2008 L E I Notes in Public International Law PDF

PUBLIC
INTERNATIONAL
LAW
NOTES AND QUESTIONS
Nam omnia praeclara tam difficilia quam rara sunt

For all that is excellent and eminent is as difficult as it is
rare
-Spinoza on Ethics
CSU LLB 3
SUMMER CLASS
MYRA C. DE GUZMAN
2 PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 2008
INTRODUCTION
Definition
Public v Private International Law
Basis of Public International Law
1. Naturalist
2. Positivists
3. Eccletics
Three Grand Divisions
Relations between International and Municipal Law

1. From the viewpoint of doctrine
a. Dualist
b. Monists
2. From the view of practice
a. Doctrine of Transformation
b. Doctrine of Incorporation

DEFINITION OF Public International Law
It is the body of rules and principles that are recognized as
legally binding and which govern the relations of states
and other entities invested with international legal
personality. Formerly known as law of nations coined
by Jeremy Bentham in 1789.
Public International Law Distinguished From Private

International Law/Conflict of Laws
It is that part of the law of each State which determines
whether, in dealing with a factual situation, an event or
transaction between private individuals or entities involving
a foreign element, the law of some other State will be
recognized.
Public Private
1. Nature Public is As a rule, Private is
international in national or municipal
nature. It is a law of in character. Except
a sovereign over when embodied in a
those subjected to treaty or convention,
his sway becomes
[Openheim international in
Lauterpacht, 38.] character. It is a law,
not above, but
between, sovereign
states and is,
therefore, a weaker
law. [Openheim
Lauterpacht, 38.]
2. Disputes are Recourse is with
Settleme resolved through municipal tribunals
nt of international modes through local
Dispute of settlement like administrative and
negotiations and judicial processes.
arbitration, reprisals
and even war
3. Source Derived from such Consists mainly from
sources as the lawmaking
international authority of each
customs, state.
international
conventions and the
general principles of
law.
4. Subject Applies to relations Regulates the relations
states inter se and of individuals whether
other international of the same nationality
persons. or not.
5. Infractions are Generally, entails

Responsibili usually collective in only individual
ty for the sense that it responsibility.
violation attaches directly to
the state and not to
its nationals.
BASIS OF PIL 3 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT [Why are

rules of international law binding?]
1. Naturalist
PIL is a branch of the great law of nature the sum of
those principles which ought to control human conduct,
being founded on the very nature of man as a rational
and social being. [Hugo Grotius]
PIL is binding upon States
2. Positivist
Basis is to be found in the consent and conduct of
States.
Tacit consent in the case of customary international
law.
Express in conventional law.
Presumed in the general law of nations. [Cornelius van
Bynkershoek]
3. Groatians or Eclectics
Accepts the doctrine of natural law, but maintained that
States were accountable only to their own conscience
for the observance of the duties imposed by natural
law, unless they had agreed to be bound to treat those
duties as part of positive law. [Emerich von Vattel]
Middle ground
3 GRAND DIVISIONS
1. Laws of Peace normal relations between states in the

absence of war.
2. Laws of War relations between hostile or belligerent

states during wartime.
3. Laws of Neutrality relations between a non-

participant state and a participant state during wartime.
This also refers to the relations among non-participating
states.
RELATIONS BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND

MUNICIPAL LAW
From the Viewpoint of Doctrine

1. Dualists
International Law and Municipal Law are two
completely separate realms.
See distinctions Nos. 1,3 &4.
2. Monists
Denies that PIL and Municipal Law are essential
different.
In both laws, it is the individual persons who in the
ultimate analysis are regulated by the law. That both
laws are far from being essentially different and must
be regarded as parts of the same juristic conception.
For them there is oneness or unity of all laws.
PIL is superior to municipal lawinternational law,
being the one which determines the jurisdictional limits
of the personal and territorial competence of States.
From the Viewpoint of Practice

1. International Tribunals
PIL superior to Municipal Law
Art. 27, Vienna Convention in the law of Treaties A

state may not invoke the provisions of its internal law
as justification for its failure to perform a treaty
State legally bound to observe its treaty obligations,
once signed and ratified
2. Municipal Sphere depends on what doctrine is

followed:
Doctrine of Incorporation -
Rules of international law form part of the law of the land
and no further legislative action is needed to make such
rules applicable in the domestic sphere. [Sec. of Justice v.
Lantion GRN 139465, Jan. 18, 2000]
This is followed in the Philippines:

Art. II, Sec. 2 The Philippinesadopts the generally
accepted principles of international law as part of the law
of the land However, no primacy is implied.
Q: What are these generally accepted principles?

A: Pacta sunt servanda, sovereign equality among states,
principle of state immunity; right of states to self-defense
Secretary Of Justice v. Judge Lantion and Jimenez

[GR 139465, 18 Jan. 2000]
FACTS: A possible conflict between the US-RP

Extradition Treaty and Philippine law
ISSUE: WON, under the Doctrine of Incorporation,

International Law prevails over Municipal Law
HELD: NO.
Under the doctrine of incorporation, rules of international

law form part of the law of the land and no further
legislative action is needed to make such rules applicable

in the domestic sphere.
The doctrine of incorporation is applied whenever local

courts are confronted with situations in which there
appears to be a conflict between a rule of international law
and the provisions of the local states constitution/statute.
First, efforts should first be exerted to harmonize them, so

as to give effect to both. This is because it is presumed
that municipal law was enacted with proper regard for the
generally accepted principles of international law in
observance of the incorporation clause.
However, if the conflict is irreconcilable and a choice has

to be made between a rule of international law and
municipal law, jurisprudence dictates that the municipal
courts should uphold municipal law.
This is because such courts are organs of municipal law

and are accordingly bound by it in all circumstances. The
fact that international law was made part of the law of the
land does not pertain to or imply the primacy of
international law over national/municipal law in the
municipal sphere.
The doctrine of incorporation, as applied in most countries,

decrees that rules of international law are given equal
standing with, but are not superior to, national legislative
enactments.
In case of conflict, the courts should harmonize both laws

first and if there exists an unavoidable contradiction
between them, the principle of lex posterior derogat
priori - a treaty may repeal a statute and a statute may
repeal a treaty - will apply. But if these laws are found in
conflict with the Constitution, these laws must be stricken
out as invalid.
In states where the constitution is the highest law of the

land, such as in ours, both statutes and treaties may be
invalidated if they are in conflict with the constitution.
Supreme Court has the power to invalidate a treaty Sec.

5(2)(a), Art. VIII, 1987 Constitution
Q: What is the doctrine of incorporation? How is it

applied by local courts?
Held: Under the doctrine of incorporation, rules of
international law form part of the law of the land and no
further legislative action is needed to make such rules
applicable in the domestic sphere.
The doctrine of incorporation is applied whenever

municipal tribunals (or local courts) are confronted with
situations in which there appears to be a conflict between
a rule of international law and the provisions of the
Constitution or statute of the local state. Efforts should
first be exerted to harmonize them, so as to give effect to
both since it is to be presumed that municipal law was
enacted with proper regard for the generally accepted
principles of international law in observance of the
Incorporation Clause in Section 2, Article II of the
Constitution. In a situation however, where the conflict is
irreconcilable and a choice has to be made between a rule
of international law and municipal law, jurisprudence
dictates that municipal law should be upheld by the
municipal courts for the reason that such courts are
organs of municipal law and are accordingly bound by it in
all circumstances. The fact that international law has been
made part of the law of the land does not pertain to or
imply the primacy of international law over national or
municipal law in the municipal sphere. The doctrine of
incorporation, as applied in most countries, decrees that
rules of international law are given equal standing with, but
are not superior to, national legislative enactments.
Accordingly, the principle of lex posterior derogat priori

takes effect a treaty may repeal a statute and a statute
may repeal a treaty. In states where the Constitution is
the highest law of the land, such as the Republic of the
Philippines, both statutes and treaties may be invalidated
if they are in conflict with the Constitution. (Secretary of
Justice v. Hon. Ralph C. Lantion, G.R. No. 139465, Jan.
18, 2000, En Banc [Melo])
Q: Is sovereignty really absolute and all-

encompassing? If not, what are its restrictions and
limitations?
Held: While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed

absolute and all-encompassing on the domestic level, it is
however subject to restrictions and limitations voluntarily
agreed to by the Philippines, expressly or impliedly, as a
member of the family of nations. By the doctrine of
incorporation, the country is bound by generally accepted
principles of international law, which are considered to be
automatically part of our own laws. One of the oldest and
most fundamental rules in international law is pacta sunt
servanda international agreements must be performed in
good faith. A state which has contracted valid
international obligations is bound to make in its legislations
such modifications as may be necessary to ensure the
fulfillment of the obligations.
By their inherent nature, treaties really limit or restrict the

absoluteness of sovereignty. By their voluntary act,
nations may surrender some aspects of their state power
in exchange for greater benefits granted by or derived
from a convention or pact. After all, states, like
individuals, live with coequals, and in pursuit of mutually
covenanted objectives and benefits, they also commonly
agree to limit the exercise of their otherwise absolute
rights. Thus, treaties have been used to record
agreements between States concerning such widely
diverse matters as, for example, the lease of naval bases,

the sale or cession of territory, the termination of war, the
regulation of conduct of hostilities, the formation of
alliances, the regulation of commercial relations, the
settling of claims, the laying down of rules governing
conduct in peace and the establishment of international
organizations. The sovereignty of a state therefore cannot
in fact and in reality be considered absolute. Certain
restrictions enter into the picture: (1) limitations imposed
by the very nature of membership in the family of nations
and (2) limitations imposed by treaty stipulations. (Tanada
v. Angara, 272 SCRA 18, May 2, 1997 [Panganiban])
Doctrine of Transformation
Legislative action is required to make the treaty
enforceable in the municipal sphere.
Generally accepted rules of international law are not per

se binding upon the state but must first be embodied in
legislation enacted by the lawmaking body and so
transformed into municipal law. This doctrine runs counter
Art. II, Sec. 2, of the 1987 Constitution.
A reading of the case of Kuroda v Jalandoni, [GRN L-2662
March 26, 1949], one may say that Supreme Court
expressly ruled out the Doctrine of Transformation when
they declared that generally accepted principles of
international law form a part of the law of our nation even if
the Philippines was not a signatory to the convention
embodying them, for our Constitution has been
deliberately general and extensive in its scope and is not
cofined to the recognition of rules and principles of
international law as contained in treaties to which our
government may have been or shall be a signatory.
Pacta Sunt Servanda

International agreements must be performed in Good
Faith. A treaty engagement is not a mere moral obligation
but creates a legally binding obligation on the [arties. A
state which has contracted a valid international obligation

is bound to make in its legislation such modifications as
may be necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the
obligations undertaken.
Taada vs. Angara

GRN 118295 May 2, 1997
While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed absolute

and all encompassing on the domestic level, it is however
subject to restrictions and limitations voluntarily agreed to
by the Philippines, expressly or impliedly as a member of
the family of nations. The Constitution does not envision a
hermit type isolation of the country from the rest of the
world.
By the doctrine of incorporation, the country is bound by

generally accepted principles of international law, which
are considered to be automatically part of our own laws.
The constitutional policy of a "self-reliant and independent

national economy" does not necessarily rule out the entry
of foreign investments, goods and services. It
contemplates neither economic seclusion" nor
"mendicancy in the international community."
Concept of Sovereignty as Autolimitation

When the Philippines joined the United Nations as one of
its 51 charter members, it consented to restrict its
sovereign rights under the "concept of sovereignty as
autolimitation.
Q: A treaty was concurred between RP and China.

Later, a law was passed which has conflicting
provisions with the treaty. Rule.
A: A treaty is part of the law of the land. But as internal

law, it would not be superior to a legislative act, rather it
would be in the same class as the latter. Thus, the latter
law would be considered as amendatory of the treaty,
being a subsequent law under the principle lex posterior
derogat priori. (Abbas vs. COMELEC)
SOURCES
Article 38 of the Statute of International Court of Justice

(SICJ) directs that the following be considered before
deciding a case:
A. Primary
I. Treaties or International Conventions
II. International Custom
III. General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized
Nations
B. Secondary
IV. Judicial Decisions
V. Teachings of authoritative publicists
A. Primary
I. Treaties or International Conventions 2 KINDS:

1. Contract Treaties [Traite-Contrat]
Bilateral arrangements concerning matters of particular

or special interest to the contracting parties
Source of Particular International Law
BUT: May become primary sources of international law
when different contract treaties are of the same nature,
containing practically uniform provisions, and are
concluded by a substantial number of States
EX.: Extradition Treaties
2. Law-Making Treaty [Traite-Loi]

Concluded by a large number of States for purposes
of:
1. Declaring, confirming, or defining their understanding
of what the law is on a particular subject;
2. Stipulating or laying down new general rules for

future international conduct;
3. Creating new international institutions
Source of General International Law
II. International Custom

Matters of international concern are not usually covered by
international agreements and many States are not parties
to most treaties; international custom remains a significant
source of international law, supplementing treaty rules.
Custom is the practice that has grown up between States

and has come to be accepted as binding by the mere fact
of persistent usage over a long period of time
It exists when a clear and continuous habit of doing certain

things develops under the CONVICTION that it is
obligatory and right.
This conviction is called Opinio Juris
When theres no conviction that it is obligatory and right,

theres only a Usage.
Usage is also a usual course of conduct, a long-

established way of doing things by States.
To elevate a mere usage into one of a customary rule of

international law, there must be a degree of constant and
uniform repetition over a period of time coupled with opinio
juris.
III. General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized

Nations
Salonga opines that resort is taken from general principles

of law whenever no custom or treaty provision is
applicable. The idea of civilized nations was intended to
restrict the scope of the provision to European States,

however, at present the term no longer have such
connotation, thus the term should include all nations.
Examples of general principles are: estoppel, pacta sunt

servanda, consent, res judicata and prescription; including
the principles of justice, equity and peace.
B. Secondary
IV. Judicial decisions

The doctrine of stare decisis is not applicable in
international law per Art.59 of the ICJ which states that
The decision of the Court has no binding force except
between the parties and in respect to that particular case.
This means that these decisions are not a direct source,
but they do exercise considerable influence as an impartial
and well-considered statement of the law by jurists made
in the light of actual problems which arise before them,
and thus, accorded with great respect.
This includes decisions of national courts, although they

are not a source of law, the cumulative effect of uniform
decisions of the courts of the most important States is to
afford evidence of international custom.
V. Teachings of authoritative publicists including

learned writers
Such works are resorted to by judicial tribunals not for the

speculation of their authors concerning what the law ought
to be, but for trustworthy evidence of what the law really is.
[Mr. Justice Gray in Paquete Habana case, 175 U.S. 677.]
Q: State your general understanding of the primary

sources and subsidiary sources of international law,
giving an illustration of each. (2003 Bar)
A: Under Article 38 of the Statute of International Court of
Justice, the primary sources of international law are the
following:
1. International conventions, e.g. Vienna Convention on

the Law of Treaties.
2. International customs, e.g. cabotage, the prohibition
against slavery, and the prohibition against torture.
3. General principles of law recognized by civilized
nations, e.g. prescription, res judicata, and due process.
The subsidiary sources of international law are judicial

decisions, subject to the provisions of Article 59, e.g., the
decision in the Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case and
Nicaragua v. US, and teachings of the most highly
qualified publicists of various nations, e.g., Human Rights
in International Law by Lauterpacht and International Law
by Oppenheim-Lauterpacht.
Alternative A: Reflecting general international law, Article

38(1) of the Statute of International Court of Justice is
understood as providing for international convention,
international custom, and general principles of law as
primary sources of international law, while indicating that
judicial decisions and teachings of the most highly
qualified publicists as subsidiary means for the
determination of the rules of law.
The primary sources may be considered as formal

sources in that they are considered methods by which
norms of international law are created and recognized. A
conventional or treaty norm and a customary norm is the
product of the formation of general practice accepted as
law.
By way of illustrating international Convention as a source

of law, we may refer to the principle embodied in Article 6
of the Vienna Convention on the Law on Treaties which
reads: Every State possesses capacity to conclude
treaties. It tells us what the law is and the process or
method by which it cam into being. International Custom
may be concretely illustrated by pacta sunt servanda, a
customary or general norm which came about through
extensive and consistent practice by a great number of
states recognizing it as obligatory.
The subsidiary means serves as evidence of law. A

decision of the International Court of Justice, for example,
may serve as material evidence confirming or showing
that the prohibition against the use of force is a customary
norm, as the decision of the Court has demonstrated in
the Nicaragua Case. The status of a principle as a norm
of international law may find evidence in the works of
highly qualified publicists in international law, such as
McNair, Kelsen or Oppenheim.
SUBJECTS
Subject Defined
Object Defined
2 Concepts of Subjects of International Law

State as Subjects of International Law
Elements of a State
4. People
5. Territory
6. Government
a) 2 kinds
(1) De Jure
(2) De Facto 3 kinds
b) 2 functions
(1) Constituent
(2) Ministrant
c) Effects of change in government
7. Sovereignty
a) Kinds
b) Characteristics
c) Effects of change in sovereignty
Principle of State Continuity

Fundamental Rights of States
1. Right to Sovereignty and Independence;
2. Right to Property and Jurisdiction;
3. Right to Existence and Self-Defense
4. Right to Equality
5. Right to Diplomatic Intercourse
Recognition
Level of Recognition
A. Recognition of State - 2 Schools of Thought
a. Constitutive School
b. Declaratory School
B. Recognition of Government
a. Criteria for Recognition

1. Objective Test
2. Subjective Test
(a) Tobar/Wilson Doctrine
(b) Estrada Doctrine
b. Kinds of Recognition
1. De Jure
2. De Facto
c. Consequences of Recognition of Government
C. Recognition of Belligerency
a. Belligerency
b. 2 Senses of Belligerency
c. Requisites of Belligerency
d. Consequences of Recognition of Belligerents
e. Forms of Recognition
Subject Defined
A Subject is an entity that has an international personality.

