
49. http://www.daveyd.com/missyelliot.html.
50. Iris Rivera, Gang Girls and Same Sex Misogyny: Hip Hop, Friend or Foe?
Unpublished manuscript, University of IllinoisChicago, 2005.
51. Moore, Female Gangs.
52. Hagedorn and Devitt, Fighting Female.
53. hooks, We Real Cool, 26.
54. Missy Elliott, with her early unlikely music icon gure, is a good example of
the power of the form of music video. The legendary director Hype turned rap music
videos into an art form, mesmerizing audiences with creativity and the power of imag-
ination that could defy the rigid gender rules in pop culture. Hypes work with Missy,
however, is dwarfed by what many call his misogynist videos showcasing women as
sex objects. See Watkins, Hip Hop Matters, 214.
55. Lisa Maher, Sexed Work: Gender, Race, and Resistance in a Brooklyn Drug Mar-
ket (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997), 19.
56. Meda Chesney-Lind, Girls, Gangs, and Violence: Anatomy of a Backlash,
Humanity and Society 17 (1993): 32144.
57. Maulana Rod Karenga, http://www.us-organization.org/position/rap.html (ac-

cessed April 17, 2006).
58. See the brilliant historical treatment of this general theme in Gail Bederman,
Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States,
18801917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); or browse any of hookss writings.
59. http://www.sustainabledevelopment.org/hiphop/hiphop.html (accessed May 2,
2006).
60. Dyson, Holler If You Hear Me, 116.
61. Jan Rus and Diego Vigil, Rapid Urbanization and Migrant Indigenous Youth
in San Cristobal, Chiapas, Mexico, in Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global City, 171, 173.
62. Lansana Fofana, U.S. Inuences Blamed for Delinquency in Sierra Leone, Inter
Press Service English News Wire, May 6, 1997.
63. Abdullah, Youth, Culture, and Rebellion, 27.
64. http://www.imageandnarrative.be/worldmusica/doveKpardue.htm.
65. Rosalyn Mburu, Planet Hip Hop: A Brief Anthology in Search of Pride and Iden-
tity (Barcelona: UN-Habitat, 2004).
66. Ibid.
67. http://www.africanhiphop.com/index.php?module=subjects&func=viewpage
&pageid=77 (accessed February 23, 2006).
68. http://www.africanhiphop.com/index.php?module=subjects&func=viewpage
&pageid=224 (accessed February 23, 2006).
69. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4660446 (accessed Feb-
ruary 23, 2006). You can listen to Daara Js hypnotic music on NPRs Web site, http://
www.npr.org/programs/asc/archives/asc75/#daara.
70. Mburu, Planet Hip Hop.
71. Interview with Al Jazeera, March 13, 2000.
73. Bill E. Lawson, Microphone Commandoes: Rap Music and Political Philosophy,
in Darby and Shelby, Hip Hop and Philosophy, 172.
74. Gilroy, Black Atlantic, 36.
9. CONTESTED CITIES
1. Kaldor, New and Old Wars.
2. Wesley Skogan, Aimee Fagan, Lynn Steiner, Jinha Kim, Jill Du Bois, Richard
Block, and J. Erik Gudell, Community Policing in Chicago, Year Seven: An Interim
Report (Chicago: Chicago Community Policing Evaluation Consortium, 2000), 118.
I am indebted to Xavier Perez for bringing this quote to my attention. Perez is writing
his dissertation on gentrication and violence in Humboldt Park.
3. http://viewfromtheground.com/archive/2003/03/state-street-coverage-initiative
-its-white-mans-land-now.html%20 (accessed March 10, 2006).
4. Loc Wacquant, Race as Civic Felony, International Social Science Journal 181
(Spring 1995): 12742. Also available in French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, and Russian.
5. John Friedmann and Goetz Wol, World City Formation: An Agenda for
Research and Action, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 6 (1984):
30944.
6. Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1991).
7. Vincent Cannato, The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save
New York (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Edward C. Baneld, The Unheavenly City
(New York: Free Press, 1970).
8. Neil Smith, The New Urban Frontier: Gentrication and the Revanchist State
(London: Routledge, 1996).
9. Ibid., 44.
10. Saskia Sassen, The Global City: One Setting for New Types of Gang Work
and Political Culture? in Hagedorn, Gangs in the Global City, 11233.
11. John M. Hagedorn, I Do Mind Dying, Milwaukee Magazine, December 1999;
George Ritzer, ed., Rustbelt, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology (Oxford: Black-
well, 2007), 396769.
12. Sam Roberts, New York City Losing Blacks Census Shows, New York Times,
April 3, 2006.
13. For an insightful view of black resentment of Latinos, see Earl Ofari Hutchinson,
http://www.alternet.org/columnists/story/36197/ (accessed August 13, 2006).
14. See, for example, Marc Mauer, Race to Incarcerate (New York: New Press, 1999);
Michael Tonry, Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1995).
15. Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988).
16. Pinnock, Brotherhoods, 3132.
18. Assem Salam, The Role of Government in Shaping the Built Environment,
in Projecting Beirut: Episodes in the Construction and Reconstruction of a Modern City,
ed. Peter G. Rowe and Hashim Sarkis (Munich: Prestel, 1998), 132.
19. H. E. Gassan Tueni, From the Geography of Fear to a Geography of Hope,
in Rowe and Sarkis, Projecting Beirut, 285.
20. Ibid., 298.
21. Samir Khalif, Contested Spaces and the Forging of New Cultural Identities,
in Rowe and Sarkis, Projecting Beirut, 151.
22. Castells, End of Millennium.
24. David Turnbull, Soc. Culture: Singapore, in Architecture of Fear, ed. Nan Ellin
(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997), 239.
25. Dennis R. Judd and Susan S. Fainstain, eds., The Tourist City (New Haven,
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999).
26. Teresa P. P. Caldiera, City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in So Paulo
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
27. Ibid., 213.

28. Peter Marcuse, The Enclave, the Citadel, and the Ghetto: What Has Changed
in the Post-Fordist U.S. City, Urban Aairs Review 33 (1997): 22864.
29. Caldiera, City of Walls, 101.
30. Davis, City of Quartz, 27784.
31. Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman, eds., The Crime Drop in America (Cam-
bridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2000).
32. John Hull Mollenkopf and Manuel Castells, eds., Dual City: Restructuring New
York (New York: Sage, 1991).
33. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, 11.
34. This is what Castells means by the exclusion of the excluders by the excluded.
35. Wacquant, New Peculiar Institution; Wacquant, Ghetto, in International
Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, ed. Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes
(London: Pergamon, 2004).
36. Loc Wacquant, The Penalisation of Poverty and the Rise of Neo-Liberalism,
European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 9 (2001): 40112.
37. Friedmann and Wol, World City Formation, 323.
38. See the one-hundred-year history of Chicagos shifting ghetto in animation on
http://gangresearch.net/ChicagoGangs/gangsandghetto/chighetto20.htm.
39. Evan Mckenzie, Privatopia: Homeowner Associations and the Rise of Residential
Private Government (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994). Kenneth Clark
rst referred to the invisible walls of the dark ghetto (Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social
Power [New York: Harper and Row, 1965]). See Peter Marcuses history of walls, Walls
of Fear and Walls of Support, in Ellin, Architecture of Fear, 10114.
40. The following discussion is indebted to the Harry F. Guggenheim Foundation.
See Hagedorn and Rauch, Housing, Gangs, and Homicide.
41. Smith, New Urban Frontier, 27.
42. Paul S. Grogan and Tony Proscio, Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neigh-
borhood Revival (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2000).
43. Chicago Tribune, December 2, 1986, quoted in Venkatesh, American Project, 7.
44. Cohen and Taylor, American Pharaoh, 333.
48. Popkin, Hidden War.
49. http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/253.html (accessed March 22,
2006). For the actual CHA Plan for Transformation, see http://www.thecha.org/
transformplan/plan_summary.html.
50. Yittayih Zelalem, Janet Smith, Martha Glas, and Nancy Hudspeth, Aordable
Housing Conditions and Outlook in Chicago: An Early Warning for Intervention (Chicago:
Nathalie P. Voorhees Center, 2006), 157.
51. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
178 notes to conclusion
52. Coalition to Protect Public Housing, Cabrini Tenants to File Lawsuit to Stop
Chicago Housing Authority from Illegally Evicting Hundreds of Tenants, press re-
lease, 2004.
53. See the tenants Web site, View from the Ground, http://viewfromtheground
.com/index.php.
54. Popkin, Hidden War, 169.
57. Chicago, with its institutionalized gangs, has not seen its murder rate, as of this
writing, drop much below three times that of New York Citys. As in Los Angeles, the
homicide rate may go back up, not keep falling.
58. This Boys Town is not to be confused with the gay space of Chicagos Lake-
view neighborhood.
60. McKean and Raphael, Drugs, Crime, and Consequences.
61. http://www.hrw.org/reports98/police/uspo53.htm (accessed March 26, 2006).
64. In Chicago, the Puerto Rican community is also being pushed out of Hum-
boldt Park, as they were ousted before from the near west side and then Lincoln Park.
I am indebted to research in Humboldt Park by Xavier Perez, who is writing his dis-
sertation on gentrication in his home community.
66. Stephen A. Donziger, ed., The Real War on Crime: The Report of the National
Criminal Justice Commission (New York: HarperPerennial, 1996).
CONCLUSION
1. Moore, Going Down to the Barrio. Moore borrows this term from Gary Alan
Fine, With the Boys: Little League Baseball and Preadolescent Culture (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1987).
2. Said, Culture and Imperialism, xx.
3. Touraine, Return of the Actor, 139.
4. Mills, Sociological Imagination, 184. See also Foucaults mocking of criminol-
ogy as a garrulous discourse that lacks a coherent framework (Michel Foucault,
The Archaeology of Knowledge [New York: Pantheon, 1972], 47).
5. I nd myself applying Arundhati Roys wry comments to criminologists: Im
not seeing that many radical positions taken by writers or poets or artists, you know?
Its all the seduction of the market that has shut them up like a good medieval behead-
ing never could (http://www.alternet.org/story/36643/ [accessed August 13, 2006]).
See also Said, Orientalism. Not only are gangs an other in Saids sense, but the impo-
sition of Western categories of gangs and social control measures has a parallel in the
construction of the Orient and its colonial control.
notes to conclusion 179
6. Alvin Gouldner, The Sociologist as Partisan: Sociology and the Welfare State,
American Sociologist (May 1968): 10316.
7. Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, and Other Essays (New York: Knopf, 1955).
For Camus, Sisyphus was the absurd hero who was cursed by the gods to eternally
roll a large rock up the hill, only to see it roll back down. Camus ends his essay, how-
ever, with the words The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to ll a mans
heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy (91).
8. Touraine, What Is Democracy? 189.
9. Joan Moore as well is a model for academics, as she worked tirelessly in an ear-
lier time for a self-help movement among Pintos in Los Angeles. Tom Hayden has
brought his political skills to the university with great success, and Diego Vigils activ-
ism has enhanced his scholarship. The late Richard Cloward is in many ways the model
of the activist-scholar. Too few academics emulate Cloward, Dwight Conquergood,
Moore, Barrios, Brotherton, and Hayden.
10. Brotherton and Barrios, Between Black and Gold; Dawley, Nation of Lords.
11. Sassen, Global City, 110.
12. http://www.streetgangs.com/topics/1999/033099north.html.
13. This is not meant to be a denitive list of inclusive issues. Elections have also
attracted gangs, and in many cities Latinos are a rising political power. For example,
in Chicago, since 80 percent of the increase in the regions population in the last decades
has been Latinos, theyand their gangsare becoming key partners in new electoral
coalitions. What needs to be weighed are the implications of these coalitions for the
decline of urban black political power and how that might aect our capacity to reach
out to black gangs. Each city will have a dierent constellation of forces and unique
history and circumstances. See Zelalem et al., Aordable Housing Conditions. Also
important are local movements and organizations working to make ex-oenders re-
entry into community life more successful.
14. Touraine calls movements that are not democratic and practice exclusion anti-
movements (Can We Live Together? 116, 119).
15. Zilberg, Banished from the Kingdom; Hayden, Street Wars.
16. For the UN denition of DDR and other resources, see http://www.undp.org/
bcpr/ddr/body.htm. For an application of DDR to gangs or youth in organized armed
violence, see Dowdney, neither War nor Peace.
17. Touraine, What Is Democracy? 15.
INDEX
by Denise E. Carlson
Abdullah, Ibrahim, 3435, 107 Albanian gangs, 40