An entity has an international personality if it can directly
enforce its rights and duties under international law.
Where there is no direct enforcement of accountability and
an intermediate agency is needed, the entity is merely an
object not a subject of international law.
Q: When does an entity acquire international

personality?
A: When it has right and duties under international law;

can directly enforce its rights; and may be held directly
accountable for its obligations.
Objects Defined
An Object is a person or thing in respect of which rights

are held and obligations assumed by the Subject. Thus, it
is not directly governed by the rules of international law.
There is no direct enforcement and accountability. An

intermediate agencythe Subjectis required for the
enjoyment of its rights and for the discharge of its
obligations.
SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
2 Concepts:
1. Traditional concept
Only States are considered subjects of international
law.
2. Contemporary concept
Individuals and international organizations are also
subjects because they have rights and duties under
international law. (Liang vs. People, GRN 125865 [26
March 2001])
The STATE as subject of International Law

State is a community of persons more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory,
independent of external control, and possessing an
organized government to which the great body of
inhabitants render habitual obedience.
Q: The Japanese government confirmed that during

the Second World War, Filipinas were among those
conscripted as comfort women (prostitutes) for
Japanese troops in various parts of Asia. The
Japanese government has accordingly launched a
goodwill campaign and offered the Philippine
government substantial assistance for a program that
will promote through government and non-
governmental organization womens rights, child
welfare, nutrition and family health care. An executive
agreement is about to be signed for that purpose. The
agreement includes a clause whereby the Philippine
government acknowledges that any liability to the

comfort women or their descendants are deemed
covered by the reparations agreements signed and
implemented immediately after the Second World War.
Julian Iglesias, descendant of now deceased comfort
woman, seeks you advise on the validity of the
agreement. Advise him. (1992 Bar)
A: The agreement is valid. The comfort woman and their

descendant cannot assert individual claims against Japan.
As stated in Paris Moore v. Reagan, 453 US 654, the
sovereign authority of the state to settle claims of its
nationals against foreign countries has repeatedly been
recognized. This may be made without the consent of the
nationals or even without consultation with them. Since
the continued amity between the State and other countries
may require a satisfactory compromise of mutual claims,
the necessary power to make such compromise has been
recognized. The settlement of such claims may be made
by executive agreement.
Q: What must a person who feels aggrieved by the

acts of a foreign sovereign do to espouse his cause?
Held: Under both Public International Law and
Transnational Law, a person who feels aggrieved by the
acts of a foreign sovereign can ask his own government to
espouse his cause through diplomatic channels.
Private respondent can ask the Philippine government,

through the Foreign Office, to espouse its claims against
the Holy See. Its first task is to persuade the Philippine
government to take up with the Holy See the validity of its
claims. Of course, the Foreign Office shall first make a
determination of the impact of its espousal on the relations
between the Philippine government and the Holy See.
Once the Philippine government decides to espouse the
claim, the latter ceases to be a private cause.
According to the Permanent Court of International Justice,

the forerunner of the International Court of Justice:
By taking up the case of one of its subjects and by

resorting to diplomatic action or international judicial
proceedings on his behalf, a State is in reality asserting its
own rights its right to ensure, in the person of its
subjects, respect for the rules of international law. (The
Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, 1 Hudson, World
Court Reports 293, 302 [1924]) (Holy See, The v. Rosario,
Jr., 238 SCRA 524, 533-534, Dec. 1, 1994, En Banc
[Quiason])
Q: What is the status of an individual under public

international law? (1981 Bar)
A: According to Hanks Kelson, while as a general rule,
international law has as its subjects states and obliges
only immediately, it exceptionally applies to individuals
because it is to man that the norms of international law
apply, it is to man whom they restrain, it is to man who,
international law thrusts the responsibilities of law and
order.
Q: Is the Vatican City a state?

A: YES!
Holy See v. Rosario

[GR 101949, 01 Dec. 1994]
The Lateran Treaty established the STATEHOOD of the

Vatican City for the purpose of assuring to the Holy See
absolute and visible independence and of guaranteeing to
it indisputable sovereignty also in the field of international
relations.
From the wordings of the Lateran Treaty, it is difficult to

determine whether the statehood is vested in the Holy See
or in the Vatican City.
The Vatican City fits into none of the established

categories of states, and the attribution to it of
sovereignty must be made in a sense different from that
in which it is applied to other states.
The Vatican City represents an entity organized not for

political but for ecclesiastical purposes and international
objects.
Despite its size and object, it has an independent

government of its own, with the Pope, who is also head of
the Roman Catholic Church, as the Holy See or Head of
State, in conformity with its traditions, and the demands of
its mission. Indeed, its world-wide interests and activities
are such as to make it in a sense an international state.
It was noted that the recognition of the Vatican City as a

state has significant implication that it is possible for any
entity pursuing objects essentially different from those
pursued by states to be invested with international
personality.
Since the Pope prefers to conduct foreign relations and

enter into transactions as the Holy See and not in the
name of the Vatican City, one can conclude that in the
Pope's own view, it is the Holy See that is the international
person.
The Philippines has accorded the Holy See the status of a

foreign sovereign. The Holy See, through its Ambassador,
the Papal Nuncio, has had diplomatic representations with
the Philippine government since 1957. This appears to be

the universal practice in international relations.
Q: Discuss the Status of the Vatican and the Holy See

in International Law.
Held: Before the annexation of the Papal States by Italy

in 1870, the Pope was the monarch and he, as the Holy
See, was considered a subject of International Law. With
the loss of the Papal States and the limitation of the
territory under the Holy See to an area of 108.7 acres, the
position of the Holy See in International Law became
controversial.
In 1929, Italy and the Holy See entered into the Lateran
Treaty, where Italy recognized the exclusive dominion and
sovereign jurisdiction of the Holy See over the Vatican
City. It also recognized the right of the Holy See to
receive foreign diplomats, to send its own diplomats to
foreign countries, and to enter into treaties according to
International Law.
The Lateran Treaty established the statehood of the

Vatican City for the purpose of assuring to the Holy See
absolute and visible independence and of guaranteeing to
it indisputable sovereignty also in the field of international
relations.
In view of the wordings of the Lateran Treaty, it is difficult

to determine whether the statehood is vested in the Holy
See or in the Vatican City. Some writers even suggested
that the treaty created two international persons - the Holy
See and Vatican City.
The Vatican City fits into none of the established

categories of states, and the attribution to it of
sovereignty must be made in a sense different from that
in which it is applied to other states. In a community of
national states, the Vatican City represents an entity

organized not for political but for ecclesiastical purposes
and international objects. Despite its size and object, the
Vatican City has an independent government of its own,
with the Pope, who is also head of the Roman Catholic
Church, as the Holy See or Head of State, in conformity
with its traditions, and the demands of its mission in the
world. Indeed, the world-wide interests and activities of
the Vatican City are such as to make it in a sense an
international state.
One authority wrote that the recognition of the Vatican City

as a state has significant implication - that it is possible for
any entity pursuing objects essentially different from those
pursued by states to be invested with international
personality.
Inasmuch as the Pope prefers to conduct foreign relations

and enter into transactions as the Holy See and not in the
name of the Vatican City, one can conclude that in the
Pope's own view, it is the Holy See that is the international
person.
The Republic of the Philippines has accorded the Holy

See the status of a foreign sovereign. The Holy See,
through its Ambassador, the Papal Nuncio, has had
diplomatic representations with the Philippine government
since 1957. This appears to be the universal practice in
international relations. (Holy See, The v. Rosario, Jr., 238
SCRA 524, 533-534, Dec. 1, 1994, En Banc [Quiason])
ELEMENTS OF A STATE:
A. People
the inhabitants of the State

must be numerous enough to be self-sufficing and to
defend themselves and small enough to be easily
administered and sustained.
the aggregate of individuals of both sexes who live

together as a community despite racial or cultural
differences
groups of people which cannot comprise a State:
1. Amazons not of both sexes; cannot perpetuate
themselves
2. Pirates considered as outside the pale of law,
treated as an enemy of all mankind; hostis humani
generis
B. Territory
the fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited
by the people of the State
the size is irrelevant San Marino v. China
BUT, practically, must not be too big as to be difficult
to administer and defend; but must not be too small
as to unable to provide for peoples needs
Q: Why important to determine?
A: Determines the area over which the State
exercises jurisdiction
Nomadic tribe not a State
Q: What comprises the Philippine Archipelago?

A: 1, Article 1, 1987 Philippine Constitution.
The national territory comprises the Philippine

archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced
therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines
has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial,
fluvial, and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the
seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other
submarine areas. The waters around, between, and
connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of
their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal
waters of the Philippines.
Q: The provision deleted the reference to territories

claimed by historic right or legal title. Does this
mean that we have abandoned claims to Sabah?
A: NO! This is not an outright or formal abandonment of
the claim. Instead, the claim was left to a judicial body
capable of passing judgment over the issue
The definition covers the following territories:

1. Ceded to the US under the Treaty of Paris of 10 Dec.
1898
2. Defined in the 07 Nov. 1900 Treaty between US and
Spain, on the following islands;
3. Cagayan;
4. Sulu;
5. Sibuto
6. Defined in the 02 Jan. 1930 Treaty between the US
and the UK over the Turtle and Mangsee Islands
7. Island of Batanes
8. Contemplated in the phrase belonging to the
Philippines by historic right or legal title
Q: What is the basis of the Philippines claim to a part

of the Spratlys Islands? (2000 Bar)
A: The basis of the Philippine claim is effective occupation

of a territory not subject to the sovereignty of another
state. The Japanese forces occupied the Spratly Islands
Group during the Second World War. However, under the
San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951, Japan formally
renounced all right and claim to the Spratlys. The San
Francisco Treaty or any other international agreement,
however, did not designate any beneficiary state following
the Japanese renunciation of right. Subsequently, the
Spratlys became terra nullius and was occupied by the
Philippines in the title of sovereignty. Philippine
sovereignty was displayed by open and public occupation
of a number of islands by stationing military forces, by
organizing a local government unit, and by awarding
petroleum drilling rights, among other political and

administrative acts. In 1978, it confirmed its sovereign title
by the promulgation of Presidential Decree No. 1596,
which declared the Kalayaan Island Group part of
Philippine territory.
C. Government
the agency or instrumentality through which the will of
the State is formulated, expressed and realized
2 KINDS:
1. De Jure
One with rightful title but not power or
control, because:
Power was withdrawn;
Has not yet entered into the exercise of power
2. De Facto
A government of fact
Actually exercises power or control, but has
NO legal title
3 Kinds:
a) By revolution that which is established by the
inhabitants who rise in revolt against and depose
the legitimate regime;
EX. the Commonwealth established by Oliver

Cromwell which supplanted the monarchy under
Charles I of England
b) By government of paramount force that which

is established in the course of war by the
invading forces of one belligerent in the territory
of the other belligerent, the government of which
is also displaced
EX. the Japanese occupation government in the

Philippines which replaced the Commonwealth
government during WWII
c) By secession that which is established by the

inhabitants of a state who cedes therefrom
without overthrowing its government
EX. the confederate government during the

American Civil War which, however, did not seek
to depose the union government
Q: Is the Cory Aquino Government a de facto or de

jure government?
A: De Jure! While initially the Aquino Government was a

de facto government because it was established thru
extra-constitutional measures, it nevertheless assumed a
de jure status when it subsequently recognized by the
international community as the legitimate government of
the Republic of the Philippines. Moreover, a new
Constitution was drafted and overwhelmingly ratified by
the Filipino people and national elections were held for
that purpose.[Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v.
Aquino, G.R. No. 73748 (1986)]
The Cory government won! All de facto governments

lost in the end!
2 Functions:
1. Constituent constitutes the very bonds of society
COMPULSORY.
Examples:
(a) Keeping of order and providing for the protection
of persons and property from violence and robber;
(b) Fixing of legal relations between spouses and

between parents and children;
(c) Regulation of the holding, transmission, and
interchange of property, and the determination of
liabilities for debt and crime;
(d) Determination of contractual relations between
individuals;
(e) Definition and punishment of crimes
(f)Administration of justice in civil cases;
(g) Administration of political duties, privileges, and
relations of citizens;
(h) Dealings of the States with foreign powers
2. Ministrant undertaken to advance the general

interests of society merely OPTIONAL.
Examples:
(a) Public works;
(b) Public charity;
(c) Regulation of trade and industry
Q: Is the distinction still relevant?

A: No longer relevant!
ACCFA v. CUGCO [30 SCRA 649]
Constitution has repudiated the laissez faire policy

Constitution has made compulsory the performance of
ministrant functions.
Examples:
Promote social justice;
Land reform
Provide adequate social services
Q: What is the mandate of the Philippine Government?

A: Art. II, Sec. 4 The prime duty of the Government is to
serve and protect the people Thus, whatever good is
done by government attributed to the State; whatever

harm is done by the government attributed to the
government alone, not the State
Harm justifies the replacement of the government by

revolution Direct State Action
EFFECTS OF A CHANGE IN GOVERNMENT:
It is well settled that as far as the rights of the predecessor

government are concerned, they are inherited in toto by
the successor government. Regarding obligations,
distinction is made according to the manner of the
establishment of the new government.
The rule is that where the new government was organized

by virtue of a constitutional reform duly ratified in a
plebiscite, the obligations of the replaced government are
also completely assumed by the former. Conversely,
where the new government was established through
violence, as by a revolution, it may lawfully reject the
purely personal or political obligations of the predecessor
government but not those contracted by it in the ordinary
course of official business.
Summary:
A.Change of Government by Constitutional Reform
The new government inherits all the rights and
obligations of the former government
B.Change by Extra-Constitutional Means

Rights all are inherited;
Obligations distinguish:
Contracted in the regular course of business
Inherited;
EX.: Payment of postal money orders bought by an

individual
Purely Personal/Political Obligations Not

bound! May reject!
EX.: Payment for arms bought by old government
to fight the rebels
Q: The Federation of Islamabad concluded an

agreement with the republic of Baleria when the
leaders of Islamabad made a state visit to the latter.
The agreement concerns the facilitation of entry of
Balerian contract workers in Islamabad. Thereafter, a
revolution broke out in Islamabad which is now
governed by a revolutionary junta. Most of Balerian
contract workers were arrested by Islamabad
Immigration officers for not having with them the
necessary papers and proper documents. Upon
learning of the incident, the government of Baleria
lodged a formal protest with the Islamabad
revolutionary government invoking certain provisions
of the aforementioned agreement. The latter replied,
however that the new government is not
internationally bound by the agreement that was
concluded by the former government of Islamabad
and Baleria. Moreover, Islamabad further contended
that the agreement was contrary to its plasmatic law.
Is the Islamabad revolutionary government under
obligation pursuant to international law, to comply
with what was agreed upon and set forth in the
agreement concluded between Baleria and its former
government? Reasons. (1985 Bar)
A: Yes. A new government is exempt from obligation of

treaties entered into by the previous government only with
respect to those whose subject matter is political in nature.
The facilitation of entry by Balerian contract workers to
Islamabad is non political. Hence, the treaty embodying
such agreement is binding on the new government of
Islamabad. Nor may the new government evade its

international obligation on the ground that the agreement
is contrary to its Plasmatic law. The rule is settled that a
state cannot evade its international obligation by invoking
its internal law. It is presumed that the treaty is in
conformity with its internal law.
D. Sovereignty
the supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in a
State by which that State is governed. May be legal
or political
KINDS:
1. Legal and Political Sovereignty
Legal -
the authority which has the power to issue final
commands
Congress is legal sovereign
Political -
the power behind the legal sovereign, or the sum of
the influences that operate upon it
the different sectors molding public opinion
2. Internal and External Sovereignty
Internal
the power of a State to control its internal affairs
External -
the power of the State to direct its relations with
other States
also called Independence
Characteristics of Sovereignty
1. permanent
2. exclusivity
3. comprehensiveness
4. absoluteness
5. individuality
6. inalienability
7. imprescriptibility
Q: What happens to sovereignty if the acts of

authority cannot be exercised by the legitimate
authority?
A: Sovereignty not suspended.
EX.: Japanese Occupation during WWII

Sovereignty remained with the US
Japanese merely took over the exercise of acts of
sovereignty
Q: In this case, what are the effects on the laws?
A: Political Laws -
GR: Suspended!
Subject to revival under jus postliminium i.e., once
the legitimate authority returns, the political laws are
revived
Jus Postliminium roman law concept. If a Roman

Citizen is captured, he loses his rights as a Roman
citizen, but once he returns to Rome, he recovers all
those rights again
XPN:
(a) Laws of Treason Not suspended!
Preservation of allegiance to sovereign does not
demand positive action, but only a passive attitude or
forbearance from adhering to the enemy by giving the
latter aid and comfort (Laurel v. Misa)
(b) Combatants not covered by said rule

Thus, AFP members still covered by National

Defense Act, Articles of War, etc. (Ruffy v. Chief of
Staff)
Rule applies only to civilians
Civil Laws:
GR: Remains in force
XPN: Amended or superseded by affirmative act of
belligerent occupant
Q: What happens to judicial decisions made during

the occupation?
A: Those of a Political Complexion
automatically annulled upon restoration of legitimate
authority
conviction for treason against the belligerent
Non-political
remains valid
EX.: Conviction for defamation
EFFECTS OF A CHANGE IN SOVEREIGNTY

1. Political Laws are deemed ABROGATED.
Q: Why?
A: They govern relations between the State and the
people.
2. Non-Political Laws generally continue in operation.

Q: Why?
A: Regulates only private relations
XPN:
(a) Changed by the new sovereign
(b) Contrary to institutions of the new sovereign
Q: What is the effect of change of sovereignty when

the Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S.?
A: The effect is that the political laws of the former

sovereign are not merely suspended but abrogated. As
they regulate the relations between the ruler and the rules,
these laws fall to the ground ipso facto unless they are
retained or re-enacted by positive act of the new
sovereign. Non-political laws, by contrast, continue in
operation, for the reason also that they regulate private
relations only, unless they are changed by the new
sovereign or are contrary to its institutions.
Q: What is the effect of Japanese occupation to the

sovereignty of the U.S. over the Philippines?
A: Sovereignty is not deemed suspended although acts of

sovereignty cannot be exercised by the legitimate
authority. Thus, sovereignty over the Philippines
remained with the U.S. although the Americans could not
exercise any control over the occupied territory at the time.
What the belligerent occupant took over was merely the
exercise of acts of sovereignty.
Q: Distinguish between Spanish secession to the U.S.

and Japanese occupation during WWII regarding the
political laws of the Philippines.
A: There being no change of sovereignty during the

belligerent occupation of Japan, the political laws of the
occupied territory are merely suspended, subject to revival
under jus postliminium upon the end of the occupation. In
both cases, however, non-political laws, remains effective.
NOTES:
Members of the armed forces are still covered by the
National Defense Act, the Articles of War and other laws
relating to the armed forces even during the Japanese
occupation.
A person convicted of treason against the Japanese

Imperial Forces was, after the occupation, entitled to be
released on the ground that the sentence imposed on him
for his political offense had ceased to be valid but not on
non-political offenses.
Q: May an inhabitant of a conquered State be

convicted of treason against the legitimate sovereign
committed during the existence of belligerency?
A: YES. Although the penal code is non-political law, it is

applicable to treason committed against the national
security of the legitimate government, because the
inhabitants of the occupied territory were still bound by
their allegiance to the latter during the enemy occupation.
Since the preservation of the allegiance or the obligation
of fidelity and obedience of a citizen or subject to his
government or sovereign does not demand from him a
positive action, but only passive attitude or forbearance
from adhering to the enemy by giving the latter aid and
comfort, the occupant has no power, as a corollary of the
preceding consideration, to repeal or suspend the
operation of the law of treason.
Q: Was there a case of suspended allegiance during

the Japanese occupation?
A: None. Adoption of the petitioner's theory of suspended

allegiance would lead to disastrous consequences for
small and weak nations or states, and would be repugnant
to the laws of humanity and requirements of public
conscience, for it would allow invaders to legally recruit or
enlist the quisling inhabitants of the occupied territory to
fight against their own government without the latter
incurring the risk of being prosecuted for treason. To
allow suspension is to commit political suicide.
Q: Is sovereignty really absolute?
A: In the domestic sphere YES! In international sphere

NO!
Taada, et al. vs. Angara, et al.

[GR 118295, 02 May 1997]
While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed absolute

and all-encompassing on the domestic level, it is however
subject to restrictions and limitations voluntarily agreed to
by the Philippines, expressly or impliedly, as a member of
the family of nations.
By the doctrine of incorporation, the country is bound by

generally accepted principles of international law, which
are considered to be automatically part of our own laws.
One of the oldest and most fundamental rules in

international law is pacta sunt servanda international
agreements must be performed in good faith.
A treaty engagement is not a mere moral obligation but

creates a legally binding obligation on the parties. By their
inherent nature, treaties limit or restrict the absoluteness
of sovereignty. By their voluntary act, nations may
surrender some aspects of their state power in exchange
for greater benefits granted by or derived from a
convention or pact.
States, like individuals, live with coequals, and in pursuit of

mutually covenanted objectives and benefits, they also
commonly agree to limit the exercise of their otherwise
absolute rights.
Thus, a states sovereignty cannot in fact and in reality be

considered absolute. Certain restrictions enter into the
picture:
Limitations imposed by the very nature of membership in

the family of nations; and
Limitations imposed by treaty stipulations.
Thus, when the Philippines joined the UN as one of its 51

charter members, it consented to restrict its sovereign
rights under the concept of sovereignty as AUTO-
LIMITATION.
The underlying consideration in this partial surrender of

sovereignty is the reciprocal commitment of the other
contracting states in granting the same privilege and
immunities to the Philippines, its officials and its citizens.
Clearly, a portion of sovereignty may be waived without

violating the Constitution, based on the rationale that the
Philippines adopts the generally accepted principles of
international law as part of the law of the land and adheres
to the policy of . . . cooperation and amity with all nations.
Principle of State Continuity
State is not lost when one of its elements is changed; it is

lost only when at least one of its elements is destroyed.
State does not lose its identity but remains one and the
same international person notwithstanding changes in the
form of its government, territory, people, or sovereignty.
See Holy See vs. Rosario (238 SCRA 524)
From the moment of its creation, the State continues as a

juristic being, despite changes in its elements. EX.:
(1) Reduction of population due to natural calamity
(2) Changes in territory
However, the disappearance of any of the elements
causes the extinction of the state.
Q: In the famous Sapphire Case, Emperor Louis

Napoleon filed damage suit on behalf of France in an
American Court, but he was deposed and replaced as

head of State pendent elite. Was the action abated?
(Bar)
A: No, because it had in legal effect been filed by France,

whose legal existence had not been affected by change in
head of its government. Napoleon had sued not in his
personal capacity but officially as sovereign of France.
Hence, upon recognition of the duly authorized
representative of the new government, the litigation could
continue.
RIGHTS OF THE STATE
Fundamental Rights of States [ S P E E D ]

1. Right to Sovereignty and Independence;
2. Right to Property and Jurisdiction;
3. Right to Existence and Self-Defense
4. Right to Equality
5. Right to Diplomatic Intercourse
RIGHT OF EXISTENCE AND SELF-DEFENSE

The most elementary and important right of a State
All other rights flow from this right
Recognized in the UN Charter, Article 51:
Nothing in the present charter shall impair the inherent

right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed
attack occurs against a Member of the UN, until the SC
has taken measures necessary to maintain international
peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the
exercise of this right of self-defense shall be
immediately reported to the SC and shall not in any way
affect the authority and responsibility of the SC under
the present Charter to take at any time such action as it
deems necessary in order to maintain or restore
international peace and security.
Art. II, Sec. 2 The Philippines renounces war as an

instrument of national policy
This prohibits an offensive/aggressive war
But, it allows DEFENSIVE WAR!
Thus, when attacked, the Philippines can exercise its
inherent right of existence and self-defense
This right is a generally accepted principle of
international law thus, it is part of our law of the land,
under the Incorporation Clause (Art. II, Sec. 2, 1987
Constitution)
Q: State the occasions when the use of force may be

allowed under the UN Charter.
A: There are only two occasions when the use of force is

allowed under the UN Charter. The first is when it is
authorized in pursuance of the enforcement action that
may be decreed by the Security Council under Art. 42.
The second is when it is employed in the exercise of the
inherent right of self-defense under conditions prescribed
in Art. 51. (Justice Isagani A. Cruz, in an article entitled A
New World Order written in his column Separate
Opinion published in the March 30, 2003 issue of the
Philippines Daily Inquirer)
Q: Not too long ago, allied forces, led by Amercian

and British armed forces, invaded Iraq to liberate
Iraqis and destroy suspected weapons of mass
destruction. The Security Council of the United
Nations failed to reach a consensus on whether to
support or oppose the war of liberation. Can the
action taken by the allied forces find justification in
International Law? Explain. (2003 Bar)
A: The United States and its allied forces cannot justify

their invasion of Iraq on the basis of self-defense under
Article 51, attack by Iraq, and there was no necessity for
anticipatory self-defense which may be justified under
customary international law. Neither can they justify their

invasion on the ground that Article 42 of the Charter of the
United Nations permits the use of force against a State if it
is sanctioned by the Security Council. Resolution 1441,
which gave Iraq a final opportunity to disarm or face
serious consequences, did not authorize the use of armed
force.
Alternative A: In International Law, the action taken by

the allied forces cannot find justification. It is covered by
the prohibition against the use of force prescribed by the
United Nations Charter and it does not fall under any of
the exceptions to that prohibition.
The UN Charter in Article 2(4) prohibits the use of force in

the relations of states by providing that all members of the
UN shall refrain in their international relations from the
threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or
political independence of any state, or in any other manner
inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.
This mandate does not only outlaw war; it encompasses
all threats of and acts of force or violence short of war.
As thus provided, the prohibition is addressed to all UN

members. However, it is now recognized as a
fundamental principle in customary international law and,
as such, is binding on all members of the international
community.
The action taken by the allied forces cannot be justified

under any of the three exceptions to the prohibition
against the use of force which the UN Charter allows.
These are: (1) inherent right of individual or collective self-
defense under Article 51; (2) enforcement measure
involving the use of armed forces by the UN Security
Council under Article 42; and (3) enforcement measure by
regional arrangement under Article 53, as authorized by
the UN Security Council. The allied forces did not launch
military operations and did not occupy Iraq on the claim

that their action was in response to an armed attacked by
Iraq, of which there was none.
Moreover, the action of the alleged allied forces was taken

in defiance or disregard of the Security Council Resolution
No. 1441 which set up an enhanced inspection regime
with the aim of bringing to full and verified completion the
disarmament process, giving Iraq a final opportunity to
comply with its disarmament obligations. This resolution
was in the process of implementation; so was Iraqs
compliance with such disarmament obligations.
Q: On 31 October 2001, members of Ali Baba, a

political extremist organization based in and under the
protection of Country X and espousing violence
worldwide as a means of achieving its objective,
planted high-powered explosives and bombs at the
International Trade Tower (ITT) in Jewel City in
Country Y, a member of the United Nations. As a
result of the bombing and the collapse of the 100-
story twin towers, about 2000 people, including
women and children were killed or injured and billions
of dollars in property were lost.
Immediately after the incident, Ali Baba, speaking

through its leader Bin Derdandat, admitted and owned
responsibility for the bombing of ITT, saying that it
was done to pressure Country Y to release captured
members of the terrorist group. Ali Baba threatened
to repeat its terrorist acts against Country Y if the
latter and its allies failed to accede to Ali Babas
demands. In response, Country Y demanded that
Country X surrender and deliver Bin Derdandat to the
government authorities of Country Y for the purpose
of trial and in the name of justice. Country X refused
to accede to the demand of Country Y.
What action or actions can Country Y legally take

against Ali Baba and Country X to stop the terrorist
activities of Ali Baba and dissuade Country X from
harboring and giving protection to the terrorist
organization? Support your answer with reasons.
(2002 Bar)
A: (1) Country Y may exercise the right of self-defense, as

provided under Article 51 of the UN Charter until the
Security Council has taken measure necessary to
maintain international peace and security. Self-defense
enables Country Y to use force against Country X as well
as against the Ali Baba organization.
(2) It may bring the matter to the Security Council which

may authorize sanctions against Country X, including
measure invoking the use of force. Under Article 4 of the
UN Charter, Country Y may use force against Country X
as well as against the Ali Baba organization by authority of
the UN Security Council.
Alternative A: Under the Security Council Resolution No.

1368, the terrorist attack of Ali Baba may be defined as a
threat to peace, as it did in defining the 11 September
2001 attacks against the United States. The resolution
authorizes military and other actions to respond to terrorist
attacks. However, the use of military force must be
proportionate and intended for the purpose of detaining
the persons allegedly responsible for the crime and to
destroy military objectives used by the terrorists.
The fundamental principles of international humanitarian

law should be respected. Country Y cannot be granted
sweeping discretionary powers that include the power to
decide what states are behind the terrorist organizations.
It is for the Security Council to decide whether force may
be used against specific states and under what conditions
the force may be used.
Q: Is the United States justified in invading Iraq

invoking its right to defend itself against an expected
attack by Iraq with the use of its biological and
chemical weapons of mass destruction?
A: The United States is invoking its right to defend itself
against an expected attack by Iraq with the use of its
biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction.
There is no evidence of such a threat, but Bush is
probably invoking the modern view that a state does not
have to wait until the potential enemy fires first. The
cowboy from Texas says that outdrawing the foe who is
about to shoot is an act of self-defense.
Art. 51 says, however, that there must first be an armed

attack before a state can exercise its inherent right of self-
defense, and only until the Security Council, to which the
aggression should be reported, shall have taken the
necessary measures to maintain international peace and
security. It was the United States that made the armed
attack first, thus becoming the aggressor, not Iraq. Iraq is
now not only exercising its inherent right of self-defense as
recognized by the UN Charter. (Justice Isagani A. Cruz, in
an article entitled A New World Order written in his
column Separate Opinion published in the March 30,
2003 issue of the Philippines Daily Inquirer)
Q: Will the subsequent discovery of weapons of mass

destruction in Iraq after its invasion by the US justify
the attack initiated by the latter?
A: Even if Iraqs hidden arsenal is discovered or

actually used and the United States is justified in its
suspicions, that circumstance will not validate the
procedure taken against Iraq. It is like searching a person
without warrant and curing the irregularity with the
discovery of prohibited drugs in his possession. The
process cannot be reversed. The warrant must first be

issued before the search and seizure can be made.
The American invasion was made without permission from

the Security Council as required by the UN Charter. Any
subsequent discovery of the prohibited biological and
chemical weapons will not retroactively legalize that
invasion, which was, legally speaking, null and void ab
initio. (Justice Isagani A. Cruz, in an article entitled A
New World Order written in his column Separate
Opinion published in the March 30, 2003 issue of the
Philippines Daily Inquirer)
Q: State B, relying on information gathered by its

intelligence community to the effect that its neighbor,
State C, is planning an attack on its nuclear plan and
research institute, undertook a preventive attack in
certain bases on State C located near the border of
the two states. As a result, State C presented the
incident to the UN General Assembly but the latter
referred it to the UN Security Council as a matter,
which disturbs or threatens international peace and
security. State B argued that it was acting within the
legal bounds of Article 51 of the UN Charter and that it
was a permitted use of force in self-defense and
against armed attack. Is State B responsible under
International Law? Did State B act within the bounds
set forth in the UN Charter on the use of force in self-
defense? (1985 Bar)
A: An armed attack is not a requirement for the exercise of

the right of self-defense. However, the attack of State B
on State C cannot be justified as an act of self-defense
under Art. 51 of the UN Charter considering that the
danger perceived by State B was not imminent. State B
ought to have exhausted peaceful and pacific methods of
settlements instead of resorting to the use of force.
Q: Who can declare war?
A: No one! The Constitution has withheld this power from

the government. What the Constitution allows is a
declaration of a State of War. Under Art. VI, Sec. 23(1)
Congress, by a vote of 2/3 of both Houses, in joint
session assembled, voting separately, shall have the sole
power to declare the existence of a state of war. This
means that we are already under attack
Q: What are the effects when Congress declares a

state of war?
A: 1. Art. VI, Sec. 23 In times of warthe Congress

may, by law, authorize the President, for a limited period
and subject to such restrictions as it may prescribe, to
exercise powers necessary and proper to carry out a
declared national policy. Unless sooner withdrawn by
resolution of the Congress, such powers shall cease upon
the next adjournment thereof.
2. Art. VII, Sec. 18 The President shall be the

Commander-in-Chief of all armed forcesand whenever it
becomes necessary, he may call out such armed forces to
prevent or suppressinvasionIn case, invasionwhen
the public safety requires it, he may, for a period not
exceeding 60 days, suspend the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus or place the Philippines or any part thereof
under martial law
This is in line with the UN Charter, which also

renounces war
As charter-member of the UN, our Constitution also
renounces war as an instrument of national policy
RIGHTS OF SOVEREIGNTY AND INDEPENDENCE

Intervention
It is the dictatorial interference by a State in the internal

affairs of another State, or in the relations between other
States, which is either forcible or backed by the threat of
force.
Intervention is Different from Intercession

Intercession is allowed!
EX.: Diplomatic Protest, Tender of Advice
Generally Intervention is Prohibited (Drago Doctrine)

Prohibits intervention for the collection of contractual
debts, public or private
Formulated by Foreign Minister Luis Drago (Argentina),
in reaction to the Venezuelan Incident
Venezuelan Incident
In 1902, UK, Germany and Italy blockaded Venezuelan

ports to compel it to pay its contractual debts leading
Foreign Minister Drago to formulate a doctrine that a
public debt cannot give rise to the right of intervention.
This principle was later adopted in the Second Hague
Conference, but subject to the qualification that the debtor
state should not refuse or neglect to reply to an offer of
arbitration or after accepting the offer, prevent any
compromis from being agreed upon, or after the
arbitration, fail to submit to the award, the qualification is
known as the Porter resolution.
Pacific Blockade
one imposed during times of peace
were the countries at war, then a blockade is a
legitimate measure
in fact, a blockade must not be violated by a neutral
State
if breached, the neutral vessel is seized
WHEN INTERVENTION ALLOWED, Exceptions

1. Intervention as an Act of Individual and Collective Self-

Defense
2. Intervention by Treaty Stipulation or by Invitation
Intervention by Invitation
Presupposes that the inviting State is not a mere
puppet of the intervening State
EX.: Hungary
In 1956, Hungary was in internal turmoil, and asked
the Soviet forces to intervene
While the intervention was upon invitation, it was
still condemned because the Hungarian
government was a mere Soviet puppet
3. By UN Authorization and Resolution

EX.: 1. Korean War
In fact, it is UN itself that intervened
2. 1990 Iraqi Annexation of Kuwait

There was an SC Resolution, authorizing the US-
led multilateral force to intervene
4. On Humanitarian Grounds
This has recently evolved by international custom
Thus, has become a primary source of international
law
EX.: 1. Intervention in Somalia
2. Intervention in Bosnia and Kosovo

No UN Resolution, but NATO intervened militarily
Ground: There was ethnic cleansing by Serbs of
ethnic minorities
3. Intervention in East Timor

Purpose: To protect the East Timorese

Q: At the United Nations, the Arab League, through

Syria, sponsors a move to include in the agenda of the
General Assembly the discussion of this matter: The
Muslim population of Mindanao, Philippines has
expressed the desire to secede from the Republic of
the Philippines in order to constitute a separate and
independent state and has drawn attention to the
probability that the continuation of the armed conflict
in Mindanao constitutes a threat to peace. You are
asked by the Philippine Government to draft a
position paper opposing the move. Briefly outline
your arguments supporting the Philippine position,
specifically discussing the tenability of Arab Leagues
action from the standpoint of International Law. (1984
Bar)
A: The Muslim secessionist movement is not an

international dispute, which under Article 35(1) of the UN
Charter, a member of the United Nations may bring to the
attention of the Security Council or the General Assembly.
Such dispute can arise only between two or more States.
The attempt of the Arab League to place on the agenda of
the General Assembly the Muslim problem in Mindanao
can only be views as an interference with a purely
domestic affair.
When Use of Force is Allowed under the UN Charter

By UNSC Resolution Arts. 41 and 42
Art. 41 The SC may decide what measures not
involving the use of armed force are to be employed to
give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the
Members of the UN to apply such measures. These may
include complete or partial interruption of economic
relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and
other means of communication, and the severance of
diplomatic relations.
Art. 42 Should the SC consider that measures provided

for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be
inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land
forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore
international peace and security. Such action may include
demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air,
sea, or land forces of Members of the UN.
In the exercise of right of self-defense, against armed

attacks Art. 51:
Nothing in the present charter shall impair the inherent

right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed
attack occurs against a Member of the UN, until the SC
has taken measures necessary to maintain international
peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the
exercise of this right of self-defense shall be
immediately reported to the SC and shall not in any way
affect the authority and responsibility of the SC under
the present Charter to take at any time such action as it
deems necessary in order to maintain or restore
international peace and security.
NOTE: There is a limited definition of armed attacks

Nicargua v. United States
Nicaragua v. United States
195. In the case of individual self-defense, the exercise of

this right is subject to the State concerned having been the
victim of an armed attack. Reliance on collective self-
defense of course does not remove the need for this.
There appears now to be general agreement on the nature
of the acts which can be treated as constituting armed
attacks. In particular, it may be considered to be agreed
that an armed attack must be understood as including not
merely action by regular armed forces across an
international border, but also 'the sending by or on behalf
of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or

mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against
another State of such gravity as to amount to' (inter alia)
an actual armed attack conducted by regular forces, 'or its
substantial involvement therein'. This description,
contained in Article 3, paragraph (g), of the Definition of
Aggression annexed to General Assembly resolution 3314
(XXIX), may be taken to reflect customary international
law. The Court sees no reason to deny that, in customary
law, the prohibition of armed attacks may apply to the
sending by a State of armed bands to the territory of
another State, if such an operation, because of its scale
and effects, would have been classified as an armed
attack rather than as a mere frontier incident had it been
carried out by regular armed forces. But the Court does
not believe that the concept of 'armed attack' includes not
only acts by armed bands where such acts occur on a
significant scale but also assistance to rebels in the form
of the provision of weapons or logistical or other support.
Such assistance may be regarded as a threat or use of
force, or amount to intervention in the internal or external
affairs of other States.
RECOGNITION
3 LEVELS
A. Recognition of State
B. Recognition of Government
C. Recognition of Belligerency
RECOGNITION OF STATE
2 Schools of Thought
Constitutive School
- recognition is the act which gives to a political entity
international status as a State;
- it is only through recognition that a State becomes an
International Person and a subject of international law
- thus, recognition is a legal matternot a matter of
arbitrary will on the part of one State whether to
recognize or refuse to recognize another entity but

that where certain conditions of fact exist, an entity
may demand, and the State is under legal duty to
accord recognition
Declaratory School
- recognition merely an act that declares as a fact
something that has hitherto been uncertain
- it simply manifests the recognizing States readiness
to accept the normal consequences of the fact of
Statehood
- recognition is a political act, i.e., it is entirely a matter
of policy and discretion to give or refuse recognition,
and that no entity possesses the power, as a matter
of legal right, to demand recognition
- there is no legal right to demand recognition
- followed by most nations
recognition of a State has now been substituted to a

large extent by the act of admission to the United
Nations
it is the assurance given to a new State that it will be
permitted to hold its place and rank in the character of
an independent political organism in the society of
nations
Q: Explain, using example, the Declaratory Theory of