Abu Ayash, Nadir, 109 Alford, Alfonso, 77, 80
Adair, Johnny, 44 Algerian gangs, 4445, 166n38
Afghanistan: Islamic gangs in, 46 alienation, xxvixxviii, 46, 95, 133; of
Africa, 41; failed states in, 6, 26, 62; gangs, xxxxxxii, 56, 88; of youth,
gangs in, xxvxxvi, 56, 21, 33, xxv, 3437, 53, 55, 135, 140. See also
160n18; hip-hop music in, 96, 1068; demoralization
slums in, 45; youth in, 56, 1718, Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation
40. See also specic African countries (gang), xxxi, 42, 137
African-American gangs, 1314, 55, Americans (gang), 11, 14, 17
7880, 8688, 119, 179n13; in Anambra State Vigilante Services, 48
Chicago, xv, xxvii, 16, 30, 64, 74, 83, Anderson, Elijah, xxix, 29, 63, 8889
130. See also individual gangs anger, 28, 30, 97, 162n59; of gang mem-
African Americans: in Chicago, 6772, bers, xxvxxvi, xxx, 13233; of youth,
121, 168n15; culture of, 85, 96; in ghet- xxix, 6, 24, 53, 131, 135
tos, 6, 15, 97, 120, 124; incarceration anomy, 56
of, 117, 119; mayors, 116; middle-class, Aounit, Mouloud, 162n59
58, 63, 12930, 165n27; nihilism among, apartheid, 12, 1718, 38, 154n44
5758, 88, 90, 97; political power of, Appadurai, Arjun, 41, 90
179n13; poverty among, xiv, 57, 5859, Arab world. See Palestine
9495, 101; rural-urban migration, area gangs, 43
6768, 74; underclass, 63, 90; youth, Area Removals Act (Cape Town), 15
xxviiixix, 5, 94, 100, 130, 133 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 45, 4849
African National Congress (ANC), 15, Arkans Tigers (death squad), 46
1718, 20, 38, 41 Armed Islamic Group (GIS, security
Afro-Brazilian people, 1617, 96 force), 45
181
182 index
armed young men, 19, 24, 40, 55, 132; Beirut (Lebanon): gentrication in,
alienation of, xxx, 3437, 53; gangs 11718
distinguished from, 3031, 3334, 37; belief systems, 9
globalization of, xxiiixxvi, 2122, Bell, Derrick, xxix, 64, 111, 133, 135; on
2627; institutionalization of, 3, 3437, permanence of racism, 5355, 6162,
49; nonstate, 28, 47, 62; political 63, 83
involvement of, 45. See also death black Atlantic culture, xxviii, 62, 93, 96,
squads; gangs; unsupervised peer 108, 109, 142
groups; vigilantes black diaspora, 5
arms sales, 14, 27 Black Disciples (gang), 12
Arrested Development (rappers), 101 Black Gangster Disciples (BGD, gang),
Arvey, Jake, 74, 75 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 38, 12223
Asia, 45, 40, 149n20 Black Panther Party (BPP), 12, 4142,
Asian gangs, 21, 87 57, 78, 101, 136, 162n47
Atlanta, Georgia: gentrication of, 116 black people. See African-American
authority. See law enforcement; leader- gangs; African Americans
ship, gang; state(s) Black Power (gang), 36
ayan daba (gangs), 23 Black Spades (gang), 16, 95
Blackstone Rangers (gang), 12, 77, 80
Back of the Yards neighborhood Bloods (gang), 42, 107
(Chicago), 66, 68 blues music, 97, 98, 104
Bakassi Boys, 4748, 53 Bocanero, Silla, 39
Baldwin, James, 97 Bolivia: cocaine production in, 28
Bambaataa, Afrika (rapper), 93, 9596, bonre of vanities, 46
101, 108, 11011, 142 borders: arbitrary, xi, xxx, 29, 37, 62;
banditry, 33, 45, 46 natural, 27
bands of hope (religious youth gangs), Bourgois, Philippe, xxix, 89, 90
46 Brazil, 6, 1617, 107, 108
banlieues (ghettos), xxvi, 117 Brazzaville (Congo), 33, 40
barrios: armed young men in, xxiv, breakdancing, xiv, 94
xxvxxvi; conditions in, 28, 53, 99, Bridgeport neighborhood (Chicago),
110; gangs in, 10, 39, 132, 140; hip-hop xxvii, 66, 67, 7174, 77, 124
in, 83, 109, 111; stereotypes of, xxx, Bronzeville neighborhood (Chicago),
105. See also favelas; ghettos; slums 74, 124
Barrios, Luis, 42, 137 Brotherton, David, 42, 137
bastard institutions, 150n26 Buenos Aires (Brazil), 14, 15, 16
Baudrillard, Jean, 100 Burge, Jon, 128
Bauman, Zygmunt, 67, 60 businesses. See corporate rap; drug
Bayart, Jean-Franois, 27 trade; economy
Becker, Howard, 135
Beira-Mar, Fernandinho (Seaside Cabrini-Green housing project
Freddy), 14 (Chicago), 124, 125
index 183
Cairo (Egypt): gangs in, 40 gentrication in, 114, 116, 118, 12130;
Caldiera, Teresa, 11819, 120, 129, 130 homicide rates, 12426, 130, 178n56;
Calhoun, Craig, 30, 101 institutionalized gangs in, 7, 10, 11,
Cali (Colombia), 28, 3738, 152n16 1217, 2122, 38, 8082, 130, 132,
Calle 18 (gang), 39 153n37; machine politics in, xii, xv,
Camillien, Nixon, 164n77 7374, 80, 82, 170n61, 179n13;
Campbell, Bruce, 47 neighborhood map, 68; racism in,
Camus, Albert, 135, 179n7 64, 65, 6772, 122, 170n61; rackets in,
Cannibal Army (gang), 4849 150n26; segregation in, 15, 71, 74, 124;
Cape Town (South Africa): gentrication supergangs in, xiiixiv, xv, 12, 16;
in, 117; institutionalized gangs in, xxvi, gangs in, 41, 6667, 69, 79, 179n13;
7, 10, 1117, 19, 2022, 132; racial white gangs in, 30, 5354. See also
identity crisis in, 1718 African-American gangs: in Chicago;
capitalism, xvii, 40, 57 Conservative Vice Lords; Daley,
Capone, Al, 67, 69 Richard J.; Hamburg Athletic
Caribbean communities, 5, 95, 96, 109 Association; riots: 1919 Chicago race
carjackings, 37, 45 Chicago school of sociology, 8687,
Carter, Bunchy: killing of, 41 115, 116, 156n6, 169n26; gang studies,
Casey, Conerly, 23 xxxii, 4, 6, 12, 49, 67, 7072, 76, 88;
Castells, Manuel, 29, 64, 118, 134; refutation of, 64, 66. See also
fourth world concept, 67, 149n20; criminologists/criminology
information era studies, xxiv, 26, children, 159n8, 164n80; in gangs, 9, 15,
13637; project identity concept, 41, 149n16, 164n80; immigrant, 45,
110, 111; resistance identity concept, 157n27. See also youth
xxix, 55, 60, 85, 8991; social actors children in organized armed violence
concept, xxvi, 138 (COAV), 34
Catholic gangs, 46 child soldiers, 3435, 40, 48, 141
Cayton, Horace, xvi China, xxix, 36, 48, 160n21; gangs in,
Central American gangs, xvii, 48, xxv, 28, 3637, 158n33
14041, 147n25, 157n27 Christian gangs, 46, 163n62
ceremonies, gang, 8, 150n29 Christianity, 8, 26, 110
changes: adaptive, 8, 20, 129; social, 28, Chuck D. (rapper), 110
56, 65, 90, 136 Civilian Volunteer Organizations
Chesney-Lind, Meda, xvi (CVO), 48
Chevigny, Paul, 28 civilization, 25, 56, 8990
Chicago: African-American gangs in, 16, civil rights movement, xxix, 41, 63,
64, 74, 83, 130; African Americans in, 76, 101, 110, 165n27, 170n45
168n15; deindustrialization of, 64, civil wars, 28, 3437, 3940, 132, 157n27
8283; drug trade in, 38, 8081, 83, Clark, Kenneth B., 131
12223, 125, 129; gang politics in, 41, Clark, Mark: killing of, 42, 80
4243; gangs in, xxvixxvii, xxixxxx, class, 54, 61, 83, 88, 100, 105, 171n11;
45, 1820, 2425, 30, 88, 94; struggles of, 25, 89, 121, 136
184 index
Cleaver, Eldridge, 97 contested cities, xxx, 111, 11330, 13334,