Recognition Principle. (1991 Bar)
A: The declaratory theory of recognition is a theory
according to which recognition of a state is merely an
acknowledgment of the fact of its existence. In other
words, the recognized state already exists and can exist
even without such recognition. For example, when other
countries recognize Bangladesh, Bangladesh already
existed as a state even without such recognition.
Q: Distinguish briefly but clearly between the

constitutive theory and the declaratory theory
concerning recognition of states. (2004 Bar)
A: The constitutive theory is the minority view which holds
that recognition is the last element that converts or
constitutes the entity being recognized into an
international person; while the declaratory theory is the
majority view that recognition affirms the pre-existing fact
that the entity being recognized already possesses the
status of an international person. In the former recognition
is regarded as mandatory and legal and may be
demanded as a matter of right by any entity that can
establish its possession of the four essential elements of a
state; while the latter recognition is highly political and
discretionary.
RECOGNITION OF GOVERNMENT
Recognition of Recognition of
Government State
As to Scope Does not Includes recognition
necessarily or government
signify that government an
recognition essential element of
of a State a State
to
government
may not be
independent
As to Revocable Generally,
Revocability irrevocable
Q: Distinguish recognition of State from recognition of

Government. (1975 Bar)
A: (1) Recognition of state carries with it the recognition of
government since the former implies that a state
recognized has all the essential requisites of a state at he

time recognition is extended.
(2) Once recognition of state is accorded, it is generally

irrevocable. Recognition of government, on the other
hand, may be withheld from a succeeding government
brought about by violent or unconstitutional means.
Criteria for Recognition

1. Objective Test
government should be EFFECTIVE and STABLE
government is in possession of State machinery
there is little resistance to its authority
2. Subjective Test
WILLINGNESS and ABILITY
the government is willing and able to discharge its
international obligations
2 Doctrines
Tobar or Wilson Doctrine

suggested by Foreign Minister Tobar (Ecuador);
reiterated by President Woodrow Wilson (US)
recognition is withheld from governments established
by revolutionary means revolution, civil war, coup
detat, other forms of internal violence, UNTIL, freely
elected representatives of the people have organized
a constitutional government
Estrada Doctrine
a reaction to the Tobar/Wilson Doctrine; formulated by
Mexican Foreign Minister Genaro Estrada
disclaims right of foreign states to rule upon
legitimacy of a government of a foreign State
a policy of never issuing any declaration giving
recognition to governments instead, it simply
accepts whatever government is in effective control
without raising the issue of recognition
Q: Distinguish briefly but clearly between the Wilson

doctrine and the Estrada doctrine regarding
recognition of governments. (2004 Bar)
A: In the Wilson or Tobar doctrine, a government
established by means revolution, civil war, coup d etat or
other forms of internal violence will not be recognized until
the freely elected representatives of the people have
organized a constitutional government, while in the
Estrada doctrine any diplomatic representatives in a
country where an upheaval has taken place will deal or not
deal with whatever government is in control therein at the
time and either action shall not be taken as a judgment on
the legitimacy of the said government.
Kinds of Recognition
Recognition De Jure Recognition

De Facto
As to Relatively permanent Provisional,
Duration
As to Effect Brings about full Limited to
on diplomatic certain
Diplomatic relations/intercourse juridical
Relations relations; for
instance, it
does not bring
about
diplomatic
immunities
As to Vests title to Does not vest
Effect on recognized such title
Properties government in
Abroad properties abroad
Recognition De Jure
Given to a government that satisfies both the objective

and subjective criteria
Recognition De Facto
Given to governments that have not fully satisfied
objective and subjective criteria
EX.: While wielding effective power, it might have not
yet acquired sufficient stability
Consequences of Recognition of Government

1. The recognized government or State acquires the
capacity to enter into diplomatic relations with
recognizing States and to make treaties with them
2. The recognized government or State acquires the right
of suing in the courts of law of the recognizing State
3. It is immune from the jurisdiction of the courts of law of
recognizing State
4. It becomes entitled to demand and receive possession
of property situated within the jurisdiction of a
recognizing State, which formerly belonged to the
preceding government at the time of its supercession
5. Its effect is to preclude the courts of recognizing State
from assign judgment on the legality of its acts, past and
future. Recognition being retroactive.
Thus, Act of State Doctrine now applies
Q: Who has the authority to recognize?

A: It is a matter to be determined according to the
municipal law of each State. In the Philippines, there is no
explicit provision in the Constitution which vests this power
in any department. But since under the Constitution, the
President is empowered to appoint and receive
ambassadors and public ministers, it is conceded that by
implication, it is the Executive Department that is primarily
endowed with the power to recognize foreign governments
and States. [Art. VII, 1987 Constitution]
The legality and wisdom of recognition accorded any

foreign entity is not subject to judicial review. The courts
are bound by the acts of political department of the
government. The action of the Executive in recognizing or
refusing to recognize a foreign State or government is
properly within the scope of judicial notice.
Q: Is the recognition extended by the President to a

foreign government subject to judicial review?
A: NO! It is purely a political question.
Marcos v. Manglapus
[GR 88211 15 Sept. 1989]
The Constitution limits resort to the political question

doctrine and broadens the scope of judicial inquiryBut
nonetheless there remain issues beyond the Courts
jurisdiction the determination of which is exclusively for the
PresidentWe cannot, for example, question the
Presidents recognition of a foreign government, no matter
how premature or improvident such action may appear...
ICMC vs. Calleja

[GR 85750, 28 Sept. 1990]
A categorical recognition by the Executive Branch that

ICMC enjoy immunitiesis a political question conclusive
upon the Courts in order not to embarrass a political
department of Government.
BELLIGERENCY
2 Senses of Belligerency
1. State of War between 2 or more States
Belligerency
the States at war are called Belligerent States
2. Actual Hostilities amounting to Civil War within a State

Insurgency
there is just 1 State
presupposes the existence of a rebel movement
Developments in a Rebel Movement
Insurgency Belligerency
a mere initial stage of more serious and
war. It involves a rebel widespread and
movement, and is presupposes the
usually not recognized existence of war
between 2 or more
states (1st sense) or
actual civil war within a
single state (2nd sense)
sanctions are governed governed by the rules on
by municipal law international law as the
Revised Penal Code, i.e. belligerents may be
rebellion given international
personality
Stage of Insurgency
Earlier/nascent/less-developed stage of rebellion
There is not much international complication
Matter of municipal law
EX.: Captured rebels are prosecuted for rebellion
Stage of Belligerency
A higher stage, as the stage of insurgency becomes
widespread
Already a matter of international law, not of municipal
law
EX.: Captures rebels must be treated like prisoners of
war; considered as combatants; hence, cannot be
executed
Note: Abu Sayaff is not a rebel group it is a mere bandit

group.
Requisites of Belligerency [COWS]

1. an organized civil government that has control and
direction over the armed struggle launched by the
rebels;
a provisional government
2. occupation of a substantial portion of the states

territory;
more or less permanent occupation
legitimate government must use superior military
force to dislodge the rebels
3. seriousness of the struggle, which must be so

widespread thereby leaving no doubt as to the outcome;
and
must be so widespread, leaving no doubt as to the
outcome
Q: Has the CPP/NPA and MILF complied with

these conditions?
A: NO! BUT, there are some indications they are

striving to meet the conditions. They executed
common criminals, after a trial. It is like saying they
have a government
Note: The maintenance of peace and order, and

administration of justice, are constituent functions of the
government
Camp Abu-BakrMILF almost had control of a

substantial portion of territory
government had to use all its military might and divert

its budget
CPP/NPA sends message that they are observing the
Laws of War
Captured soliders are announced as POWs; had Red
Cross representatives
4. willingness on the part of the rebels to observe the rules

and customs of war.
Q: Explain, using example, recognition of

belligerency. (1991 Bar)
A: Recognition of belligerency is the formal

acknowledgment by a third party of the existence of a
state of war between the central government and a portion
of that state. Belligerency exists when a sizable portion of
the territory of a state is under the effective control of an
insurgent community which is seeking to establish a
separate government and the insurgents are in de facto
control of a portion of the territory and population, have a
political organization, and are able to maintain such
control and conduct themselves according to the laws of
war. For example, Great Britain recognized a state of
belligerency in the United States during the Civil War.
Consequences of Recognition of Belligerents

1. Before recognition as such, it is the legitimate
government that is responsible for the acts of the rebels
affecting foreign nationals and their properties. Rebel
government is responsible for the acts of the rebels
affecting foreign nationals and properties;
2. Laws and customs of war in conducting the hostilities
must be observed;
EX.: cannot execute captured rebels, considered as
POWs
3. From the point of view of 3rd States, the effect of
recognition of belligerency is to put them under
obligation to observe strict neutrality and abide by the

consequences arising from that position.
must observe Laws of Neutrality
EX.:
1. must abstain from taking part in the hostilities;
2. most acquiesce to restrictions imposed by the
rebels, such as visit and search of its merchant
ships
4. Rebels are enemy combatants and accorded the rights
of prisoners of war. and
essentially, this means that there are 2 competing
governments in 1 country
5. On the side of the rebels, the recognition of belligerency
puts them under responsibility to 3rd States and to the
legitimate government for all their acts which do not
conform to the laws and customs of war.
FORMS OF RECOGNITION
1. Express
2. Implied
EX.; Proclamation by the legitimate government of a

blockade of ports held by the rebels
Done by Lincoln during the American Civil War

Q: What about peace talks?
A: NOT implied recognition. But, circumstances may
be such as to become an implied recognition
EX.: Holding peach talks in a foreign country. Rebels call
the foreign country a neutral state. If a mere
insurgency, it is a purely internal matter no need for
talks abroad
TERRITORY OF STATES
Territory Defined
Characteristics of Territory
Modes of Acquisition of Territory
(1) Dereliction/Abandonment
(2) Cession
(3) Conquest/Subjugation
(4) Prescription
(5) Erosion
(6) Revolution
(7) Natural Causes
COMPONENTS OF TERRITORY
(1) Territorial Domain
(2) Maritime and Fluvial Domain
a. Territorial Sea
b. Contiguous Zone
c. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
d. Continental Shelf
e. High Seas
(3) Aerial Domain
a. Air Space
b. Outer Space
b.
Territory
- the fixed and permanent portion on the earths
surface inhabited by the people of the state and over
which it has supreme authority
- consists of the portion of the surface of the globe on
which that State settles and over which it has
supreme authority
- an exercise of sovereignty, covering not only land, but
also the atmosphere as well
CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRITORY
1. Permanent
2. Definite/Indicated with Precision
Generally, the territorys limits define the States
jurisdiction
3. Big enough to sustain the population
4. Not so extensive as to be difficult to:
(1) Administer; and
(2) Defend from external aggression
Modes of Acquisition of Territory

(1) By Original Title
a. Discovery and Occupation
b. Accretion
c. Sector Principle
(2) By Derivative Title
a. Prescription
b. Cession
c. Conquest/Subjugation
Other Modes
(a) Dereliction/Abandonment
(b) Erosion
(c) Revolution
(d) Natural Causes
Discovery and Occupation

An original mode of acquisition of territory belonging to
no one terra nullius
land to be acquired must be terra nullius
Q: Today, few, if any places are terra nullius. Why is

this mode then important?
A: Past occupations are source of modern boundary
disputes
Q: When is a territory terra nullius?
A: Under the Old Concept a territory is not necessarily
uninhabited! A territory is terra nullius, if, even if
occupied, the people occupying it has a civilization that
falls below the European standard. This was the
justification for the Spanish colonization of the
Philippines, and the European colonization of Africa.
However, this old concept is no longer valid under
contemporary international law!
2 REQUISITES
(1) Discovery/Possession
Mere discovery gives only an Inchoate Right of

Discovery
Q: What is the effect of this right?
A: It bars other states, within a reasonable time,
from entering the territory, so that the discovering
state may establish a settlement therein an
commence administration and occupation. Once
the discovering state begins exercising sovereign
rights over the territory, the inchoate right ripens
and is perfected into a full title
Q: What if the discovering state fails to exercise

sovereign rights?
A: The inchoate title is extinguished, and the
territory becomes terra nullius again.
Q: How is this done and effected?

A: Possession must be claimed on behalf of the
State represented by the discoverer. It may then be
effected through a formal proclamation and the
symbolic act of raising the states national flag.
2. Effective Occupation
Does not necessarily require continuous display of
authority in every part of the territory claimed
Authority must be exercised as and when occasion
demands
Thus, when the territory is thinly populated and
uninhabited, very little actual exercise of sovereign
rights is needed in the absence of competition
Doctrine of Effective Occupation

discovery alone gives only an inchoate title; it must
be followed within a reasonable time by effective
occupation
effective occupation does not necessarily require
continuous display of authority in every part of the
territory claimed
an occupation made is valid only with respect to

and extends only to the area effectively occupied.
under the Principle of Effective Occupation, the
following doctrines/principles are no longer
applicable today:
a) Hinterland Doctrine
Occupation of coasts results to claim on the
unexplored interior
b) Right of Contiguity
Effective occupation of a territory makes the
possessors sovereignty extend over neighboring
territories as far as is necessary for the integrity,
security and defense of the land actually occupied
Prescription
acquisition of territory by an averse holding continued

through a long term of years
derivative mode of acquisition by which territory
belonging to 1 State is transferred to the sovereignty of
another State by reason of the adverse and
uninterrupted possession thereof by the latter for a
sufficiently long period of time
2 REQUISITES
a) continuous and undisturbed possession

Q: What if there are claims or protests to the
States possession?
A: NOT undisturbed!
b) lapse of a period of time

No rule as to length of time required
Question of fact
Q: What is the source of this right?

A: Roman principle of usucapio (long continued use of
real property ripened into ownership)
Cession
a derivative mode of acquisition by which territory
belonging to 1 State is transferred to the sovereignty of
another State in accordance with an agreement
between them
a bilateral agreement whereby one State transfers
sovereignty over a definite portion of territory to another
State
E.g. Treaty of cession (maybe an outcome of peaceful
negotiations [voluntary] or the result of war[forced])
2 KINDS:
1. Total Cession
- comprises the entirety of 1 States domain
- the ceding State is absorbed by the acquiring State
and ceases to exist
- EX.: Cession of Korea to Japan under the 22 Aug.
1910 Treaty
2. Partial Cession
- comprises only a fractional portion of the ceding
States territory
- cession of the Philippine Islands by Spain to the US in
the Treaty of Paris of 10 Dec. 1988
- Forms:
a) Treaty of Sale
EX.: (1) Sale by Russia of Alaska to US
(2) Sale by Spain of Caroline Islands to Germany
b) Free Gifts
EX: (1) Cession of a portion of the
Horse-Shoe Reef in Lake Erie
by UK to US
Conquest
derivative mode of acquisition whereby the territory of 1

State is conquered in the course of war and thereafter
annexed to and placed under the sovereignty of the
conquering State
the taking possession of hostile territory through military
force in time of war and by which the victorious
belligerent compels the enemy to surrender sovereignty
of that territory thus occupied
acquisition of territory by force of arms
however, conquest alone merely gives an inchoate right;
acquisition must be completed by formal act of
annexation
no longer regarded as lawful
UN Charter prohibits resort to threat or use of force
against a States territorial integrity or political
independence
Conquest is Different from Military or Belligerent

Occupation
Act whereby a military commander in the course of
war gains effective possession of an enemy territory
By itself, does not effect an acquisition of territory
Accretion
the increase in the land area of a State caused by the
operation of the forces of nature, or artificially, through
human labor
Accessio cedat principali (accessory follows the
principal) is the rule which, in general, governs all the
forms of accretion.
EX.: (1) Reclamation projects in Manila Bay
(2) Polders of the Netherlands
COMPONENTS OF TERRITORY
TERRITORIAL DOMAIN
The landmass where the people live
Internal Waters
These are bodies of water within the land boundaries of
a State, or are closely linked to its land domain, such
that they are considered as legally equivalent to national
land
includes: rivers, lakes and land-locked seas, canals,
and polar regions.
Rivers
Kinds of Rivers
(1) National Rivers
Lie wholly within 1 States territorial domain from

source to mouth
Belongs exclusively to that State
EX.: Pasig River
(2) Boundary Rivers

Separates 2 Different States
Belongs to both States:
If river is navigable the boundary line is the
middle of the navigable channel thalweg
If the river is not navigable the boundary line
is the midchannel
EX.: St. Lawrence River between US and Canada
(3) Multinational Rivers

Runs through several States
Forms part of the territory of the States through
which it passes
EX.: Congo River, Mekong River
(4) International Rivers
navigable from the open sea, and which separate

or pass through several States between their
sources and mouths
In peacetime, freedom of navigation is allowed or
recognized by conventional international law
Lakes and Land-locked Seas

If entirely enclosed by territory of 1 state: Part of that
States territory
If surrounded by territories of several States: Part of the
surrounding States
Canals
Artificially constructed waterways
GR: Belongs to the States territory
XPN: Important Inter-Oceanic Canals governed by
Special Regime
(1) Suez Canal
(2) Panama Canal
Historic Waters
Waters considered internal only because of existence of
a historic title, otherwise, should not have that charater
EX.: Bay of Cancale in France
MARITIME AND FLUVIAL DOMAIN

Zones of the Sea
- Waters adjacent to the coasts of a State to a specified
limit
1. Territorial Sea
comprises in the marginal belt adjacent to the land

area or the coast and includes generally the bays,
gulfs and straights which do not have the character of
historic waters (waters that are legally part of the
internal waters of the State)
portion of the open sea adjacent to the States shores,

over which that State exercises jurisdictional control
Basis necessity of self-defense

Effect territorial supremacy over the territorial sea,
exclusive enjoyment of fishing rights and other coastal
rights
BUT: Subject to the RIGHT OF INNOCENT
PASSAGE (a foreign State may exercise its right of
innocent passage)
Q: When is passage innocent?
A: When it is not prejudicial to the peace, good order,
or security of the coastal State
Right of Innocent Passage

The right of continuous and expeditious navigation of a
foreign shop through a States territorial sea for the
purpose of traversing that sea without entering the internal
waters or calling at a roadstead or port facility outside the
internal waters, or proceeding to or from internal waters or
a call at such roadstead or port facility
Q: Explain Innocent Passage. (1991 Bar)

A: Innocent passage means the right of continuous and
expeditious navigation of a foreign ship through the
territorial sea of a State for the purpose of traversing that
sea without entering the internal waters or calling at a
roadstead or port facility outside internal water or
proceeding to or from internal waters or a call at such
roadstead or port facility. The passage is innocent so long
as it is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or security
of the coastal State.
Extent and Limitations of Right of Innocent Passage

Extends to ALL ships merchant and warships
Submarines must navigate on the surface and show
their flag
Nuclear-powered ships, ships carrying nuclear and

dangerous substances must carry documents and
observe special safety measures
Q: En route to
the tuna
fishing
grounds in
the Pacific
Ocean, a
vessel
registered in Country TW entered the Balintang
Channel north of Babuyan Island and with special
hooks and nets dragged up red corrals found near
Batanes. By International Convention certain corals
are protected species. Just before the vessel reached
the high seas, the Coast Guard patrol intercepted the
vessel and seized its cargo including tuna. The master
of the vessel and the owner of the cargo protested,
claiming the rights of transit passage and innocent
passage, and sought recovery of the cargo and the
release of the ship. Is the claim meritorious or not?
Reason briefly. (2004 Bar)
A: The claim of the master of the vessel and the owner of

the cargo is not meritorious. Although their claim of transit
passage and innocent passage through the Balintang
Channel is tenable under the 1982 Convention on the Law
of the Sea, the fact that they attached special hooks and
nets to their vessel which dragged up red corrals is
reprehensible. The Balintang Channel is considered part
of our internal waters and thus is within the absolute
jurisdiction of the Philippine government. Being so, no
foreign vessel, merchant or otherwise, could exploit or
explore any of our natural resources in any manner of
doing so without the consent of our government.
Q: What is the extent of the territorial sea?

A: 1. Formerly, 3 nautical miles from the low water mark
based on the theory that this is all that a State could
defend. This has been practically abandoned.
2. 1982 Convention of the Law of the Sea provides the

maximum limit of 12 nautical miles from the baseline.
Q: What is the baseline?
A: Depends on the method:

1. Normal Baseline Method
Territorial sea is drawn from the low-water mark.
Q: What is the low-water mark?
A: The line on the shore reached by the sea at low
tide. Otherwise known as the baseline.
2. Straight Baseline Method

A straight line is drawn across the sea, from headland
to headland, or from island to island. That straight line
then becomes the baseline from which the territorial
sea is measured.
Q: What happens to the waters inside the line?
A: Considered internal waters. However, the baseline

must not depart to any appreciable extent from the
general direction of the coast
Q: When is this used?
A: When the coastline is deeply indented, or when
there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its
immediate vicinity.
Distinguish briefly but clearly between the territorial

sea and the internal waters of the Philippines. (2004
Bar)
Territorial water is defined by historic right or treaty limits

while internal water is defined by the archipelago doctrine.
The territorial waters, as defined in the Convention on the
Law of the Sea, has a uniform breadth of 12 miles
measured from the lower water mark of the coast; while
the outermost points of our archipelago which are
connected with baselines and all waters comprised therein
are regarded as internal waters.
2. Contiguous Zone
zone adjacent to the territorial sea, over which the
coastal State may exercise such control as is necessary
to:
Prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal,
immigration or sanitary laws within its territory or
territorial sea;
Punish such infringement
extends to a maximum of 24 nautical miles from the
baseline from which the territorial sea is measured.
3. Exclusive Economic Zone

a maximum zone of 200 nautical miles from the baseline
from which the territorial sea is measured, over which,
the coastal State exercises sovereign rights over all the
economic resources of the sea, sea-bed and subsoil
Rights of other States in the EEZ

(a) Freedom of navigation and overflight
(b) Freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines
(c) Freedom to engage in other internationally lawful
uses of the sea related to said functions
Rights of Land-locked States

Right to participate, on an equitable basis, in the
exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the
living resources of the EEZ of the coastal States of the
same sub-region or region
Distinguish briefly but clearly between the contiguous

zone and exclusive economic zone. (2004 Bar)
The contiguous zone is the area which is known as the
protective jurisdiction and starts from 12th nautical mile
from low water mark (baseline), while the EEZ is the area
which ends at the 200th nautical mile from the baseline. In
the latter, no state really has exclusive ownership of it but
the state which has a valid claim on it according to the UN
Convention on the Law of the Seas agreement has the
right to explore and exploit its natural resources; while in
the former the coastal state may exercise the control
necessary to a) prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal
immigration or sanitary regulations within its territory b)
punish infringement of the above regulations within its
territory or territorial sea.
Q: Enumerate the rights of the coastal state in the

exclusive economic zone. (2005, 2000 Bar)
A: The following are the rights of the coastal state in the
exclusive economic zone:
1. sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and
exploiting, conserving and managing the living and non-
living resources in the superjacent waters of the sea-
bed and the resources of the sea-bed and subsoil;
2. sovereign rights with respect to the other activities for
the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone or
EEZ, such as production of energy from water, currents

and winds;
3. jurisdictional right with respect to establishment and use
of artificial islands;
4. jurisdictional right as to protection and preservation of
the marine environment; and
5. jurisdictional right over marine scientific research
6. other rights and duties provided for in the Law of the
Sea Convention. (Article 56, Law of the Sea
Convention)
These treaty provisions form part of the Philippine Law,

the Philippines being a signatory to the UNCLOS.
4. Continental Shelf
Q: Explain the meaning of continental shelf. (1991 Bar)

A: The continental shelf comprises the seabed and subsoil
of the submarine areas that extend beyond the territorial
sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory
to the outer edge of the continental margin; or to a
distance of more than 200 nautical miles from the
baselines form which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured where the outer edge of the continental shelf
does not extend up to that distance.
Rights of the Coastal State

sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and
exploiting its natural resources
rights are exclusive if the State does not explore or
exploit the continental shelf, no one may do so
without its express consent
Archipelagic Doctrine
2 Kinds of Archipelagos:
1. Coastal Archipelago
situated close to a mainland, and may be

considered part of such mainland
2. Mid-Ocean Archipelago
groups of islands situated in the ocean at such
distance from the coasts of firm land (mainland)
EX.: Philippines
emphasizes the unity of land and waters by
defining an archipelago either as:
A group of island surrounded by waters; or
A body of water studded with islands
thus, baselines are drawn by connecting the
appropriate points of the outermost islands to encircle
the islands within the archipelago.
Rules Governing the Baselines

(a) Such baselines should not depart radically from the
general direction of the coast, or from the general
configuration of the archipelago
(b) Within the baselines are included the main islands an
area with a maximum water area to land area ratio of
9:1
(c) Length of baselines shall not exceed 1nautical
miles
XPN: Up to 3% of the total number of baselines may
have a maximum length of 125 nautical miles
Effect of the Baselines

(a) The waters inside the baselines are considered
internal waters;
(b) The territorial sea, etc. are measured from such
baselines;
(c) Archipelagic State exercises sovereign rights over all
the waters enclosed by the baselines
Limitation Archipelagic Sealanes

Archipelagic State must designate sea lands an air

route for the continuous and expeditious passage of
foreign ships and aircraft through or over its archipelagic
waters and adjacent territorial sea
Passage only for continuous, expeditious, and
unobstructed transit between 1 part of the high
seas or an EEX to another part of the high seas or
an EEZ
Q: What if none are designated?
A: Right of archipelagic sealane passage may still
be exercised through the routes normally used for
international navigation
The Philippines adheres to the Archipelagic

Doctrine Art. I, 1987 Constitution:
The waters around, between, and connecting the
islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth
and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the
Philippines.
Also embodied in the 1982 Convention of the

Law of the Sea, Art. 47
UNCLOS became effective on 16 Nov. 1994,
after its ratification by more than the required 60 of
the signatory States
Q: What do you understand by the archipelagic

doctrine? Is this reflected in the 1987 Constitution?
(1989, 1979, 1975 Bar)
A: The archipelagic doctrine emphasizes the unity of land
and waters by defining an archipelago either as a group of
islands surrounded by waters or a body of water with
studded with islands. For this purpose, it requires that
baselines be drawn by connecting the appropriate points
of the outermost islands to encircle the islands within the
archipelago. The waters on the landward side of the
baselines regardless of breadth, or dimensions are merely

internal waters.
Article I, Sec. 1 of the Constitution provides that the

national territory of the Philippines includes the Philippine
archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced
therein; and the waters around, between, and connecting
the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth
and dimensions form part of the internal waters of the
Philippines.
5. The regime of the High Seas

belongs to everyone and to no one both res
commones and res nullius
everyone may enjoy the following rights over the high
seas:
(a) Navigation
(b) Fishing
(c) Scientific research
(d) Mining
(e) Laying of submarine cables or pipelines;
and
(f)other human activities in the open sea and the
ocean floor
the freedoms extend to the air space above the high
seas
Doctrine of Hot Pursuit

The pursuit of a foreign vessel undertaken by the
coastal State which has good reason to believe that the
ship has violated the laws and regulations of that State.
The pursuit must:
1. Be commenced when the ship is within the pursuing
States:
a. Internal Waters;
b. Territorial Sea; or
c. Contiguous Zone
2. May be continued outside such waters if the pursuit has

not been interrupted
3. Continuous and unabated
4. Ceases as soon as the foreign ship enters the territorial
sea of:
a. Its own State; or
b. That of a 3rd State
5. Be undertaken by:
a. Warships; or
b. Military aircraft; or
c. Other ships/aircraft cleared and identifiable as being
in the government service and authorized to that
effect
Also applies to violations of laws and regulations of the
coastal State applicable to the EEZ and to the
continental shelf.
Deep Sea Bed

The sea-bed beyond the continental shelf
Under the UNCLOS resources of the deep sea-bed
are reserved as the common heritage of mankind
Q: In the Pacific Ocean, while on its way to Northern

Samar to load copra, a Norweigian freighter collides
with Philippine Luxury Liner resulting in the death of
ten (10) Filipino passengers. Upon the Norweigian
vessels arrival in Catarman, Northern Samar, the
Norweigian captain and the helmsman assisting were
arrested and charged with multiple homicide through
reckless imprudence. Apart from filing a protest with
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Norweigian
Embassy, through a local counsel helps the accused
in filing a motion to quash. It is pointed out that the
incident happened on the high seas, the accused were
on board a Norweigian vessel and only a Norweigian
court can try the case even if the death occurred on a
Philippine ship. Resolve the motion stating the
reason for your decision. (1986 Bar)
A: The motion to quash should be sustained. In the Lotus

case [PCIJ Pub 198i2 Series A No 10 p.25], a French mail
steamer, Lotus, collided with a Turkish collier, Boz Kourt.
As a result, eight (8) Turkish subjects died. The collision
took place in the Aegean Sea, outside of Turkish territorial
waters. The Lotus proceeded to Constantinople where its
officers were tried and convicted for manslaughter. The
French government protested on the ground that Turkey
had no jurisdiction over an act committed on the high seas
by foreigners on board foreign vessels whose flag state
has exclusive jurisdiction as regards such acts. The
dispute was referred by agreement to the Permanent
Court of International Justice which held in a split decision
that Turkey had not acted in conflict with the principles of
International Law, because the act committed produced
affects on board the Boz Kourt under Turkish flag, and
thus on Turkish territory. The principle that vessels on the
high seas are subject to no authority except that the flag
State whose flag they fly was thus affirmed.
NOTE: Justice Jorge Coquia, in his book however, opined

that the ruling in the Lotus case is no longer controlling in
view of Art. 97 of the UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea which provides that in the event of collision or any
other incident of navigation concerning a ship on the high
seas, involving the penal or disciplinary responsibility of
the master or any other person in the service of the ship,
the penal or disciplinary proceedings may be instituted
only before State of which such person is a national. For
this purpose, no arrest or detention of the ship, even as a
measure of navigation shall be ordered by the authorities
other than those of the flag state.
Freedom of Navigation
the right to sail ships on the seas which is open to all
States and land-locked countries
General Rule: vessels sailing on the high seas are

subject only to international law and the laws of the flag
state
Exceptions: a) foreign merchant ships violating the

laws of the coastal State; b) pirate ships; c) slave trade
ships; d) any ship engaged in unauthorized
broadcasting; and e) ships without nationality, or flying a
false flag or refusing to show its flag.
Flag State
the State whose nationality (ships registration) the ship
possesses, for it is nationality which gives the right to fly a
countrys flag
Flags of Convenience
registration of any ship in return for a payment fee
Q: Distinguish briefly but clearly between the flag

state and the flag of convenience. (2004 Bar)
A: Flag state means a ship has the nationality of the flag
state it flies, but there must be a genuine link between the
state and the ship. (Article 91 of the Convention of the
Law of the Sea.) Flag of convenience refers to a state with
which a vessel is registered for various reasons such as
low or non-existent taxation or low operating costs
although the ship has no genuine link with that state.
(Harris, Cases and Materilas on International Law, 5th ed.,
1998, p. 425.)
AERIAL DOMAIN
the airspace above the territorial and maritime domains
of the State, to the limits of the atmosphere
does not include the outer space
1. Air Space
the air space above the States terrestrial and maritime
territory
Every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty

over the air space above its territory
Convention on International Civil Aviation Territory
includes terrestrial and maritime territory
thus, includes air space above territorial sea
NOTE: NO right of innocent passage!
the air space above the high seas is open to all aircraft,
just as the high seas is accessible to ships of all States
- the State whose aerial space is violated can take
measures to protect itself, but it does not mean that
States have an unlimited right to attack the intruding
aircraft (intruding aircraft can be ordered either to
leave the States air space or to land)
Q: What are the 5 air freedoms?

A:
(a) overflight without landing;
(b) landing for non-traffic purposes;
(c) put down traffic from state to airline;
(d) embark traffic destined for state of aircraft; and
(e) embark traffic or put down traffic to or from a third
state
2. Outer Space (res commones)

the space beyond the airspace surrounding the earth or
beyond the national airspace, which is completely
beyond the sovereignty of any State
the moon and the other celestial bodies form part of the
outer space (Moon Treaty of 1979)
thus, it is not subject to national appropriation
free for all exploration and use by all States and cannot
be annexed by any State
governed by a regime similar to that of the high seas
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States

in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (Outer
Space Treaty)
Outer Space is free for exploration and use by States
Cannot be annexed by any State

Its use and exploration must be carried out for the
benefit of all countries and in accordance with
international law
Celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful
purposes
Nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction
shall not be placed in orbit around the earth
Q: What is the boundary between the air space and

the outer space?
A: No accepted answer yet! There are different opinions:
1. That it should be near the lowest altitude (perigee) at
which artificial earth satellites can remain in orbit without
being destroyed by friction with the air around 190 km
from earths surface
2. Theoretical limit of air flights is 90 km above the earth
3. Functional Approach
The legal regime governing space activities are
based, not on a boundary line, but on the nature of
the activities
Q: What is outer space? Who or which can exercise

jurisdiction over astronauts while in outer space?
(2003 Bar)
A: There are several schools of thought regarding the
determination of outer space, such as the limit of air flight,
the height of atmospheric space, infinity, the lowest
altitude of an artificial satellite, and an altitude
approximating aerodynamic lift. Another school of thought
proceeds by analogy to the law of the sea. It proposes
that a State should exercise full sovereignty up to the
height to which an aircraft can ascend. Non-militant flight
instrumentalities should be allowed over a second area, a
contiguous zone of 300 miles. Over that should be outer
space. The boundary between airspace and outer space
has not yet been defined. (Harris, Cases and Materials on

International Law, 5th Ed., pp. 251-253) Under Article 8 of
the Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of
States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,
Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, a State on
whose registry an object launched into outer space retains
jurisdiction over the astronauts while they are in outer
space.
Alternative A: Outer space is the space beyond the

airspace surrounding the Earth or beyond the national
airspace. In law, the boundary between outer space and
airspace has remained undetermined. But in theory, this
has been estimated to be between 80 to 90 kilometers.
Outer space in this estimate begins from the lowest
altitude an artificial satellite can remain in orbit. Under the
Moon Treaty of 1979, the moon and the other celestial
bodies form part of outer space.
In outer space, the space satellites or objects are under

the jurisdiction of States of registry which covers
astronauts and cosmonauts. This matter is covered by the
Registration of Objects in Space Convention of 1974 and
the Liability for Damage Caused by Spaced Objects
Convention of 1972.
Q: May the USA lay exclusive claim over the moon,

having explored it and having planted her flag therein
to the exclusion of other states? Explain. (1979 Bar)
A: No, because the outer space and celestial bodies found
therein including the moon are not susceptible to the
national appropriation but legally regarded as res
communes.
THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations

Formation of the United Nations
Purpose of United Nations
Principles of United Nations
Membership
Principal Organs
Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations
THE UNITED NATIONS

It is an international organization created at the San
Francisco Conference which was held in the United States
from April 25 to June 26, 1945. The U.N., as it is
commonly called, succeeded the League of Nations and is
governed by a Charter which came into force on October
24, 1945. composed originally of only 51 members, the
UN has grown rapidly to include most of the states in the
world.
Who was the advocate of forming the UN?

In his famous Fourteen Points for the peace settlement,
Woodrow Wilson called for the establishment of a
general association of nations for world peace under
specific covenants for mutual guarantees of political
independence and territorial integrity to large and small
States alike. And so, the League of Nations was formed.
Who coined the name UN?

It was President Roosevelt who suggested early in 1942
the name UN for the group of countries which were
fighting the Axis powers.
What are the principal purposes of the UN?

1. To maintain international peace and security
2. To develop friendly relations among nations
3. To achieve international cooperation in solving

international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian
problems
4. To promote respect for human rights
5. To be a center of harmonizing the actions of nations
towards those common goals.
What are the principles of the UN?

1. All its members are equal and all are committed to fulfill
in good faith their obligations under the Charter
2. To settle their disputes with each other by peaceful
means
3. To refrain form the threat or use of force in their
international relations
4. To refrain from assisting any State against which the UN
is taking preventive or enforcement action.
2 Kinds of Membership
a. Original
b. Elective those subsequently admitted upon the
recommendation of the UN Security Council.
Qualifications for Membership

1. Must be State
2. Must be Peace-loving
3. Must accept the obligations as member
4. In the judgment of the Organization, be able and
willing to carry out such obligation.
How is Admission conducted?

1. Recommendation of a qualified majority in the Security
Council
- The affirmative vote of at least 9 members including
the Big 5.
2. Approval of the General Assembly (GA) by a vote of at
least 2/3 of those present and voting.
Note: Both SC and GA votes must be complied with.