Clevertones (singing group), 75 13940
Cliord, Robert, 147n25 Convention on the Rights of the Child
Clinkscales, Keith, 98 (UN), 149n16
Clinton, Bill, 97 corner gangs, 4, 43, 74, 88
Clovers (gang), 75 corporate gang structures, 19
Cloward, Richard, 56, 86, 87, 179n9 corporate rap, xxviii, 93, 94, 98102,
clubs, 26, 41. See also Social Athletic 1056, 142
Clubs corporations. See economy: of globaliza-
cocaine trade, xiv, xv, 1317, 2729, tion; Time Warner Inc.
4344, 168n4. See also crack cocaine corrido music, 107
code of the street, xxix, 29, 8889 corruption, 27, 168n4; police, 37,
Cohen, Adam, 74, 122 13839, 152n26
Cohen, Albert, 87 Covey, Herbert, 24, 37
Cohn-Bendit, Daniel, 57 crack cocaine, xiv, 99100, 130. See also
cold war, 27, 28, 37, 62 cocaine trade
Collins, George, 77 crime, xvii, 118, 170n49; decrease in,
Colombia, 28, 35, 37, 44, 48 xxx, 119, 130; organized, xi, 1820, 30;
colonialism, 27, 61, 62, 160n18, 178n5 in urban areas, xivxv, 37, 165n16. See
coloured gangs (Cape Town, South also banditry; drug trade; kidnappings;
Africa), 12, 1718, 154nn5152 sex trade; war on crime
Comando Vermelho (Red Command, criminal gangs, 35, 40, 45, 86, 132,
guerrillas), 13, 19 154n48, 159n41
Combs, Sean P. Diddy (rapper), 110 criminalization of gangs: 7980, 100,
communities, 26, 38, 43, 60; gang 119, 128
services to, xv, 10, 133 criminal justice system: weakening of,
community organizations, 132, 140; 28, 88
gangs becoming, xvi. See also social criminologists/criminology: Eurocen-
movements trism of, 21, 34; gang studies, xiixvi,
Community Outreach Forum (Core), 17 xxv, 6, 34, 133; shortcomings of, xxiv,
comrades (South African youth group), 41 xxix, xxxixxxii, 55, 8788, 133,
Congo, 33, 40 13435, 138, 178n5. See also Chicago
Conquergood, Dwight, 179n9 school of sociology
Conrad, Joseph, xxiii Crips (gang), 42, 58, 107, 162n47
consciousness rappers, 110 Cruise OBrien, Donal B., 40
conservatives: United States, 29, 37, 110 culture, xxvixxix, 59; African-American,
Conservative Vice Lords (CVL), xxvii, 85, 96; deracialized, 8587; dissociation
12, 61, 155n61; institutionalization of, of, 172n22; gang, xxvii, xxviii, 157n27;
8083; repression of, 12829, 139; racialized, 8991; of resistance, xvii,
transformation into social movement, 103; street, xxviiixix, 8689, 90,
xxxi, 38, 7478, 133, 13637, 140 9495, 97, 101, 104, 108, 133; Western,
consumer culture, xiv, xxvii, 91, 103, 104 56, 85; white, 83; youth, 30, 91, 95,
index 185
109. See also consumer culture; hip- demoralization, 21, 4041, 44, 5559,
hop culture 64; eects on gangs, 61, 65, 80, 82;
culture of urgency, 60, 90, 111 in gangsta rap, 104, 110. See also
culture wars, 93. See also black Atlantic alienation
culture; corporate rap depoliticization, 3741, 90, 91, 101
Cypress Hill (rappers), 25 deportations, 39, 44, 157n27; ght
Cyril (bishop), 163n62 against, xxv, 141
deracialization of gangs, 5455, 8587, 133
Daara J (rappers), 108 desegregation, xiv. See also civil rights
dagga. See marijuana trade movement
Daley, Richard J.: as HAA member, xii, despair, xxiv, xxvii, 6, 82, 101, 108, 111
xxvii, 70, 72, 73; political machine, deviance, normal, 132
xvi, 41, 4243, 75, 7778; war on Devious (rapper), 108
gangs, 12, 16, 7880, 83, 94, 124 Devitt, Mary, xxviii, 104
Daley, Richard M., 74, 124 disarmament-demobilization-
Daly, Kathleen, 89 reconciliation (DDR) guidelines
DAM (rappers), 109 (UN), 141
Danaher, Matt, 72, 73 discrimination, 6, 17, 54, 162n59. See
Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), 160n18 also racism; segregation
Davidson, Basil, 27, 62 displacement, 12, 94, 12426, 130
Davis, Mike, 3, 26, 99, 119 Dixon, Bill, 18, 159n41
Davis, Sammy, Jr., 77 DJing, 94, 95
Dawley, David, 76, 77, 137 Dole, Bob, 97
Dead Rabbits (gang), 67 Dongdong, Sun, 36
Dearborn Homes housing project Donovan, Kevin. See Bambaataa,
(Chicago), 122 Afrika
death squads, 24, 28, 34, 39, 4649, 53. double consciousness (DuBois), 96
See also vigilantes Douglass, Frederick, 136
decentralization of gangs, 20, 45 Dowdney, Luke, 13, 14, 19
Decker, Scott, 24 Dr. Dre (rapper), 98
defensible spaces, 1315, 16, 18, 111, Drake, St. Clair, xvi
11314, 122, 132 drive-by shootings, 69
deindustrialization, 58, 8283, 89, 95, 103, drug trade, xvii, 14, 48, 105; cartels, 19,
115, 140. See also postindustrial era 22, 24, 26, 37; in gangsta rap, 107, 111;
delinquent subcultures, 24, 4445, 49, leaders of, 11, 2728, 155n57; violence
87, 109, 133 in, xxiii, 99100. See also cocaine
democracy, xii, 26, 59, 13637, 141, 142, trade; heroin trade; marijuana trade;
157n14 and individual cities and countries
Democratic Party, xii, 41, 78, 79, 141. See DuBois, W. E. B., 61, 62, 63, 65, 72, 83,
also Chicago: machine politics in 96, 165n26, 166n44, 171n5
demodernization, 172n22. See also Durkheim, mile, 9, 56
modernity; postmodernity Dyson, Michael Eric, 107
186 index
East Africa, 5 Eur-African gangs, 154n52