Suspension of Membership
Suspension may occur when a preventive or enforcement
action has been taken by the SC. The SC may, by a
qualified majority, recommend suspension to the GA who
shall in turn concur with a 2/3 vote of those present and
voting.
Discipline does not suspend the members obligations but

only the exercise of its rights and privileges as a member.
Only the SC may lift the suspension by a qualified
majority.
Expulsion of a Member
The penalty of expulsion may be imposed upon a member
which has persistently violated the principles in the UN
Charter. Same voting requirement as to suspension.
Withdrawal of Membership Indonesia Case

The Charter is silent regarding withdrawal of membership.
In 1985, Indonesia withdrew its membership from the UN
and it was not compelled to remain. Subsequently, upon
President Sukarnos overthrow, Indonesia resumed its
membership, which was accepted by the UN.
The Principal Organs

1. General Assembly (GA)
2. Security Council (SC)
3. Economic and Social Council (ESC)
4. Trusteeship Council (TC)
5. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
6. Secretariat
Subsidiary Organs those which was created by the

Charter itself or which it allows to be created whenever
necessary by the SC or GA.
1. Little Assembly Interim Committee, created in 1947 for
a term of one eyar and re-established in 1949 for an
indefinite term. Composed of one delegate for each

member-state, it meets when the General Assembly is
in recess and assists this body in the performance of its
functions.
2. Military Staff Committee
3. Human Rights Commission
Specialized Agencies not part of the UN, but have

been brought into close contact with it because of their
purposes and functions, such as:
1. World Health Organization
2. International Monetary Fund
3. Technical Assistance Board
Proposals for Amendments to the UN Charter and

Ratification
2 ways of adopting proposals:
a. directly, by 2/3 votes of all GA members
b. by 2/3 of a general conference called for this purpose
by 2/3 of the GA and any 9 members of the SC.
Any amendment thus proposed shall be subject to

ratification by at least 2/3 of the GA, including the
permanent members of the SC.
UN General Assembly
This is the central organ of the UN. The principal

deliberative body of the organization and is vested with
jurisdiction over matters concerning the internal machinery
and operations of the UN.
GA Composition
Consists of all the members of the UN. Each member is
entitled to send no more than 5 delegates and 5 alternates
and as many technical and other personnel as it may

need.
The reason for this system of multiple delegates is to
enable the members to attend of several meetings that
may be taking place at the same time in the different
organs or committees of the Organization.
However, each delegation is entitled only to one vote in

the decisions to be made by the GA.
GA Sessions
1. Regular sessions every year beginning the third
Tuesday of September.
2. Special sessions may be called at the request of the
SC, a majority of the member states, or one member
with the concurrence of the majority.
3. Emergency special session may be called within 24
hours at the request of the SC by vote of any 9
members or by a majority of the members of the UN.
Some Important Functions of the GA

1. Deliberative discuss principles regarding maintenance
of international peace and security and may take
appropriate measures toward this end.
2. Supervisory receives and considers reports from the
other organs of the UN.
3. Elective important voting functions are also vested in
the GA, such as the election of the non-permanent
members of the SC, some members of the TC and all
the members of the ESC, and with the SC selects the
judges of the ICJ; also participates in the amendment of
the Charter.
4. Budgetary controls the finances of the UN
5. Constituent amendment of the charter.
GA Voting Rules
Each member or delegation has 1 vote in the GA.
Important Questions are decided by 2/3 majority of those
present and voting. All other matters, including the
determination of whether a question is important or not,
are decided by simple majority.
Important Questions include:
a) peace and security
b) membership
c) election
d) trusteeship system
e) budget
GA Main Committees
Most questions are then discussed in its six main
committees:
1st Committee - Disarmament & International Security
2nd - Economic & Financial
3rd - Social, Humanitarian & Cultural
4th - Special Political & Decolonization
5th - Administrative & Budgetary
6th - Legal
Some issues are considered only in plenary meetings,

while others are allocated to one of the six main
committees. All issues are voted on through resolutions
passed in plenary meetings, usually towards the end of
the regular session, after the committees have completed
their consideration of them and submitted draft resolutions
to the plenary Assembly.
Voting in Committees is by a simple majority. In plenary

meetings, resolutions may be adopted by acclamation,
without objection or without a vote, or the vote may be
recorded or taken by roll-call.
While the decisions of the Assembly have no legally
binding force for governments, they carry the weight of

world opinion, as well as the moral authority of the world
community.
The work of the UN year-round derives largely from the

decisions of the General Assembly - that is to say, the will
of the majority of the members as expressed in resolutions
adopted by the Assembly. That work is carried out:
a. by committees and other bodies established by the
Assembly to study and report on specific issues, such
as disarmament, peacekeeping, development and
human rights;
b. in international conferences called for by the Assembly;
and
c. by the Secretariat of the UN - the Secretary-General
and his staff of international civil servants.
UN Security Council
An organ of the UN primarily responsible for the

maintenance of international peace and security. Their
responsibility makes the SC a key influence in the
direction of the affairs not only of the Organization but of
the entire international community as well.
SC Functions and Powers:

1. to maintain international peace and security in
accordance with the principles and purposes of the UN;
2. to investigate any dispute or situation which mightlead
to international friction;
3. to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or
the terms of settlement;
4. to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to
regulate armaments;
5. to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or

act of aggression and to recommend what action should
be taken;
6. to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and
other measures not involving the use of force to prevent
or stop aggression;
7. to take military action against an aggressor;
8. to recommend the admission of new Members;
9. to exercise the trusteeship functions of the UN in
"strategic areas"; and
10. to recommend to the General Assembly the
appointment of the Secretary-General and, together with
the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International
Court of Justice.
SC Composition
Composed of 15 members, 5 of which are permanent.
The so-called Big Five are China, France, the European
Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The other ten members are elected for 2-year terms by the
GA, 5 from the African and Asian states, 1 from Eastern
European states, 2 from Latin American states, and 2 from
Western European and other states. Their terms have
been so staggered as to provide for the retirement of of
them every year.
These members are not eligible for immediate re-election.
Chairmanship of the SC is rotated monthly on the basis of

the English alphabetical order of the names of the
members.
SC Sessions
The SC is required to function continuously and to hold
itself in readiness in case of threat to or actual breach of
international peace. For this purpose, all members should
be represented at all times at the seat of the Organization.
SC Voting Rules
Each member of the SC has 1 vote, but distinction is
made between the permanent and the non-permanent
members in the decision of substantive questions.
Yalta Voting Formula

a. Procedural matters 9 votes of any of SC members
b. Substantive matters 9 votes including 5 permanent
votes.
No member, permanent or not, is allowed to vote on

questions concerning the pacific settlement of a dispute to
which it is a party.
Rule of Great-Power Unanimity: a negative vote by any

permanent member on a non-procedural matter, often
referred to as veto, means rejection of the draft
resolution or proposal, even if it has received 9 affirmative
votes.
- Abstention or absence of a member is not regarded as
veto
Procedural and Substantive Matters Distinguished

Procedural matters include:
a. questions relating to the organization and meetings of
the Council;
b. the establishment of subsidiary organs; and
c. the participation of states parties to a dispute in the
discussion of the SC.
Substantial matters include those that may require the SC

under its responsibility of maintaining or restoring world
peace to invoke measures of enforcement.
What is the role of a Member of the UN but not a

member of the Security Council?
Although not a member of the SC, it may participate

(without vote) in the discussion of any question before the
Council whenever the latter feels that the interests of that
member are specially affected. Such member is likewise
to be invited by the Council to participate (without vote)in
the discussion of any dispute to which the Member is a
party.
Q: Loolapalooza conducted illegal invasion and

conquest against Moooxaxa. The UN Security Council
called for enforcement action against Loolapalooza.
Does enforcement action include sending of fighting
troops?
A: NO. Compliance with the resolution calling for
enforcement action does not necessarily call for the
sending of fighting troops. There must be a special
agreement with the SC before sending of fighting troops
may be had and such agreement shall govern the
numbers and types of forces, their degree of readiness
and general locations, and the nature of the facilities and
assistance to be supplied by UN members.
International Court of Justice

Composition
Qualifications
Jurisdiction
Functions of International Court of Justice
Procedure

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial
organ of the United Nations. Its seat is at the
Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). It began work
in 1946, when it replaced the Permanent Court of
International Justice which had functioned in
the Peace Palace since 1922. It operates under a Statute
largely similar to that of its predecessor, which is an
integral part of the Charter of the United Nations.
ICJ Composition and Qualifications

The Court is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year
terms of office by the United Nations General Assembly
and Security Council sitting independently of each other.
It may not include more than one judge of any nationality.
Elections are held every three years for one-third of the
seats, and retiring judges may be re-elected. The
Members of the Court do not represent their governments
but are independent magistrates.
QUALIFICIATIONS OF JUDGES
1. They must be of high moral character;
2. Possess the qualifications required in their respective
countries for appointment to the highest judicial office or
are jurists of recognized competence in international
law; and
3. As much as possible, they must represent the main

forms of civilization and the principal legal systems of
the world.
When the Court does not include a judge possessing

the nationality of a State party to a case, that State may
appoint a person to sit as a judge ad hoc for the purpose
of the case.
ICJ Jurisdiction
The Court is competent to entertain a dispute only if the
States concerned have accepted its jurisdiction in one or
more of the following ways:
a. by the conclusion between them of a special agreement
to submit the dispute to the Court;
b. by virtue of a jurisdictional clause, i.e., typically, when
they are parties to a treaty containing a provision
whereby, in the event of a disagreement over its
interpretation or application, one of them may refer the
dispute to the Court. Several hundred treaties or
conventions contain a clause to such effect; or
c. through the reciprocal effect of declarations made by
them under the Statute whereby each has accepted the
jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in the event of a
dispute with another State having made a similar
declaration. The declarations of 65 States are at
present in force, a number of them having been made
subject to the exclusion of certain categories of dispute.
In cases of doubt as to whether the Court has jurisdiction,

it is the Court itself which decides.
Term of Office
Term of 9 years, staggered at three year year intervals by
dividing the judges first elected into three equal groups
and assigning them by lottery terms of three, six and nine
years respectively. Immediate re-election is allowed. The
President and the Vice President elected by the Court for
three years, may also be re-elected. Terms of office of 5 of

the 15 members shall expire at the end of every 3 years.
How members of ICJ are chosen

1. Nomination made by national groups in accordance
with the Hague Conventions of 1907. No group shall
nominate more than four persons and not more than two
of whom shall be of their own nationality.
2. Candidates obtaining an absolute majority in the GA
and SC are considered elected. In the event that more
than 1 national of the same state obtain the requisite
majorities in both bodies, only the eldest is chosen.
3. In cases when membership is not completed by the
regular elections, a joint conference shall be convened.
If this still fails, the judges elected shall fill the remaining
vacancies.
ICJ Sessions
The Court shall remain permanently in session at the
Hague or elsewhere as it may decide, except during the
judicial vacations the dates and duration of which it shall
fix.
Procedure in the ICJ

The procedure followed by the Court in contentious cases
is defined in its Statute, and in the Rules of Court adopted
by it under the Statute. The latest version of the Rules
dates from 5 December 2000. The proceedings include a
written phase, in which the parties file and exchange
pleadings, and an oral phase consisting of public hearings
at which agents and counsel address the Court. As the
Court has two official languages (English and French)
everything written or said in one language is translated
into the other.
After the oral proceedings the Court deliberates in camera

and then delivers its judgment at a public sitting. The
judgment is final and without appeal. Should one of the
States involved fail to comply with it, the other party may
have recourse to the Security Council.
T
The Court discharges its duties as a full court but, at the
request of the parties, it may also establish a special
chamber. A Chamber of Summary Procedure is elected
every year by the Court in accordance with its Statute. In
July 1993 the Court also established a seven-member
Chamber to deal with any environmental cases falling
within its jurisdiction
ICJ Voting Rules

All questions before the Court are decided by a majority of
the judges present, the quorum being nine when it is
sitting en banc. In case of tie, the President or his
substitute shall have a casting vote.
Rule for Inhibition of Judges

No judge may participate in the decision of a case in which
he has previously taken part as agent, counsel or
advocate for one of the parties, or as a member of a
national or international court, or of a commission of injury,
or in any other capacity.
Functions of ICJ
The principal functions of the Court are:
2. to decide contentious case; and
3. to render advisory opinions.
Who may file contentious cases?

Only states can file contentious cases and both must
agree to the courts jurisdiction. Only States may apply to
and appear before the Court. The Member States of the
United Nations (at present numbering 191) are so entitled.
Article 34(1): Only states may be parties in cases
before the Court.
2. Article 36(1): The jurisdiction of the Court

comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all
matters specially provided for in the Charter of the UN
or in treaties and conventions in force.
Advisory Opinions
The advisory procedure of the Court is open solely to
international organizations. The only bodies at present
authorized to request advisory opinions of the Court are
five organs of the United Nations and 16 specialized
agencies of the United Nations family.
On receiving a request, the Court decides which States
and organizations might provide useful information and
gives them an opportunity of presenting written or oral
statements. The Court's advisory procedure is otherwise
modelled on that for contentious proceedings, and the
sources of applicable law are the same. In principle the
Court's advisory opinions are consultative in character and
are therefore not binding as such on the requesting
bodies. Certain instruments or regulations can, however,
provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be
binding.
Only organizations can request advisory opinions

[Article 65(1)]: The Court may give an advisory opinion
on any legal question at the request of whatever body
may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter
of the UN to make such a request.
There is no rule of stare decisis.
Q: A, a citizen of State X, was arrested and detained

for several years without charges or trial. He brings
his case to the courts of State X, but to no avail. He
desires to seek redress from any international forum.
He goes to you as counsel to file his case with the
International Court of Justice. Will the action

prosper? (1978 Bar)
A: No! Only States may be parties in contentious cases
before the International Court of Justice. In fact, only
States which are parties to the statute of the ICJ and other
states on conditions to be laid down by the Security
Council may be such parties. Therefore, a private
individual like A cannot bring an action before it.
Q: May the United States be sued in our courts for the

value of private properties requisitioned by its Army during
the last World War, as well as Japan for the Mickey
Mouse money in payment for private properties, which
have not been redeemed until now? May the suit be
brought to the ICJ? (1979 Bar)
A: No! Even foreign states are entitled to the doctrine of
state immunity in the local state. The suit may not be
brought before the ICJ without the consent of the United
States as jurisdiction of the ICJ in contentious cases is
based upon the consent of the parties.
Q: The State of Nova, controlled by an authoritarian

government, had unfriendly relations with its
neighboring state, America; Bresia, another
neighboring state, had been shipping arms and
ammunitions to Nova for use in attacking America. To
forestall am attack, America placed floating mines on
the territorial waters surrounding Nova. America
supported a group of rebels organized to overthrow
the government of Nova and to replace it with a
friendly government. Nova decided to file a case
against America in the International Court of Justice.
1) What grounds may Novas cause of action against
America be based?
2) On what grounds may America move to dismiss
the case with the ICJ?
3) Decide the case. (1994 Bar)
A: 1) If Nova and America are members of the UN, Nova

can premise its cause of action on a violation of Art. 2(4)
of the UN Charter, which requires members to refrain from
threat or use of force against the territorial integrity of
political independence of any state. If either or both
America and Nova are not members of the UN, Nova may
premise its cause of action of violation of the non-use of
force principle in customary international law which exist
parallel as to Art. 2(4) of the UN Charter.
In the case concerning the Military and Parliamentary

activities in and against Nicaragua (1986 ICJ Report 14),
the International Court of Justice considered the planting
mines by one state within the territorial waters of another
as a violation of Art. 2(4) of the UN Charter. If the support
provided by America to rebels of Nova goes beyond the
mere giving of monetary or psychological support but
consist in the provision of arms and training, the acts of
America can be considered as indirect aggression amount
to another violation of Art. 2(4).
In addition, even if the provision of support is not enough

to consider the act a violation of the non-use of force
principle, this is a violation of the principle of non-
intervention in customary international law.
Aggression is the use of armed force by a state against

the sovereignty or territorial integrity or political
independence of another state or in any other manner
inconsistence with the UN Charter.
2) By virtue of the principle of sovereign immunity, no

sovereign state can be made a party to a proceeding
before the ICJ unless it has given its consent. If America
has not accepted the jurisdiction of the ICJ, it can invoke
the defense of lack of jurisdiction. Even if it has accepted
the jurisdiction of the ICJ but the acceptance limited and
the limitation applies to the case, it may invoke such
limitations of its consent as a bar to the assumption of

jurisdiction.
If the jurisdiction has been accepted, America can involve

the principle of anticipatory self-defense recognized under
customary international law because Nova is planning to
launch an attack against America by using the arms it
brought from Bresia.
3) If jurisdiction over America is established, the case

should be decided in favor of Nova, because America
violated the principle against the use of force and the
principle of non-intervention. The defense of anticipatory
self-defense cannot be sustained because there is no
showing that Nova had mobilized to such an extent that if
America were to wait for Nova to strike first it would not be
able to retaliate.
However, if jurisdiction over America is not established,

the case should be decided in its favor because of the
principle of sovereign immunity.
Q: The sovereignty over certain island is disputed

between State A and State B. These two states agreed
to submit their disputes to the ICJ.
1) Does the ICJ have the jurisdiction to take
cognizance of the case?
2) Who shall represent the parties before the Court?
3) What language shall be used in the pleading and
the oral arguments?
4) In case State A, the petitioner fails to appear at
the oral argument, can State B, the respondent,
move for the dismissal of the action? (1994 Bar)
A: 1) The ICJ has jurisdiction because the parties have

jointly submitted the case to it and have thus indicated
their consent to its jurisdiction.
2) Parties to a case may appoint agents to appear before

the ICJ in their behalf, and these agents need not be their
own nationals. However, under Art. 16 of the Statute of
ICJ, no member of the Court may appear as agent in any
case.
3) Under Art. 39 of the Statute of ICJ, the official
languages of the Court are English and French. In the
absence of an agreement, each party may use the
language it prefers. At the request of any party, the Court
may authorize a party to use a language other than
English or French.
4) Under Art. 51 of the Statute of ICJ, whenever one of
the parties does not appear before the court or fails to
defends its case, the other party may ask the Court to
decide in favor of its claim. However, the Court must,
before doing so, satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction and
that the claim is well-founded in fact and in law.
PIMENTEL, JR., v. OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE

SECRETARY
462 SCRA 622, 6 July 2005
En Banc, Garcia J.
This is a petition for mandamus to compel the Office of the

Executive Secretary and the Department of Foreign Affairs
to transmit the signed copy of the Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court to the Senate of the
Philippines for its concurrence in accordance with 21,
Article VII of the 1987 Constitution.
The Rome State of the International Criminal Court

The Rome Statute established the International Criminal
Court which shall have the power to exercise its
jurisdiction over person for the most serious crimes of
international concern x x x and shall be complementary to
the national criminal jurisdictions. (Article I, Rome Statute)
Its jurisdiction covers the crime of genocide, crimes
against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression
as defined in the Statute (Article 5, Rome Statute). The

Statute was opened for signature by all states in Rome on
July 17, 1988 and had remained open for signature until
December 31, 2000 at the United Nations Headquarters in
New York. The Philippines signed the Statute on
December 28, 2000 through Charge d Affairs Enrique A.
Manalo of the Philippine Mission to the United Nations. Its
provisions, however, require that it be subject to
ratification, acceptance or approval of the signatory states
(Article 25, Rome Statute).
Issues
It is the theory of the petitioners that ratification of a treaty,
under both domestic law and international law, is a
function of the Senate. Hence, it is the duty of the
executive department to transmit the signed copy of the
Rome Statute to the Senate to allow it to exercise its
discretion with respect to ratification of treaties. Moreover,
petitioners submit that the Philippines has a ministerial
duty to ratify the Rome Statute under treaty law and
customary international law. Petitioners invoke the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties enjoining the states to
refrain from acts which would defeat the object and
purpose of a treaty when they have signed the treaty prior
to ratification unless they have made their intention clear
not to become parties to the treaty (Article 18, Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties).
On Locus Standi of Petitioners