Eastern European gangs, 40 Europe: gangs in, xxvi, 22, 26, 29, 36,
East Los Angeles, 20, 3839, 150n26 104, 156n5; hip-hop culture in, 96,
economic rationality, 16 109; poverty in, 45, 113; racism in, 62.
economy: criminal, 26, 27, 28, 33, 36, See also individual European regions
40, 56; of globalization, xxiv, xxvi, and countries
xxix, 7, 5860, 8990, 115, 120, 124; Evers, Medgar: killing of, 57
restructuring of, xv, xvi, 5859, 136, evictions, systematic, 121, 125, 130
149n20; underground, 19, 31, 37, 45, extortion, 45, 48
4849, 88, 102, 132. See also capital-
ism; drug trade; free market economy Faada Freddy (rapper), 108
Ecuadoran gangs, 39 failed states, xvii, 6, 60, 62
education, xiv, xxxi, 54, 55, 61, 87, families, 34, 61; broken, xiii, xiv, 54,
157n14 8788, 134; gangs as source of, 3,
Egbesu Boys (militia), 4748 150n29
Egyptian Cobras (gang), 75 family-based gangs, 20
1863 draft riots (New York City), 67, 116 fanaticism, 89, 90
18th Street (gang), xvii Fanon, Frantz, 25, 57
elections, 4144, 58, 59, 90, 110. See also Farrakhan, Louis, 98
voting gangs Farrell, James T., 65
elites, 60, 8990, 91, 115, 116, 120 fatalism. See demoralization
Elliot, Missy (rapper), 101, 103, 104, favelas, xxx, 151n22, 152n26; armed young
174n54 men in, xxiv, xxvxxvi; conditions in,
Ellison, Ralph, 63 53, 110; drug trade in, 13, 1415, 2728,
El Salvadoran gangs. See 18th Street; 39; ethnic diversity of, 1617; gangs
Mara Salvatrucha 13 in, xxiii, 10, 83, 132; music in, 107, 111;
employment. See jobs youth in, xvii, xxviii. See also barrios;
Englewood (Chicago neighborhood), ghettos; slums
12628 fear of touching, 63. See also other, the
Escobar, Pablo, 35, 3738 Feinstein, Dianne, 147n26
Esterle-Hedibel, Maryse, 166n38 feminists. See women
ethnic Chinese, 48 50 Cent (rapper), 105
ethnic cleansing, 35, 46, 62; gentrication Filosoa Gangsta (rappers), 107
as, xxx, 11417, 124, 134 Firm (gang cartel), 17
ethnic groups: deemphasis on, 56, at gang structures, 19
8687; oppression of, xxiv, 25, 55; exibility, 3031, 33
political divisions by, xi, xxx, 29, 37; Florence (Italy): Catholic gangs in, 46
poverty of, 21; racism and, 1618, Forty Group (gang), 36
169n26; as source of gangs, 36, 5354, fourth world, xxvi, 67, 21, 24, 45,
159n47; violence against, xxvixxvii, 62, 149n20. See also third world
132, 154n44. See also identity: ethnic fracturing of gangs, 20, 45
ethnic succession, 6, 71, 76, 83 France, xxvi, 29, 45, 61, 1089, 117
index 187
free market economy, 7, 89, 110 9798, 1045, 133; gangs in, 10, 12, 25,
Freetown (Sierra Leone), 3435 83, 132; gentrication of, 11921, 124;
Friedmann, John, 115, 120 hip-hip culture in, 111; identity of, 100,
Front Islamique du Salut (FIS), 44 118; immigrant, 29, 45; Jamaican, 43
Fry, John, 12, 170n49 44; persistence of, 110, 114; redeni-
Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de tion of, xxx; youth in, xvii, xxvi, 117.
Colombia (FARC), 14, 35, 152n16 See also barrios; favelas; public housing
fundamentalism, xxvi, 46, 60, 10911 projects; slums
Gilroy, Paul, 96, 111
Gang Deterrence and Community Gimode, Edwin, 157n14
Protection Acts (U.S.), 140, 147n25 girl gangs, xvi, 1045, 160n10
gangresearch.net (Web site), xvi, 77, 136 Giroux, Henry, 30
gangs: decentralization of, 20, 45; Giuliani, Rudy, 118
denitions of, 2324, 3031, 36, 67, Glaser, Clive, 17
156n5; decentralization of, 5455, globalization: economics of, xxiv, xxvi,
8587, 133; history of, xixv, 6, 1112, xxix, 7, 5860, 8990, 115, 120, 124; of
55, 13536, 155n66; structures of, 19, gangs, xvixvii, xxvxxvi, 2629, 131,
24. See also armed young men; 146n23; loss of social control, 2429,
Chicago school of sociology: gang 83, 8990, 120; state(s) and, 2429; of
studies; criminologists/criminology: urban areas, xxixxxx, 46, 21, 11519,
gang studies; institutionalized gangs; 134; violence of, xxiiixxiv, 49
posses; and individual gangs Gold Coasts, xxx
gangsta rap, xv, xxviixxviii, xxxi, 83, Golden Triangle, 29
8586, 93111, 173n17; nihilism in, Goldstone, Jack, 24
xxv, 25, 98, 100101, 133. See also goondas. See India: gangs in
corporate rap; hip-hop culture; Gore, Bobby, xvi, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81,
misogyny: in gangsta rap 82, 95, 129
Gangster Disciples (gang), 38, 125 Gouldner, Alvin, 135
Gaylords (gang), 5354 government(s). See state(s)
gender, xvi, xxx, 61, 100, 105. See also grati art, 94
masculinity; women Gray, John, 59
genocide. See ethnic cleansing Green, Charles, 5
gentrication, xxx, 20, 111, 11330, 134; griot music, 108
in Chicago, 7172, 8283, 116, 12130; group processes, 34, 36. See also organi-
global, 11719; in New York City, zation theory
11516; opposition to, xxv, 13940, 141 Grupo Cultural Afro Reggae, 1078
Gents (gang), 42 Guatemalan gangs, 39
Germany, 36, 61 guerrillas, 13, 14, 24, 28, 35, 39, 44, 48
Geto Boys (gang), 42 Guevara, Nancy, 102
ghettos: African-American, 6, 15, 60, 71, Gunst, Laurie, 43
138, 169n26; armed young men in, Guru (rapper), xxviii
xxiv, xxvxxvi; conditions in, 53, 93, Gutirrez, Luis, 42
188 index
Hagedorn, John, xiiixv, xvi, xxiii, xxiv, housing, xi, 87, 129. See also public
64, 83, 100, 131 housing projects
Hahn, James, 119, 13839 Howard, Ebenezer, 117
Haitian gangs, 45, 4849, 141 Huggins, John: killing of, 42
Hamburg Athletic Association (HAA), Hughes, Everett, 150n26
xxvii, 6669, 7280, 8283, 133, Human Rights Watch, 47, 128
169n22 human tracking. See sex trade
Hampton, Fred, 78; killing of, 42, 57, Humboldt Park (Chicago), 114, 116, 130
80, 170n45 Hurricane Katrina, 117
Hannerz, Ulf, 86 Hutus (tribe), 46, 62
Hanrahan, Edward, 77, 79, 80
hardcore rap, 173n17 Ibrahim, Dawood, 158n34
Hard Living Kids (gang), 12, 17, 19 Ice Cube (rapper), 97, 98, 108, 133
Harold Ickes Homes housing project Ice-T (rapper), 97, 104, 108
(Chicago), 122, 123, 125 identity: communal, 41, 49, 118, 120;
Harrison, Carter Henry, II, 66 ethnic, 41, 49, 60, 83, 89, 103, 110,
Harvey, David, 58 153n37; gangs as source of, 3, 21, 93,
Haussmann, Baron, 117 132; gangsta, 93, 100101, 104, 11011;
Hayden, Tom, 140, 162n47, 179n9 gender and, 1026; global, 86, 96;
Hayes, Willie: The Touch, 77 local, xi, 41, 83, 96; oppositional, 96,
Haywood, Harry, 69 1012, 108; power of, xxvixxix, 26,
heroin trade, 29, 45 30, 49, 57, 9091, 110; racial, 54, 55,
Herron, Mack, 77 60, 89, 103, 110, 133; religious, 41, 49,
Hill, Lauryn (rapper), 104 58, 60, 83, 89, 103; search for, 4041,
Hindus, 41, 110, 158n34 42, 59; street, 133, 142. See also
hip-hop culture, 5, 16, 62, 93111, 142, resistance identity
171n5; as culture of resistance, 83, 85 Igbo group (political party), 53
86, 89, 91, 172n1. See also gangsta rap immigrants/immigration: gangs relation
Hip-Hop Summit, 1067 to, xiii, 4, 6, 24, 45, 14041, 157n27;
Hirsch, Arnold, 71, 124 globalization and, xxivxxv, 21; in
Hispanic gangs, 64, 87 urban areas, 54, 56, 116, 117. See also
history. See gangs: history of rural-urban migration
hittistes. See youth: Islamic incarceration, 111, 128, 138; of gang
Hochschild, Jennifer, 63 leaders, 9, 1213, 19, 58, 80; of youth,
Holocaust, 171n6 100, 114, 117, 119. See also prisons
homicide rates, 18, 99100, 12426, 130, income, xxx, 67, 21
178n56 India: gangs in, 2829, 41, 154n45,
Honduras, 141 154n52, 158n34
hooks, bell, xxviii, 57, 61, 90, 91, 99, 101, Indonesia: gangs in, 48
106 industrial era, 6, 56, 60, 65; gangs during,
Hoover, Larry, 42 xxvii, xxixxxx, 8689; racial issues,
horizontal reciprocity networks, 19 133; urbanization and, 4, 2425. See
index 189
also deindustrialization; modernity; Jamaica Labor Party (JLP), 43, 152n16

progress Japan: gangs in, 28, 158n33
inequalities, xxiv, xxxxxxi, 67, 18, 21, Jewish gangs, 78
28, 87 jobs, xxxi, 54, 87; gangs as source of, xi,
information era, xxiv, 26, 5960, 65, 3, 21, 42, 132; lack of, 7, 55, 58, 64, 80,
9091, 98, 11516, 136 104, 134, 137. See also unemployment
initiation rituals, 8, 150n29 Johannesburg (South Africa), 12, 14,
innovators, 56 154n44
institutionalized gangs, xxiv, 722, Johns, Lisa-Marie, 18, 159n41
3637, 49, 95, 159n47; in Cape Town, Johnson, Lyndon B., 56
xxvi, 7, 10, 1117, 19, 2022, 132; in Judd, Dennis, 118
Chicago, 8082, 12122, 125, 130, 132; judicial system, loss of faith in, 28, 88
in China, 158n33; denitions of, 34, Juvenile (rapper), 101
3031; in Jamaica, 43; 1960s, 152n16; juvenile delinquency. See delinquent
organized crime and, 1820; in South subcultures
Africa, 154n44. See also Conservative
Vice Lords; Hamburg Athletic Kaldor, Mary, 120, 163n64
Association Kano (Nigeria): gangs in, 23, 24, 30
institutions, 6, 79, 150n26, n32 Karachi (Pakistan): gangs in, 21
Interahamwe. See Hutus Karenga, Maulana Rod, 106
International Convention of the Kariakoo Group (gang), 160n18
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Katz, Jack, 9
Discrimination (UN), 125 Kelley, Robin D. G., 61, 85, 9798, 100
International Covenant on Economic, Kennedy, John F., 74
Social and Cultural Rights (UN), 125 Kenya: gangs in, 26, 3637, 157n14, 160n18
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 7, Kersten, Joachim, 36
26, 48 kidnappings, 37, 45, 48
Irish American gangs, xv, xxvii, 30, 41, King, Martin Luther, Jr.: killing of, 16,
6672, 7879, 83, 133. See also Ham- 57, 78, 101
burg Athletic Association Kingston (Jamaica), 21, 4344
Islam, xxvi, 23, 58, 104, 110. See also Kinnes, Irvin, 13
Muslim communities Klein, Malcolm, 21, 24, 36, 37, 54, 134,
Islamic gangs, 4445, 46, 104, 166n38 164n9
Italian American gangs, xxvii, 30, 78 Knight, Suge, 99
Italy: gangs, xii, 158n33 Kody, Monster, 58, 60
Kool Herc (DJ), 95
Jackson, Jesse, xxix Kornblum, William, xvi
Jackson, Michael, 99 Kosovo Liberation Army, 33
Jackson-Jacobs, Curtis, 9 Kothari, Miloon, 125
Ja la Ku (gang), 160n18 KRS-One (rapper), 85, 99, 101, 110
Jamaica, 21, 4344, 96, 109, 152n16, Ku Klux Klan, 53
153n35 Kupcinet, Irv, 77
190 index
Kwaito (dance), 108 Los Angeles, 117; gangs in, xiiixiv, xv,
Kynoch, Gary, 38, 154n44 xvii, xxvi, 1820, 21, 4042, 94, 119,
150n26; gentrication in, 119; homicide
LA Bloods (gang), xiv rates, 178n56
Lagos (Nigeria): slums in, xxix lower class, 87. See also underclass
laissez-faire approach, 3741, 45 Ludacris (rapper), 97
Last Poets (rappers), 101 Lula de Silva, Luiz Igncio, 28, 166n33
Latin America: drug trade in, 2728, 29,
158n28; gangs in, xxvxxvi, 56, 21, MacLeod, Jay, 89
40; slums in, 45, 149n20 Macon, Perry, xiiixv, xvi, xxiii, xxiv, 64,
Latin Counts (gang), 12 83, 100, 131
Latin Disciples (gang), 42 Maa, xxv, 3, 26, 86, 158n33
Latin Kings (gang), xiv, 12, 20, 42, 54, Maher, Lisa, 89, 105
153n37 Malaysia: gangs in, 154n52
Latino communities, xiv, 59, 74, 94, 96, Malcolm X, killing of, 57
109, 11617, 179n13 Mandela, Nelson, 3, 17, 41, 166n33
Latino gangs, 1314, 16, 30, 4243, 80, mandels. See clubs
83, 130, 153n37 Mandrax trade, 17, 154n45
law enforcement, xv, xxiii, 20, 47, 113, Maniac Latin Disciples (gang), 12,
13031, 135. See also police 147n24
Lawndale neighborhood (Chicago), Manley, Michael, 43
7478, 80, 81, 8283, 128, 129, 139 Maori gangs (New Zealand), 36
laws: civil, 1718, 26, 29, 140, 147n25; maras (youth gangs), 39
gang, 16, 20, 29. See also code of the Mara Salvatrucha 13 (MS-13, gang), xvii,
street xxx, 18, 39, 14041, 147n25, 157n27
leadership, gang, 8, 18, 1920, 38; incar- Marashea gangs, 38, 154n44
ceration of, 9, 1213, 19, 58, 80 Marcos, Ferdinand, 48
Lee, Bennie, 76 marginalization, xxv, 21, 118, 151n12;
Leggett, Ted, 15 gangs resulting from, xxxixxxii, 132;
Lengruber, Rogrio Bagulho (gangster), responses to, 53, 95, 104; of youth,
13 xxiv, 36. See also social exclusion
Lewis, Benjamin, 75 marijuana trade, 17, 38, 154n45
liberation: armies of, 33; culture of, 109; Marley, Bob, 43
national, 25 Mrquez, Gabriel Garca, 11
Liberia, 40 masculinity, xxviii, 88, 1035, 110, 137
Lil Kim (rapper), 103 mass media, 46, 89, 91, 99, 114, 141. See
Lindsay, John, 16, 9495 also corporate rap
LL Cool J (rapper), 95 Mau Mau uprising, 36
Lonte, Jackie, 14 Maxson, Cheryl, 21
Lopez, Tito, 44 Mayan gangs (Mexico), 107
Lords, Stones and Disciples (LSD, gang mayors: African-American, 116; white,
coalition), 78, 170n45 117
index 191
McDonough, Sonny Joseph, 70, 75, misogyny, xxv, 91; in gangsta rap, xxviii,
169n22 86, 98, 100, 1026, 111, 142, 174n54
McIlvaine, Don, 77 mitra mandals (youth gangs), 158n34
MCing, 94, 95 mixed-race people, 16
meaning, 53, 60, 110; creation of, 55, 87, M-19 (guerrilla organization), 35
89, 93, 111, 133; search for, 49, 96 mobility, xiii, 15, 64, 71, 116
Medelln (Colombia): drug cartels, 28, modernity, 56, 85, 86, 132; loss of faith in,
35, 3738, 152n16; gangs in, 21, 35, 45; 59, 63, 133, 156n6. See also industrial
slums in, xxix era; postmodernity; progress
media. See mass media Monkkonen, Eric, 66
megacities, 45, 21. See also urban areas Moore, Joan, 20, 30, 3839, 54, 55, 104,
Melbourne (Australia), 36 132, 150n26, 179n9
membership, gang, xi, xiv, 8, 10 moral majorities, 90
Memmi, Albert, 61 Morrison, Toni, 97, 107
men. See masculinity Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM), 45
mercenaries: gangs as, xxiv Mumbai (India), 5, 21, 41, 158n33
Merton, Robert, 56, 59 murders. See homicide rates
Messengers of Truth project, 1067 music, xxvii, 17, 172n1. See also gangsta
Mtayer, Amiot (Cuban), 4849 rap; hip-hop culture
Mexico, 6, 28, 96, 107, 150n26, 155n57 Muslim communities, 23, 1056, 158n34.
Meyer, John M., 150n32 See also Islamic gangs
middle class: African-American, 58, 63, Myrdal, Gunnar, 62
12930, 165n27; white, 8283. See also myths, 9, 150n32; of gangs, 11, 1920,
gentrication 155n57
Middle Eastern gangs, 160n20
migration. See immigrants/immigration; Nairobi (Kenya), gangs in, 37, 160n18
rural-urban migration narcocorrido music, 107, 155n57
militarized gang structures, 19 Nas (rapper), 100, 133
militias: ethnic, 26, 31, 34, 4748; nationalism, xxiv, xxvi, 41, 90, 91, 140
gangs as, xi, xxiv, xxv, 22, 35, 132; Nation of Lords (Dawley), 76, 77
political, 24, 28, 33, 35, 40; religious, nation states, 26
29, 3031, 34, 44. See also paramilitary natural areas: borders based on, 27
groups negativity: power of, 98
Miller, Walter, 54, 87 neighborhoods, xiii, xiv, xxvi, 15; gangs
Mills, C. Wright, 134 in, 3, 9, 12, 16, 19, 27, 3435, 5354, 75;
milo (music), 107 opportunity structures in, 8688, 93.
Miloevic, Slobodan, 46 See also barrios; favelas; ghettos; slums
Milwaukee: gangs in, xivxv, 64, 104 neither War nor Peace (study), xxxii, 3,
Milwaukee Kings (gang), 20 12, 14, 19, 28, 3334, 39, 43, 47
minorities, 21, 48, 59, 103, 133. See also neoliberalism, xvi, 7, 26, 28, 29, 89,
ethnic groups 120
minority gangs, 54 networks: gangs as, 19, 24
192 index
network society, 5960 oppression, 25, 83, 106; persistence of,