The petition at bar was filed by Senator Aquilino Pimentel,
Jr. who asserts his legal standing to file the suit as
member of the Senate; Congresswoman Loretta Ann
Rosales, a member of the House of Representatives and
Chairperson of its Committee on Human Rights; the
Philippine Coalition for the Establishment of the
International Criminal Court which is composed of
individuals and corporate entities dedicated to the
Philippine ratification of the Rome Statute; the Task Force

Detainees of the Philippines, a juridical entity with the
avowed purpose of promoting the cause of human rights
and human rights victims in the country; the Families of
Victims of Involuntary Disappearances, a juridical entity
duly organized and existing pursuant to Philippine Laws
with the avowed purpose of promoting the cause of
families and victims of human rights violations in the
country; Bianca Hacintha Roque and Harrison Jacob
Roque, aged two (2) and one (1), respectively, at the time
of filing of the instant petition, and suing under the doctrine
of inter-generational rights enunciated in the case of
Oposa vs. Factoran, Jr. 224 SCRA 792 (1993) and a
group of fifth year working law students from the University
of the Philippines College of Law who are suing as
taxpayers.
Xxx
We find that among the petitioners, only Senator Pimentel

has the legal standing to file the instant suit. The other
petitioners maintain their standing as advocates and
defenders of human rights, and as citizens of the country.
They have not shown, however, that they have sustained
or will sustain a direct injury from the non-transmittal of the
signed text of the Rome Statute to the Senate. Their
contention that they will be deprived of their remedies for
the protection and enforcement of their rights does not
persuade. The Rome Statute is intended to complement
national criminal laws and courts. Sufficient remedies are
available under our national laws to protect our citizens
against human rights violations and petitioners can always
seek redress for any abuse in our domestic courts.
As regards Senator Pimentel, it has been held that to the

extent the powers of Congress are impaired, so is the
power of each member thereof, since his office confers a
right to participate in the exercise of the powers of that
institution.[Del Mar vs. Philippine Amusement and

Gaming Corporation, 346 SCRA 485 (2000)] Thus,
legislators have the standing to maintain inviolate the
prerogatives, powers and privileges vested by the
Constitution in their office and are allowed to sue to
question the validity of any official action which they claim
infringes their prerogatives as legislators. The petition at
bar invokes the power of the Senate to grant or withhold
its concurrence to a treaty entered into by the executive
branch, in this case, the Rome Statute. The petition seeks
to order the executive branch to transmit the copy of the
treaty to the Senate to allow it to exercise such authority.
Senator Pimentel, as member of the institution, certainly
has the legal standing to assert such authority of the
Senate.
The Substantive Issue

The core issue in this petition for mandamus is whether
the Executive Secretary and the Department of Foreign
Affairs have a ministerial duty to transmit to the Senate the
copy of the Rome Statute signed by a member of the
Philippine Mission to the United Nations even without the
signature of the President.
We rule in the negative.
In our system of government, the President, being the

head of state, is regarded as the sole organ and authority
in external relations and is the countrys sole
representative with foreign nations(Cortes, The Philippine
Presidency: A Study of Executive Power (1966), p. 187)
As the chief architect of foreign policy, the President acts
as the countrys mouthpiece with respect to international
affairs. Hence, the President is vested with the authority
to deal with foreign states and governments, extend or
withhold recognition, maintain diplomatic relations, enter
into treaties, and otherwise transact the business of
foreign relations [Cruz, Philippine Political Law (1996 Ed.),
p. 223] . In the realm of treaty-making, the President has

the sole authority to negotiate with other states.
Nonetheless, while the President has the sole authority to

negotiate and enter into treaties, the Constitution provides
a limitation to his power by requiring the concurrence of
2/3 of all the members of the Senate for the validity of the
treaty entered into by him. xxx
The participation of the legislative branch in the treaty-

making process was deemed essential to provide a check
on the executive in the field of foreign relations (Cortes,
supra note 12, p. 189). By requiring the concurrence of
the legislature in the treaties entered into by the President,
the Constitution ensures a healthy system of checks and
balance necessary in the nations pursuit of political
maturity and growth [Bayan vs. Zamora, 342 SCRA 449
(2000)].
In filing this petition, the petitioners interpret Section 21,

Article VII of the 1987 Constitution to mean that the power
to ratify treaties belongs to the Senate.
We disagree.
Justice Isagani Cruz, in his book on International Law,

describes the treaty-making process in this wise:
The usual steps in the treaty-making process are:

negotiation, signature, ratification, and exchange of the
instruments of ratification. The treaty may then be
submitted for registration and publication under the U.N.
Charter, although this step is not essential to the validity of
the agreement as between the parties.
Negotiation may be undertaken directly by the head of

state but he now usually assigns this task to his authorized
representatives. These representatives are provided with
credentials known as full powers, which they exhibit to the

other negotiators at the start of the formal discussions. It
is standard practice for one of the parties to submit a draft
of the proposed treaty which, together with the counter-
proposals, becomes the basis of the subsequent
negotiations. The negotiations may be brief or protracted,
depending on the issues involved, and may even
collapse in case the parties are unable to come to an
agreement on the points under consideration.
If and when the negotiators finally decide on the terms of

the treaty, the same is opened for signature. This step is
primarily intended as a means of authenticating the
instrument and for the purpose of symbolizing the good
faith of the parties; but, significantly, it does not indicate
the final consent of the state in cases where
ratification of the treaty is required. The document is
ordinarily signed in accordance with the alternat, that is,
each of the several negotiators is allowed to sign first on
the copy which he will bring home to his own state.
Ratification, which is the next step, is the formal act by

which a state confirms and accepts the provisions of a
treaty concluded by its representatives. The purpose of
ratification is to enable the contracting states to
examine the treaty more closely and to give them an
opportunity to refuse to be bound by it should they
find it inimical to their interests. It is for this reason
that most treaties are made subject to the scrutiny
and consent of a department of the government other
than that which negotiated them.
xxx
The last step in the treaty-making process is the exchange

of the instruments of ratification, which usually also
signifies the effectivity of the treaty unless a different date
has been agreed upon by the parties. Where ratification is
dispensed with and no effectivity clause is embodied in the

treaty, the instrument is deemed effective upon its
signature [Cruz, International Law (1998 Ed.), pp. 172-
174]. [emphasis supplied]
Petitioners arguments equate the signing of the treaty by

the Philippine representative with ratification. It should be
underscored that the signing of the treaty and the
ratification are two separate and distinct steps in the
treaty-making process. As earlier discussed, the signature
is primarily intended as a means of authenticating the
instrument and as a symbol of the good faith of the
parties. It is usually performed by the states authorized
representative in the diplomatic mission. Ratification, on
the other hand, is the formal act by which a state confirms
and accepts the provisions of a treaty concluded by its
representative. It is generally held to be an executive act,
undertaken by the head of the state or of the government
(Bayan vs. Zamora, supra note 15). Thus, Executive
Order No. 459 issued by President Fidel V. Ramos on
November 25, 1997 provides the guidelines in the
negotiation of international agreements and its ratification.
It mandates that after the treaty has been signed by the
Philippine representative, the same shall be transmitted to
the Department of Foreign Affairs. The Department of
Foreign Affairs shall then prepare the ratification papers
and forward the signed copy of the treaty to the President
for ratification. After the President has ratified the treaty,
the Department of Foreign Affairs shall submit the same to
the Senate for concurrence. Upon receipt of the
concurrence of the Senate, the Department of Foreign
Affairs shall comply with the provisions of the treaty to
render it effective. xxx
Xxx
Petitioners submission that the Philippines is bound under

treaty law and international law to ratify the treaty which it
has signed is without basis. The signature does not signify

the final consent of the state to the treaty. It is the
ratification that binds the state to the provisions thereof. In
fact, the Rome Statute itself requires that the signature of
the representatives of the states be subject to ratification,
acceptance or approval of the signatory states. Ratification
is the act by which the provisions of a treaty are formally
confirmed and approved by a State. By ratifying a treaty
signed in its behalf, a state expresses its willingness to be
bound by the provisions of such treaty. After the treaty is
signed by the states representative, the President, being
accountable to the people, is burdened with the
responsibility and the duty to carefully study the contents
of the treaty and ensure that they are not inimical to the
interest of the state and its people. Thus, the President
has the discretion even after the signing of the treaty by
the Philippine representative whether or not to ratify the
same. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
does not contemplate to defeat or even restrain this power
of the head of states. If that were so, the requirement of
ratification of treaties would be pointless and futile. It has
been held that a state has no legal or even moral duty to
ratify a treaty which has been signed by its
plenipotentiaries [Salonga and Yap, Public International
Law (5th Edition), p. 138]. There is no legal obligation to
ratify a treaty, but it goes without saying that the refusal
must be based on substantial grounds and not on
superficial or whimsical reasons. Otherwise, the other
state would be justified in taking offense (Cruz,
International Law, supra note 16, p.174).
It should be emphasized that under our Constitution, the

power to ratify is vested in the President, subject to the
concurrence of the Senate. The role of the Senate,
however, is limited only to giving or withholding its
consent, or concurrence, to the ratification (Bayan vs.
Zamora, supra note 15). Hence, it is within the authority of
the President to refuse to submit a treaty to the Senate or,
having secured its consent for its ratification, refuse to

ratify it (Cruz, International Law, supra note 16, p.174).
Although the refusal of a state to ratify a treaty which has
been signed in its behalf is a serious step that should not
be taken lightly (Salonga and Yap, supra note 18), such
decision is within the competence of the President alone,
which cannot be encroached by this Court via a writ of
mandamus. This Court has no jurisdiction over actions
seeking to enjoin the President in the performance of his
official duties. [See Severino vs. Governor-General, 16
Phil. 366 (1910)]. The Court, therefore, cannot issue the
writ of mandamus prayed for by the petitioners as it is
beyond its jurisdiction to compel the executive branch of
the government to transmit the signed text of Rome
Statute to the Senate.
Jurisdiction of States
Bases of Jurisdiction
1. Territoriality Principle
2. Nationality Principle
3. Protective Principle
4. Universality Principle
Exemptions from Jurisdiction
Doctrine of Sovereign Immunity
Act of State Doctrine
Right of Legation
Classes of Heads of Missions
Diplomatic Corps
Privileges and Immunities
Letter of Credence
Functions of Diplomatic Representatives
Waiver of Diplomatic Immunity and Privileges
Duration of Immunity
Termination of Diplomatic Relation
Consular Immunity
2 Kinds of Consuls
Consular Privileges and Immunities
BASES OF JURISDICTION
A. Territoriality Principle
all persons, property, transactions and occurrences
within the territory of a State are under its jurisdiction,
as well as over certain consequences produced within
the territory by persons acting outside it.
vests jurisdiction in state where offense was
committed
Art. 14, NCC
EXTRATERRITORIAL JURISDICTION
often claimed by States with respect to so-called

continuing offenses where the commission of the
crime has started in one State and is consummated in
another. Under such situation, both states have
jurisdiction.
Q: What is the meaning or concept of

extraterritoriality? (1977 Bar)
A: The term extraterritoriality has been used to denote

the status of a person or things physically present on a
States territory, but wholly or partly withdrawn from the
States jurisdiction by a rule of international law.
Note: The concept of extraterritoriality is already obsolete.
Q: Distinguish exTERritoriality and

exTRAterritoriality.
A:
exTERritoriality exTRAterritoriality
exception of persons used to denote the status
and property from local of a person or things
jurisdiction on basis of physically present on a
international customs States territory, but wholly
or partly withdrawn from
the States jurisdiction by a
rule of international law
Q: How can the observance of our law on national

theory be enforced upon individuals, and upon
states? (1979 Bar)
A: All persons within our national territory are subject to

the jurisdiction of the Philippines, with certain exceptions
like heads and diplomatic agents of foreign states.
States are required under international law, specifically

under Article II, paragraph 4 of the UN Charter, to respect
the territorial integrity of other states. Any encroachments
upon our territory, for example, by a foreign vessel, may
be punished under our own laws, or by sanctions allowed
under the generally accepted principles of international
law.
Q: A crime was committed in a private vessel

registered in Japan by a Filipino against an
Englishman while the vessel is anchored in a port of
State A. Where can he be tried? (1979 Bar)
A: Under both the English and French rules, the crime will
be tried by the local state A, if serious enough as to
compromise the peace of its port; otherwise by the flag
state, Japan if it involves only the members of the crew
and is of such a petty nature as not to disturb the peace of
the local state.
B. Nationality Principle
a State may punish offenses committed by its
nationals anywhere in the world.
vest jurisdiction in state of offender
Art. 15, NCC; tax laws
C. Protective Principle
States claim extraterritorial criminal jurisdiction to
punish crimes committed abroad which are prejudicial
to their national security or vital interests, even where
the offenses are perpetrated by non-nationals.
vest jurisdiction in state whose national interests is
injured or national security compromised
counterfeiting, treason, espionage
Q: Explain the Protective Personality Principle. (1991

Bar)
A: Protective Personality Principle is the principle on
which the State exercise jurisdiction over the acts of an
alien even if committed outside its territory, if such acts are

adverse to the interest of the national state.
D. Universality Principle
A State has extraterritorial jurisdiction over all crimes
regardless of where they are committed or who
committed them, whether nationals or non-nationals.
This is, however, generally considered as forbidden.
vest jurisdiction in state which has custody of offender
of universal crimes
piracy, genocide
Q: A Filipino owned construction company with

principal office in Manila leased an aircraft registered
in England to ferry construction workers to the Middle
East. While on a flight to Saudi Arabia with Filipino
crew provided by the lessee, the aircraft was
highjacked by drug traffickers. The hijackers were
captured in Damaseus and sent to the Philippines for
trial. Do courts of Manila have jurisdiction over the
case? (1981 Bar)
A: Yes. Hijacking is actually piracy, defined in People vs.

Lol-lo, 43 Phil 19 as robbery or forcible depredation in the
high seas without lawful authority and done animo furandi
and in the spirit and intention of universal hostility.
Piracy is a crime against all mankind. Accordingly, it may

be punished in the competent tribunal if any country where
the offender may be found or into which he may be
carried.
The jurisdiction on piracy unlike all other crimes has no

territorial limits. As it is against all, all so may punish it.
Nor does it matter that the crime was committed within the
jurisdictional 3-mile limit of a foreign state for those limits,
though neutral to war, are not neutral to crimes.
DOCTRINE OF SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY

Under this doctrine, a state enjoys immunity from the
exercise of jurisdiction by another state. The courts of one
state may not assume jurisdiction over another state.
Restrictive Application of the Doctrine of State
Immunity
Q: The Republic of Balau opened and operated in
Manila an office engaged in trading of Balau products
with the Philippine products. In one transaction, the
local buyer complained that the Balau goods delivered
to him were substandard and he sued the Republic of
Balau before the RTC of Pasig for damages. (1996 Bar)
a) How can the Republic of Balau invoke its sovereign

immunity? Explain.
b) Will such defense of sovereign immunity prosper?
Explain.
A: a) By filing a motion to dismiss in accordance with

Section 1 (a) Rule 16 of the Rules of Court on the ground
that the court has no jurisdiction over its person.
According to the case of Holy See vs. Rosario, in Public

International Law, when a state wishes to plead sovereign
immunity in a foreign court, it requests the Foreign office
of the state where it is being sued to convey to the court
that it is entitled to immunity. In the Philippines, the
practice is for the foreign government to first secure an
executive endorsement of its claim of immunity. In some
case, the defense of sovereign immunity is submitted
directly to the local court by the foreign state through
counsel by filing a motion to dismiss on the ground that
the court has no jurisdiction over its person.
b) No. The sale of Balau products as a contract involves a

commercial activity. As held by the Supreme Court in the
case of USA vs. Ruiz and USA vs. Guinto, it was stated
that a foreign state couldnt invoke immunity from suit if it

enters into a commercial contract. The Philippines
adheres to restrictive Sovereign Immunity.
In February 1990, the Ministry of the Army, Republic of

Indonesia, invited for a bid for the supply of 500,000
pairs of combat boots for the use of the Indonesian
Army. The Marikina Shoe Corporation, a Philippine
Corporation, which has a branch office and with no
assets in Indonesia, submitted a bid to supply 500,000
pairs of combat boots at $30 per pair delivered in
Jakarta on or before October 1990. The contract was
awarded by the Ministry of the Army to Marikina Shoe
Corporation and was signed by the parties in Jakarta.
Marikina Shoe Expo was able to deliver only 200,000
pairs of combat boots in Jakarta by October 30, 1990
and received payment for 100,000 pairs or a total of
$3,000,000. The Ministry of the Army promised to pay
for the other 100,000 pairs already delivered as soon
as the remaining 300,000 pairs of combat boots are
delivered, at which time the said 300,000 pairs will
also be paid for.
Q: Marikina Shoe Corporation failed to deliver any

more combat boots. On June 1, 1991, the Republic of
Indonesia filed an action before the RTC of Pasig, to
compel Marikina Shoe Corporation to perform the
balance of its obligation under the contract and for
damages. In its Answer, Marikina Shoe Corporation
sets up a counterclaim for $3,000,000 representing the
payment for the 100,000 pairs of combat boots already
delivered but unpaid. Indonesia moved to dismiss the
counterclaim asserting that it is entitled to sovereign
immunity from suit. The trial court denied the motion
to dismiss and issued two writs of garnishment upon
Indonesian Government funds deposited in the PNB
and BPI. Indonesia went to the Court of Appeals on a
petition for certiorari under Rule 65 of the Rules of
Court. How would the Court of Appeals decide the

case? (1991 Bar)
A: The Court of Appeals should dismiss the petition in so

far as it seeks to annul the order denying the motion of the
Government of Indonesia to dismiss the counterclaim.
The counterclaim in this case is a compulsory
counterclaim since it arises from the same contract
involved in the complaint. As such, it must be set up,
otherwise, it will be barred. Above all, as held in Froilan
vs. Pan Oriental Shipping Co. 95 Phil 905, by filing a
complaint, the state of Indonesia waived its immunity from
suit. It is not right that it can sue in the courts of the
Philippines if in the first place it cannot be sued. The
defendant therefore acquires the right to set up a
compulsory counterclaim against it.
However, The Court of Appeals should grant the petition

of the Indonesian Government insofar as it sought to annul
the garnishment of the funds of Indonesia, which were
deposited in the PNB and BPI.
Consent to the exercise of jurisdiction of a foreign court

does not involve waiver of the separate immunity from
execution. (You can look but you cant touch.)
Thus as held in the case of Dexter vs. Carpenters, P2d

705, it was held that consent to be sued does not give
consent to the attachment of the property of sovereign
government.
Exemptions from Jurisdiction

1. Doctrine of State Immunity;
2. Act of State Doctrine court of one state will not sit in
judgment over acts of government of another state done
in its territory.
3. Diplomatic Immunity;
4. Immunity of UN Specialized agencies, other
International Organizations, and its Officers;
5. Foreign Merchant vessels exercising the right of
innocent passage;
6. Foreign armies passing through or stationed in the
territory with the permission of the State;
7. Warships and other public vessels of another State
operated for non-commercial purposes.
ACT OF STATE DOCTRINE
Q: What is an Act of State?