Newman, Oscar, 14 xxviiixxix; racial, 54, 55, 88, 12930;
New Orleans, Louisiana, 117 resistance to, xxiv, xxxi, 58, 95
New York City, 62; 1863 draft riots, 67, optimism, 25, 57
116; gangs in, xii, xiv, 16, 42, 86, 9495, Organization (rappers), 95
137; gentrication in, 11516, 118, 121; organization theory, 79, 11, 13, 18, 54,
hip-hop music in, 109; homicide 60, 8691, 138. See also social disorga-
rates, 124, 125, 126, 130, 178n56; nization theory
institutionalized gangs in, xxvi; organized crime. See crime: organized
voting gangs in, 6667 Original Gangsters (OGs, gang), 11
New Zealand: gangs in, 36 other, the, xxxxxxi, 53, 60, 107, 141;
Nigeria, 5, 41, 4748, 53 African Americans as, 6264, 88, 116,
Nigga identity, 100 130; fear of, 6263, 83; gangs as, 114,
Niggas with Attitude. See N.W.A. 178n5
nihilism: among African Americans, Outt (gang), xxvii, 13, 7475
5758, 60, 88, 90, 97; denition of, Outkast (rappers), 101
145n7; among gang members, xxvi,
xxviii, 82, 14142; in gangsta rap, xxv, Padilla, Felix, 54, 55
25, 98, 100101, 133; racism and, 62, Padilla, Jose, 147n24
65, 135; responses to, 111, 140 Pakistan: gangs in, 21, 2829, 154n45
1919 race riots (Chicago), xii, 6772, 74, Palestine, 40, 109, 118
168n16 Pan African Congress, 41
Nixon, Richard M., xvi, 74 pandillas (gangs), 107
nongovernmental organizations parabalani (shock troops), 163n62
(NGOs), 26, 132 paramilitary groups, 22, 28, 35, 37, 44,
nonstate actors, xxiii, 26, 37 46, 163n64
normlessness, 56 Pardo people, 16
Northern Ireland: gangs in, 44 Paris, xxvi, 117
Notorious B.I.G (rapper), 98 Park, Robert, xxxii, 4, 24, 5556, 134
numbers gangs, 13 patronage, 27, 43, 71, 7274, 79, 168n4.
N.W.A. (Niggas with Attitude, rappers), See also Chicago: machine politics
xxviii, 98, 100, 107 peace camps, 35
peasants, 4
objectication of women, 1045 penology, xv. See also law enforcement;
Ocasio, Billy, 42 prisons
Oceania: gangs in, 56 People Against Gangsterism and Drugs
Ohlin, Lloyd, 56, 86, 87 (PAGAD, vigilantes), 17, 20, 47
Omi, Michael, 61, 83 People and Folks alliances, 16
Oodua Peoples Congress (OPC, militia), People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and
4748 the Underclass in a Rustbelt City
opportunity structures, 8688, 93 (Hagedorn with Macon), xiiixv,
opposition, 34, 89. See also resistance xvi, xxiii, xxiv, 64, 83, 100, 131
index 193
Peoples National Party (PNP), 43, and youth, 100, 164n80; gang growth
152n16 amid, xiv, xxiv, xxvi, 6; persistence of,
Perez, Xavier, 175n2, 178n63 xxviii, 5859; racism and, 97, 120, 121;
Perkins, Euseni, 78 responses to, xxxxxxi, 56, 57, 94, 95;
permanence of racism, xxiv, 55, 6164, urban, 4, 7, 21, 148n7, n8
8283, 13536; hip-hop culture as power, xi, xxvxxvi, xxxi, 91; lack of,
reaction to, xxviixxix, 89, 93, 97. xxviii, 1035
See also racism: institutionalized prayers, gang, 8, 16
Perry, Edwin Marion, 75 Preval, Rene, 45, 49
Peru, 26, 27, 28, 44 Prevention of Organized Crime Act
Philadelphia, 29, 88 (POCA, South Africa), 17
Philippines: gangs in, 48 prisons, xxx, 16, 18, 130; socialization of
pimps: images of, 99, 105, 106 gangs in, xxv, 9, 11, 1213, 31, 75, 81,
Pinnock, Don, 117 95, 120, 153n37. See also incarceration
polarization, xxix, 67, 58; economic, privatization, 7, 166n33
xvii, xxvi, 21, 89 progress, xxiv, 6, 25, 59, 133. See also
police, xxiv, 46, 88, 170n49; brutality industrial era; modernity
of, xiv, xxv, 80, 104, 12829, 13839; project identity, 90, 138
corruption of, 37, 13839, 152n26; Public Enemy (rappers), 101, 105, 110
gang members becoming, 24, 73; public housing projects, 1415, 114,
repression by, xiii, 9, 4142, 43, 82, 12126, 129
83, 111, 136, 137; resistance to, 29, 97; Puerto Rican communities, 9495, 96,
role in gentrication, 114, 119, 121, 115, 116
123, 127, 12829, 134, 13940. See also Puerto Rican gangs, xv, 54, 153n37
law enforcement
politics, xvii, 60, 62, 151n12, 158n34; al-Qaeda, xxx, 24, 110, 140, 147n25
electoral, 4144, 110; gang involve- Queen Latifah (rapper), 95, 104
ment in, xiii, 16, 30, 33, 3745, 132,
139, 142, 153n35, n37; street, 58, 137; race, xiii, 56, 165n13; borders based on,
urban, xixii, xv, xvi; violence in, 27, xi, xxx; gangs and, 36, 6465, 83, 105,
37, 4849, 6667, 78, 116. See also 145n6, 160n18, 164n9; identity of,
depoliticization; Hamburg Athletic xxvi, 100; in urban areas, 113; violence
Association based on, xii, 4142, 6162, 6772,
poor people. See poverty; underclass 74, 76, 168n16. See deracialization of
Popkin, Susan, 15, 125 gangs
population gures, 45 Race Relations Commission report
posses, xxiv, xxv, 43, 96, 108 (1922), 6970, 79
Posta Group (gang), 160n18 racial formation theory, 61
postindustrial era, xiv, xv, 64, 91, 100 racism, xxvixxix, 2425, 5359, 100; as
postliberalism, xvi cause of gangs, xxxii, 133; in Chicago,
postmodernity, 30, 60, 96, 171n6 64, 65, 6772, 76, 122, 170n61; ethnic
poverty, 24, 87, 90, 157n14; of children identity and, 1618; institutionalized,
194 index
xiiixiv, 31, 104; in law enforcement, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), xxviii, 152n26;
63, 130, 138; poverty and, 21, 97, 121; drug trade in, 19, 2728, 39; gangs in,
resistance to, xxiii, xxiv, xxxi, 91, 94, xxiii, 1820, 21; institutionalized
95. See also permanence of racism; gangs in, xxvi, 7, 10, 11, 1217, 22, 132
segregation riots: 1863 New York draft, 67, 116;
rackets, 150n26 ethnic, xxiii, xxvi; Los Angeles, 41,
Ragens Colts (club), 66, 70, 79 42; 1919 Chicago race, xii, 6772,
Rakim (rapper), 105 74, 168n16; 1968 Democratic
rap/rappers. See gangsta rap; hip-hop Convention, 78; racial, xii, 118;
culture Soweto, 41
Rappers Delight (song, Sugar Hill rituals, gang, 8, 150n29
Gang), 94 Rivera, Iris, 1034, 174n46
rarri boys (gangs), 3435, 107 Robert Taylor Homes housing project
rebellion, 36, 57, 85, 101, 134; of youth, (Chicago), 14, 15, 122, 123, 125
xxvi, 24, 39, 95, 104, 142 Rodriguez, Luis, 23, 134, 154n48
reform, 149n23 Roman gangs, xixii
Reggaeton (music), 109 Rose, Tricia, xxix, 85, 9596
religion, 61; divisions based on, xxx, 29; Roseland (Chicago neighborhood), 126
gangs and, 53, 87; identity of, xxiv, Rowan, Brian, 150n32
xxvi; oppression of, 25, 55; poverty Roy, Arundhati, 26, 178n5
and, 21, 90; violence based on, xxvi, Royko, Mike, 79
37; weakening of, 56. See also Chris- rural-urban migration, xxx, 4, 6, 56,
tianity; Islam 6768, 74
Reno, William, 27 Russia, 6, 63
repatriation, forced. See deportations rustbelt cities, 116. See also People and
repression, xxx, 20, 58, 89; invulnerability Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass
to, 10, 1213, 18; police, xiii, 9, 4243, in a Rustbelt City (Hagedorn with
82, 83, 111, 114, 121, 13637; state- Macon)
sponsored, 28, 31, 40, 57. See also war Rwanda, 46, 62
on gangs
Republican Party (U.S.), 29, 110, 141 safety. See security
resistance, xvii, 55, 62, 90, 133, 135 Said, Edward, 30, 62, 63, 133, 178n5
resistance identity, xxv, 55, 5961, 8991, Salloum, Jackie, 109
120; hip-hop culture as, xxix, 83, 85, Salt-N-Pepa (rappers), 102, 104
142, 172n1; of youth, xxviixxviii, 109 Sampson, Rob, 8687
retreatists, 59. See also demoralization; Sampson, Steve, 27, 33
social exclusion Snchez, Chalino, 107
revanchist city, 116, 126 So Paulo (Brazil), 11819, 129
revolutionary gangs, 23, 31, 39 Sarnecki, Jerzy, 36
revolutions, xvii, xxix, 41, 57, 90, 140, Sartre, Jean-Paul, 113, 134
151n12. See also civil wars Sassen, Saskia, xxix, 116, 138
Reyna, Steve, 26 Savonarola, Girolamo, 46
index 195
scapegoating, 63. See also other, the; Sisters of the Struggle (gang), 123
racism: in law enforcement Sisyphus, 179n7
school-based gangs, xiv skinheads, 36, 53, 61
schools. See education skollies. See street gangs: Cape Town
Scott, Michael, 54 slavery/slaves, 53, 57, 62, 104
Scott-Heron, Gil, 101, 139 slums, xxxii, 45, 71, 115, 148n7; armed
Seaga, Edward, 43 young men in, xxiv, 3; gangs in, xxx,
security, 21, 37, 39, 4748, 83, 11415, 131 6, 21; global, xxvi, xxixxxx, 45, 26
segregation, 120, 129, 130, 169n26; in Small Boys Unit, 40
Chicago, 71, 74, 12124; in housing, Smith, Neil, 116, 121, 126, 129
15. See also racism: institutionalized Snoop Doggy Dogg (rapper), 105
self-destruction, 90, 101, 111, 138; of social actors, xxvi, xxxii, 90, 114, 130,
youth, xvii, xxv 13538
self-help movements, 39, 4748 Social Athletic Clubs (SACs), 6668,
self-worth, loss of. See demoralization; 69, 75, 168n6. See also Hamburg
nihilism Athletic Association
Selznick, Philip, 79 social control: loss of, 83, 8990, 120,
Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path, 127, 178n5
guerrilla movement), 44 social disorganization theory, 4, 6,
Senegal, 108 8688. See also organization theory
Sengali, Leonard, 80 social exclusion, xxxii, 67, 83; geog-
Sennett, Richard, 63 raphy of, xxx, 21, 149n20; responses
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 62 to, xxvi, xxviii, 24, 5960. See also
Serbia, 46 marginalization
sex/sexism: in gangsta rap, xxviii, 86, 99, socialism, 25, 40, 59
100, 1026, 111, 142, 174n54 social movements, 16, 2426, 91, 111,
Sexboy (gang), 17 13542; gangs becoming, xvi, xxv,
sex trade, 27, 29, 38, 40 xxxxxxii, 16, 42, 57, 7678, 134,
shadow states, 27 13642; 1960s, 1113, 45, 5659, 60,
Shakur, Afeni, 101 115, 140
Shakur, Tupac, xxix, 58, 62, 9799, 101, social presence, 36
106, 111, 14243 Somalia, 37
Shepler, Susan, 159n8 Sombra Negra (vigilantes), 39
Shiv Sena party, 41, 158n34 South Africa: gangs in, 38, 41, 159n41;
Short, James, 30, 134 institutionalized gangs in, 14, 1718,
sicarios (child assassins), 35, 48 47, 154n44; rap music in, 108. See also
Sicily, xxv, xxvii individual cities and townships
Sierra Leone, 3435, 107, 159n8 South Asia, xxvi, 56, 2829, 40
Simmel, Georg, 56 South Bronx, New York, 9496, 121
Simmons, Russell, 99 Soviet Union: fall of, xxvi
Singapore, 118, 119 Soweto (Africa), 17, 41
Singh, Prakash, 33 space(s), xi, xxx, 21, 145n6. See also
196 index
neighborhoods; territory, struggle surveillance, xxvi, 100, 111, 12829, 134

for; urban areas survival, 8, 59, 133; struggle for, xivxv,
Spengler, Oswald, 156n6 xxvxxvi, 37, 3940, 49, 142, 167n49
Spergel, Irving, 54, 134 Sutherland, Edward, 67
Spruell, Chuck, 77, 82 Swecker, Chris, 146n23
squatter communities, 40 Sydney (Australia): gangs in, 36
Staggie, Rashaad, 12, 17, 155n67
Staggie, Rashied, 12 Taliban, 46
Standing, Andre, 11, 154n51 Tamil Tigers, 160n10
Starski, Lovebug (rapper), 94 tasso (oral history), 108
state(s): retreat of, 67, 27, 3741, Taylor, Carl, 54, 55
156n12; violence sponsored by, 34, 39, Taylor, Charles, 40
57, 115; weakened, xxiv, xxvxxvi, 21, Taylor, Elizabeth, 74, 122
2429, 31, 40, 47, 135, 149n23, 157n14. technology, 60, 91, 171n6. See also
See also failed states industrial era
state-sponsored gangs, 4849 teenagers. See youth
stereotypes, xii, xiv, 100, 1056, 118 Tennessee Valley Authority, 7
Stone, W. Clement, 77 Terceiro Commando (Third Command,
Strange, Susan, 25, 149n23 gang), xxiii
street: code of, xxix, 29, 8889; culture territory, struggle for, 19, 76
of, xxviiixix, 8690, 9495, 97, 101, terrorists, xxiii, 24; gangs as, xi, 131, 141,
104, 108; identity of, 133, 142, 151n12; 147n24, n26. See also war on terror
politics of, 58, 137; socialization of Thackeray, Bal, 41, 158n34
gangs on, xxv, 31, 132; violence of, third world, 25, 26; conditions of, 67,
xii, 99 21, 56, 113; factories moved to, 5859,
street gangs, xi, xxvii, 26, 39, 153n37, 83; gangs in, xxvi; migration issues,
159n41, 160n20; African-American, xxx; youth in, 56. See also fourth
42, 78, 119; Cape Town, 13, 17; deni- world
tions of, 3031, 156n5. See also corner Thompson, Hunter S., 173n28
gangs; true street gangs Thrasher, Frederic, 34, 134, 150n29;
Street Terrorism Enforcement and Pro- study of Chicago gangs, 4, 55, 6667,
tection Act (STEP, California), 1718 7072, 74, 168n6
structures. See neighborhoods: opportu- Three 6 Maa (rappers), 105
nity structures in; organization theory thugs: images of, xxix, 86, 99, 101
Subliminal (rapper), 109 Time Warner Inc., 94, 99. See also
sub-Saharan Africa, xxix, 4, 6, 7, 27, corporate rap
149n20, 157n25 Touraine, Alain, xxvii, 56, 64, 8991,
suburbs, 29, 162n59 134, 142, 157n14, 167n49, 172n22; on
Sugar Hill Gang (rappers), 94 industrialization, xxvii, 2425, 60;
Sullivan, Mercer, xiv social actor theory, 130, 13637
Summers, Larry, 171n5 tourists, 37, 118
supergangs, xiiixiv, xv, 12, 16 transnational gangs, 39
index 197
Trenchtown system (rapper), 95 Vico C (rapper), 109

Triads (gangs), xxv, 3, 2829, 37, 158n33 Vigil, Diego, xxxi, 54, 55, 179n9
tribes, xiii, xxvi, 26, 37, 62 vigilantes, 28, 35, 39, 115, 119; gangs as,
true street gangs, 24, 30, 34, 36, 49 xxiv, xxv, 34, 4649; Kenyan, 37;
Tsotsis (gang), 3, 41 South African, 17, 159n41. See also
Tutsis (tribe), 62 death squads
Tuttle, William, 72 Villaraigosa, Antonio, 117
villas miserias (Buenos Aires), 15, 16
Ulster Defence Association, 44 violence: decrease in, 119; drug-related,
underclass, xxxixxxii, 29, 87, 133, 149n20; xxiii, 99100; election-related, 34, 41,
African-American, 58, 63, 90, 98 6667, 69, 79, 158n34, 179n13; ethnic,
unemployment, xiv, xxvii, 40, 5859, 83, xxvixxvii, 37, 54, 62; gang-related,
118, 157n14. See also jobs: lack of xxii, xxvii, 16, 17, 12224, 130, 139; in
United Kingdom, 29, 61 gangsta rap, 99101, 103, 110, 111, 142;
United Nations, 125, 141, 148n8, 149n16 gentrication-related, 12426; in
United States: African Americans in, 5, 59; ghettos, 25, 105, 121; political, 27, 37,
culture of, 56, 85; economic policies, 4849, 6667, 78, 116; privatization
7, 26, 27, 29; gangs in, xxvxxvi, 22, of, 40; racial, xii, 4142, 6162,
24, 36, 41, 54, 140, 147n25; racism in, 6772, 74, 76, 90, 168n16; reduction
6264; slums in, 4, 21; youth in, of, xxv, 125; religious, xxvi, 37; urban,
xxviiixix 11314, 120; against women, 105;
unsupervised peer groups, 3940, 49, youth, xxvii, 34, 159n8
160n18; alienation among, 3437; as voting gangs, 34, 41, 6667, 69, 79,
sources of gangs, xxxi, 6, 10, 30, 158n34, 179n13
3334, 64, 132
urban areas, xxixxxx; destructive social Wacquant, Loc, xxx, 12, 55, 115, 120
forces in, xiii, 165n16; gangs in, xi, 7, walled communities, 115, 11819, 120,
2123, 138; globalization of, xxixxxx, 121
46, 21, 11519, 134; hip-hop music warlords, 6, 26, 27, 95
in, 103, 111; importance of, 11417; war on crime, 57, 113, 11819, 12324
postindustrial, xiv, xv, 100, 116; poverty war on drugs, xv, xxx, 28, 113, 117, 119,
in, 7, 21, 5859, 148n7; violence in, 12324, 130, 135
11314, 120. See also contested cities; war on gangs, xv, xxx, 9495, 113, 119,
megacities; rural-urban migration 121, 135, 14042, 147n25; in Chicago,
urbanization, 14, 40, 56, 156n6; gangs 12, 16, 7880, 83, 94, 12324
relationship to, xxiv, xxvxxvi, war on poverty, 56, 57
xxixxxx, 46, 24, 132 war on terror, xv, xxxxxxii, 39, 62, 119,
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 135, 14042
131 Washington, Harold, 8283
Watkins, S. Craig, 95, 96
Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi, 15 wealth, 139; drug-related, xv, 13, 35. See
Verkaaik, Oskar, 45 also income
198 index
Weber, Max, 9, 156n6 Yakuza (gang), 28, 158n33

Weerman, Frank, 24 Yorty, Samuel, 94
Weick, Karl, 19 Young Lords (gang), 12, 153n37
welfare state, xi, 7, 25, 29 youth: African, 1718; African-American,
West, Cornel, 64, 86, 96, 101, 133, xxviiixix, 5, 94, 100, 130, 133; alien-
145n7; on nihilism, xxvi, xxviii, 57, ation of, xxv, 3437, 53, 55, 135, 140;
60, 65, 82, 88 anger of, xxix, 6, 24, 53, 131, 133, 135;
West, Kanye (rapper), 105, 171n5 attraction to gangs, 35, 39, 57; culture
West, the: culture of, 56, 85; economic of, 30, 91, 93, 95, 109; incarceration
conditions in, 4, 7, 21, 27; gangs in, of, 100, 114, 117, 119; Islamic, 4445,
30, 36; racism in, 62; violence in, 25, 46; marginalization of, xxiv, 36; poor,
159n8 xi, 29, 55, 80; population gures, 5;
West Africa, 96, 108 rebellion of, xxvi, 24, 39, 95, 104, 142;
Western Cape (South Africa), 1718 resistance identity of, xxviixxviii,
Western Europe, xxvxxvi 109; self-destructiveness of, xvii, xxv;
White, Rob, 36 violence of, xxvii, 34, 159n8. See also
White Fence (gang), 39 armed young men; children; girl
white gangs, 30, 5354, 69, 7475, 87 gangs; hip-hop culture
white people, xxviii, 83, 99, 100, 117, youth groups, 31, 3334, 41, 156n5
130. See also gentrication Yugoslavia, former, 163n64
Whyte, William, xiii, xvi yuppies: greed of, xiv, xvii. See also con-
Wieviorka, Michel, 33 sumer culture
Willis, Paul, 89
Wilson, William Julius, 63, 64, 8687, Zaluar, Alba, 19
149n20, 171n11 Zenaida V. Camacho, Agnes, 48
Winant, Howard, 61, 62, 83 zero tolerance policies, xxxi, 118, 119,
Wol, Goertz, 115, 120 130, 141
women, 53, 61, 105; in gangs, 9, 35, 123, Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad, 45
137. See also girl gangs; misogyny Zilberg, Elana, 39, 140
World Bank, 7 Zimmermann, Warren, 163n64
Wright, Richard, 25, 97 Zorbaugh, Harvey, 27
Zubz (rapper), 108
X-Clan (gang), 107 Zulu Nation (rappers), 95
John M. Hagedorn is associate professor of criminal justice and senior
research fellow at the Great Cities Institute at the University of Illinois
Chicago. He has studied gangs and violence for more than twenty years.
He is author of People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a
Rustbelt City; coeditor of Female Gangs in America: Essays on Girls, Gangs,
and Gender; and editor of Gangs in the Global City: Alternatives to Tradi-
tional Criminology.
Mike Davis is professor of history at the University of California, Irvine.

He is the author of several books, including Planet of Slums, City of Quartz,
and Ecology of Fear.
Globalization and Community
Dennis R. Judd, series editor
14
A World of Gangs: Armed Young Men and Gangsta Culture
John M. Hagedorn
13
El Paso: Local Frontiers at a Global Crossroads
Victor M. Ortz-Gonzlez
12
Remaking New York: Primitive Globalization and the
Politics of Urban Community
William Sites
11
A Political Space: Reading the Global through Clayoquot Sound
Warren Magnusson and Karena Shaw, editors
10
City Requiem, Calcutta: Gender and the Politics of Poverty
Ananya Roy
9
Landscapes of Urban Memory: The Sacred and the Civic
in Indias High-Tech City
Smriti Srinivas
8
Fin de Millnaire Budapest: Metamorphoses of Urban Life
Judit Bodnr
7
Latino Metropolis
Victor M. Valle and Rodolfo D. Torres
6
Regions That Work: How Cities and Suburbs Can Grow Together
Manuel Pastor Jr., Peter Dreier, J. Eugene Grigsby III,
and Marta Lpez-Garza
5
Selling the Lower East Side: Culture, Real Estate, and Resistance
in New York City
Christopher Mele
4
Power and City Governance: Comparative Perspectives
on Urban Development
Alan DiGaetano and John S. Klemanski
3
Second Tier Cities: Rapid Growth beyond the Metropolis
Ann R. Markusen, Yong-Sook Lee, and Sean DiGiovanna, editors
2
Reconstructing Chinatown: Ethnic Enclave, Global Change
Jan Lin
1
The Work of Cities
Susan E. Clarke and Gary L. Gaile

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What places does the author discuss?

What places does the author discuss?

A World of

university of minnesota press

The Rose That Grew from Concrete reprinted with permission of

Photograph of favela at the opening to Part I by Joo Roberto Ripper

Maps in the book were created by Patti Isaacs, Parrot Graphics.

Copyright 2008 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota

Published by the University of Minnesota Press

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hagedorn, John, 1947-

The University of Minnesota is an equal-opportunity educator and employer.

o c t a v i o p a z , The Labyrinth of Solitude

foreword Reading John Hagedorn Mike Davis xi

1. Ghetto, Favela, and Township: The Worlds Gangs

II. Race, Space, and the Power of Identity

5. No Way Out: Demoralization, Racism, and

Reading John Hagedorn

Symptomatic of a more profound fallacy, the Library of Congress biblio-

enforcement and youth services organizations. The a priori consensus was

Police, big-time gangsters were systematically colonizing African Ameri-

and housing projects of Milwaukee evinced little of the fabled narco-wealth

edited anthology with Meda Chesney-Lind, Female Gangs in America (1999),

columns of Foreign Aairs, from the neighborhood police station to the

What makes a book? A World of Gangs is an expression of powerful and

Philippe Bourgois, with their U.S.Central American comparative focus;

Dennis Judd provided intellectual encouragement for me to write this

to be complemented by the far richer exposition of life, love, and mean-

Why Are Gangs Everywhere?

Vigrio Geral, a poor neighborhood, or favela, in Rio de Janeiro, appeared calm

The Power of IdentityRacism, Rap, and Culture

what West calls nihilism. It is in essence the tendency of the excluded to

Gangsta rap, as much maligned by the older generation as exploited by

Return to the City

A similar, but more extensive, migration and urbanization process is now

The War on Terror, Social Movements, and Gangs

racism, and oppression. We should not romanticize gangs or underestimate

The discipline of criminology today mainly produces research and evalu-

Research, Not Stereotypes

Ghetto, Favela, and Township:

I begin with a seldom-asked question: why do gangs in some cities come

and excitement. The present chapter explores the concept of institutionali-

Global Urbanization and Gangs

The various age groups are linked by a common appreciation of hip-hop

Urbanization has had as far-reaching eects on youth in the third world

Size of Urban Population

also become a major issue in the worlds fastest urbanizing continent.16

Polarization, Social Exclusion, and the

population. If these 358 Midases decided to keep $5 million each as pocket

Institutionalization and Gangs

After a long string of questions, including my concerns about the initiation

Institutionalization means that the gangs show goes on despite changes

repression or civil war); it fullls some needs of its community (econom-

This is madness, Aurelito, he exclaimed.

During the same time in Cape Town, the anti-apartheid movement

Institutionalized Gangs in Chicago, Cape Town,