A: An act of state is an act done by the sovereign power of
a country, or by its delegate, within the limits of the power
vested in him. An act of State cannot be questioned or
made the subject of legal proceedings in court of law.
Courts cannot pass judgment on acts of State done
within its territorial jurisdiction. It is different from
Sovereign Immunity from Suit. Here, you cannot sue a
sovereign State in the courts of another State.
Q: Why?
A: Would unduly vex the peace of nations based on the
doctrine of sovereign equality of States Par in parem
non habet imperium
Q: What is the meaning or concept of Act of State

Doctrine? (1977 Bar)
A: The Act of State Doctrine states that every sovereign
state is bound to respect the independence of other states
and the court of one country will not sit in judgment to the
acts of the foreign government done within its territory.
Redress of grievances by reason of such acts must be

obtained through the means open to be availed of by
sovereign powers as between themselves.
DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY
THE RIGHT OF LEGATION

It is the right to send and receive diplomatic missions. It is
strictly not a right since no State can be compelled to enter
into diplomatic relations with another State. Diplomatic
relations is established by mutual consent between two
States.
Q: Is the state obliged to maintain diplomatic relations

with other states?
A: No, as the right of legation is purely consensual. If it

wants to, a state may shut itself from the rest of the world,
as Japan did until the close of the 19th century. However,
a policy of isolation would hinder the progress of a state
since it would be denying itself of the many benefits
available from the international community.
Active right of legation send diplomatic

representatives
Passive right of legation receive diplomatic
representatives
Resident Missions
Classes of heads of missions [ A N E M I C ]

a. Ambassadors or nuncios accredited to Heads of State
and other heads of missions of equivalent rank;
b. Envoys ministers and internuncios accredited to Heads
of State;
c. Charges daffaires accredited to Ministers for Foreign
Affairs.
Functions of Diplomatic Missions

1. representing sending state in receiving state;
2. protecting in receiving state interests of sending state
and its nationals;
3. negotiating with government of receiving state;
4. promoting friendly relations between sending and
receiving states and developing their economic, cultural
and scientific relations;
5. ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and
developments in receiving state and reporting thereon to
government of sending state; and
6. in some cases, representing friendly governments at
their request.
Diplomatic Corps
A body formed by all diplomatic envoys accredited to the
same State. The Doyen or head of this body is usually the
Papal Nuncio, or the oldest accredited ambassador or
plenipotentiary.
Privileges and immunities

a. Personal inviolability;
b. Inviolability of premises and archives;
c. Right of an official communication;
d. Exemption from local jurisdiction;
e. Exemption from subpoena as witness;
f. Exemption from taxation
Q: Who are the usual agents of diplomatic

intercourse?
A: The diplomatic relations of a state are usually
conducted through:
i. The head of state;
ii. The foreign secretary or minister; and
iii. The members of the diplomatic service.
Sometimes the state may appoint special diplomatic

agents charged with either political or ceremonial duties,
such as the negotiation of a treaty or attendance at a state

function like a coronation or a funeral.
Q: How are the regular diplomatic representatives
classified?
A:
i. Ambassadors or nuncios accredited to heads of states
ii. Envoys, ministers and internuncios accredited to heads
of states
iii. Charges d affaires accredited to ministers for foreign
affairs
The diplomatic corps consists of different diplomatic

representatives who have been accredited to the local or
receiving state. A doyen du corps or a dean, who is
usually the member of the highest rank and the longest
service to the state, heads it.
In Catholic countries, the dean is the Papal Nuncio.
Q: How are diplomatic representatives chosen?

A: The appointment of diplomats is not merely a matter of
municipal law for the receiving state is not obliged to
accept a representative who is a persona non grata to it.
Indeed, there have been cases when duly accredited
diplomatic representatives have been rejected, resulting in
strained relations between the sending and receiving
state.
To avoid such awkward situation, most states now

observe the practice of agreation, by means of which
inquiries are addressed to the receiving state regarding a
proposed diplomatic representative of the sending state. It
is only when the receiving state manifests its agreement or
consent that the diplomatic representative is appointed
and formally accredited.
Q: What is agreation?
A: It is a practice of the states before appointing a

particular individual to be the chief of their diplomatic
mission in order to avoid possible embarrassment. It
consist of two acts:
i. The Inquiry, usually informal, addressed by the
sending state to the receiving state regarding the
acceptability of an individual to be its chief of mission;
and
ii. The agreement, also informal, by which the
receiving state indicates to the sending state that such
person, would be acceptable.
Letter of Credence (Letre d Creance)

The document, which the envoy receives from his
government accrediting him to the foreign state to which
he is being sent. It designates his rank and the general
object of his mission and asks that he be received
favorably and that full credence be given to what he says
on behalf of his state.
Letter Patent (Letre d Provision)

The appointment of a consul is usually evidenced by a
commission, known sometimes as letter patent or letre d
provision, issued by the appointing authority of the
sending state and transmitted to the receiving state
through diplomatic channels.
Functions of diplomatic representatives

The functions of diplomatic mission consist inter alia in:
a) Representing the sending state in the receiving
state.
b) Protecting in the receiving state the interests of
the sending state and its nationals.
c) Negotiating with the government of the receiving
state.
d) Ascertainment through lawful means of the

conditions and developments in the receiving state and
reporting thereon to the government of the sending
state.
e) Promoting friendly relations between the sending
and receiving state and developing their economic,
cultural and scientific relations.
f) In some cases, representing friendly
governments at their request.
Pointers on Diplomatic Immunities and Privileges

The more important are the following:
a) The person of a diplomatic agent shall be
inviolable and he shall not be liable to any form of arrest
or detention. The receiving state shall treat him with
due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to
prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.
b) A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the

criminal, civil and administrative jurisdiction of the
receiving state, except in certain cases as, for example,
when the civil action deals with property held by him in a
private or proprietary capacity.
c) The diplomatic premises shall be inviolable, and

the agents of the receiving state may not enter them
without the consent of the head of the mission. Such
premises, their furnishings and other property thereon
and the means of transportation of the mission shall be
immune from search, requisition, attachment or
execution. (See movie Red Corner starring Richard
Gere).
d) The archives and documents of the mission shall

be inviolable at any time and wherever they may be.
e) The receiving state shall permit and protect free

communication on the part of the mission for all official
purposes. In communicating with the government and
other missions, and consulates of the sending state
wherever situated, the mission may employ all
appropriate means, including diplomatic couriers and
messages in code or cipher. The official
correspondence of the mission shall be inviolable.
f) Subject to its laws and regulations concerning

national security, the receiving state shall insure to all
members of the mission freedom of movement and
travel in its territory.
g) A diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence

as a witness.
h) A diplomatic agent shall be exempt from all dues

and taxes, personal or real, national, regional, or
municipal except in certain specified cases like the
imposition of indirect taxes.
i) The mission and its head shall have the right to

use the flag and emblem of the sending state on the
premises of the mission, including the residences of the
head of the mission and on his means of transport.
Q: Who may waive the diplomatic immunity and

privileges?
A: The waiver may be made expressly by the sending
state. It may also be done impliedly, as when the person
entitled to the immunity from jurisdiction commences
litigation in the local courts and thereby opens himself to
any counterclaim directly connected with the principal
claim.
However, waiver of immunity from jurisdiction with regard
to civil and administrative proceedings shall not be held to
mean implied waiver of the immunity with respect to the

execution of judgment, for which a separate waiver shall
be necessary.
Q: Is Diplomatic Immunity a Political Question?

A: Diplomatic immunity is essentially a political question
and the courts should refuse to look beyond the
determination by the executive branch. (DFA vs. NLRC,
1996)
Duration of the diplomatic immunities

Unless waived, diplomatic immunities and privileges begin
from the moment diplomatic agent arrives in the territory of
the receiving state or, if already there, form the moment
his appointment is notified to its government, and lasts
until he leaves, which must be within a reasonable period
following the termination of his mission.
With respect to his official acts, however, his immunity

from the jurisdiction of the receiving state continues
indefinitely as these are the acts attributed not to him but
to the sending state. But this rule does not apply to his
private acts, for which he may later be sued or prosecuted
should he return in a private capacity to the receiving state
or fail to leave it in due time after the end of his mission.
Q: Who else besides the head of the mission are

entitled to diplomatic immunities and privileges?
A: The diplomatic immunities and privileges are also
enjoyed by the diplomatic suite or retinue, which consists
of the official and non-official staff of the mission.
The official staff is made up of the administrative and

technical personnel of the mission, including those
performing clerical work, and the member of their
respective families. The non-official staff is composed of
the household help, such as the domestic servants,

butlers, and cooks and chauffeurs employed by the
mission.
As a rule, however, domestic servants enjoy immunities

and privileges only to the extent admitted by the receiving
state and insofar as they are connected with the
performance of their duties.
Q: Italy, through its Ambassador, entered into a

contract with Abad for the maintenance and repair of
specified equipment at its Embassy and
Ambassadors Residence, such as air conditioning
units, generator sets, electrical facilities, water
heaters, and water motor pumps. It was stipulated
that the agreement shall be effective for a period of
four years and automatically renewed unless
cancelled. Further, it provided that any suit arising
from the contract shall be filed with the proper courts
in the City of Manila.
Claiming that the Maintenance Contract was

unilaterally, baselessly and arbitrarily terminated,
Abad sued the State of Italy and its Ambassador
before a court in the City of Manila. Among the
defenses they raised were sovereign immunity and
diplomatic immunity. (2005 Bar)
(a) As counsel of Abad, refute the defenses of
sovereign immunity and diplomatic immunity
raised by the State of Italy and its Ambassador.
(b) At any rate, what should be the courts ruling on
the said defenses?
A: (a) As a counsel of Abad, I shall argue that the contract

is not a sovereign function and that the stipulation that any
suit arising under the contract shall be filed with the proper
courts of the City of Manila is a waiver of the sovereign
immunity from suit of Italy. I shall also argue that the
ambassador does not enjoy diplomatic immunity, because

the suit relates to a commercial activity.
(b) The court should reject the defenses. Since the

establishment of a diplomatic mission requires the
maintainance and upkeep of the embassy and the
residence of the ambassador, Italy was acting in pursuit of
a sovereign activity when it entered into the contract. The
provision in the contract regarding the venue of lawsuits is
not necessarily a wavier of sovereign immunity from suit.
It should be interpreted to apply only where Italy elects to
sue in the Philippine courts or waives its immunity by a
subsequent act. The contract does not involve a
commercial activity of the ambassador, because it is
connected with his official functions. [Republic of
Indonesia v. Vinzon, 405 SCRA 126 (2003)]
Q: A group of high-ranking officials and rank and file

employees stationed in a foreign embassy in Manila
were arrested outside embassy grounds and detained
at Camp Crame on suspicion that they were actively
collaborating with terrorists out to overthrow or
destabilize the Philippine Government. The Foreign
Ambassador sought their immediate release, claiming
that the detained embassy officials and employees
enjoyed diplomatic immunity. If invited to express
your legal opinion on the matter, what advice would
you give. (2003 Bar)
A: I shall advise that the high ranking officials and rank

and file employees be released because of their
diplomatic immunity. Article 29 of the Vienna Convention
on Diplomatic Relations provides:
The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. He

shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention.
Under Article 37 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Relations, members of the administrative and technical
staff of the diplomatic mission, shall, if they are not
nationals of or permanent residents in the receiving State,
enjoy the privileges and immunities specified in Article 29.
Under Article 9 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Relations, the remedy is to declare the high-ranking
officials and rank and file employees personae non gratae
and ask them to leave.
Alternative A: Under the Vienna Convention on

Diplomatic Relations, a diplomatic agent shall not be
liable to any form of arrest or detention (Article 29) and he
enjoys immunity from criminal jurisdiction (Article 31).
This immunity may cover the high ranking officials in

question, who are assumed to be diplomatic officers or
agents.
With respect to the rank and file employees that are

covered by the immunity referred to above, provided that
are not nationals or permanent residents of the Philippines
pursuant to Article 37(2) of the said Convention.
If the said rank and file employees belong to the service

staff of the diplomatic mission (such as drivers) they may
be covered by the immunity (even if they are not Philippine
nationals or residents) as set out in Article 37(3), if at the
time of the arrest they were in acts performed in the
course of their duties. If a driver was among the said
rank and file employees and he was arrested while driving
a diplomatic vehicle or engaged in related acts, still he
would be covered by the immunity.
Q: A foreign ambassador to the Philippines leased a

vacation house in Tagaytay for his personal use. For
some reason, he failed to pay the rentals for more
than one year. The lessor filed an action for the

recovery of his property in court.
a) Can the foreign ambassador invoke his diplomatic
immunity to resist the lessors action?
b)The lessor gets hold of evidence that the
ambassador is about to return to his home country.
Can the lessor ask the court to stop the
ambassadors departure from the Philippine? (2000
Bar)
A: a) No, the foreign ambassador cannot invoke the

diplomatic immunity to resist the action, since he is not
using the house in Tagaytay City for the purposes of his
mission but merely for vacation. Under 3(1)(a) of the
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, a diplomatic
agent has no immunity in case of a real action relating to
private immovable property situated in the territory of the
receiving State unless he holds it on behalf of the sending
State for purposes of the mission.
b) No, the lessor cannot ask the court to stop the

departure of the ambassador from the Philippines. Under
Article 29 of the Vienna Convention, a diplomatic agent
shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention.
Q: The United States Ambassador from the

Philippines and the American Consul General also in
the Philippines quarreled in the lobby of Manila Hotel
and shot each other. May the Philippine courts take
jurisdiction over them for trial and punishment for the
crime they may have committed? (1979 Bar)
A: The Ambassador is immune from prosecution for all

crimes committed by him whether officially or in his private
capacity.
The consul is immune from criminal prosecution ONLY for

acts committed by him in connection with his official
functions.
Q: The Ambassador of State X to the Philippines
bought in the name of his government two houses
and lots at Forbes Park, Makati. One house is
used as the chancery and residence of the
ambassador, and the other as quarters for
nationals of State X who are studying in De La
Salle University. The Register of Deeds refused to
register the sale and to issue Transfer Certificates
of Title in the name of State X. Is his refusal
justified?
A: The prohibition in the Constitution against alienation of
lands in favor of aliens does not apply to alienation of the
same in favor of foreign governments to be used as
chancery and residence of its diplomatic representatives.
The receiving state is under obligation to facilitate the
acquisition on its territory, in accordance with its laws, by
the sending state of premises necessary for its mission, or
to assist the latter in obtaining accommodation in some
other way. Therefore, the refusal of the Register of Deeds
to register the sale and the issuance of TCT in the name
of state X is unjustified.
However, in so far as the house and lot to be used as

quarters of the nationals of State X who are studying in De
La Salle University are concerned, the Register of Deeds
correctly refused registration. Here, the prohibition in the
constitution against the transfer of properties to parties
other than the Filipino citizens or corporation 60% of the
capital of which is owned by such citizens should be
followed.
Termination of Diplomatic Relation

A diplomatic mission may come to an end by any of the
usual methods of terminating official relations like:
Under Municipal Law: [ R A D A R ]

a) Resignation
b) Accomplishment of the purpose
c) Death
d) Abolition of the office
e) Removal
Under the International Law: [ W E R ]
a) War - the outbreak of war between the sending and

receiving states terminates their diplomatic relations,
which is usually severed before the actual
commencement of hostilities;
b) Extinction - extinction of either the sending state or
the receiving state will also automatically terminate
diplomatic relations between them; OR
c) Recall may be demanded by the receiving state
when the foreign diplomat becomes a persona non
grata to it for any reason. Where the demand is
rejected by the sending state, the receiving state may
resort to the more drastic method of dismissal, by
means of which the offending diplomat is summarily
presented with his passport and asked to leave the
country.
Q: Will the termination of diplomatic relations also

terminate consular relations between the sending and
receiving states?
A: NO. Consuls belong to a class of state agents distinct

from that of diplomatic officers. They do not represent
their state in its relations with foreign states and are not
intermediaries through whom matters of state are
discussed between governments.
They look mainly after the commercial interest of their own
state in the territory of a foreign state.
They are not clothed with diplomatic character and are not
accredited to the government of the country where they
exercised their consular functions; they deal directly with
local authorities.
2 Kinds of Consuls
b) consules missi professional or career consuls who

are nationals of the sending state and are required to
devote their full time to the discharge of their duties.
c) consules electi may or may not be nationals of the
sending state and perform their consular functions
only in addition to their regular callings.
Q: Where do consuls derive their authority?

A: Consuls derive their authority from two principal
sources, to wit, the letter patent or letter de provision,
which is the commission issued by the sending state, and
the exequator, which is the permission given them by the
receiving state to perform their functions therein.
Q: Do consuls enjoy their own immunities and

privileges? Explain.
A: Yes, but not to the same extent as those enjoyed by
the diplomats.
Like diplomats, consuls are entitled to the inviolability of

their correspondence, archives and other documents,
freedom of movement and travel, immunity from
jurisdiction for acts performed in their official capacity and
exemption from certain taxes and customs duties.
However, consuls are liable to arrest and punishment for

grave offenses and may be required to give testimony,
subject to certain exceptions.
The consular offices are immune only with respect to that

part where the consular work is being performed and they
may be expropriated for purposes of national defense or
public utility.
Q: Discuss the differences, if any, in the privileges or

immunities of diplomatic envoys and consular officers
from the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the receiving
state. (1995 Bar)
A: Under Article 32 of the Vienna Convention of

Diplomatic Relations, a diplomatic agent shall enjoy
immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving
state. He shall also enjoy immunity from its civil and
administrative jurisdiction except in the case of:
a) A real action relating to private immovable

property situated in the territory of the receiving state,
unless he holds it on behalf of the sending state for the
purpose of the mission;
b) An action relating to succession in which the

diplomatic agent is involved as executor, administrator,
heir or legatee as private person and not on behalf of
the sending state;
c) An action relating to any professional or

commercial activity exercised by the diplomatic agent in
the receiving state outside of his official functions.
On the other hand, under Article 41 of the Vienna

Convention on the Consular Relations, a consular officer
does not enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of
the receiving state. Under Article 43 of the Vienna
Convention on Consular Relations, consular officers are
not amenable to the jurisdiction of the judicial or
administrative authorities of the receiving state in respect
of acts performed in the exercise of consular functions.
However, this does not apply in respect of a civil action

either:
a) Arising out of a CONTRACT concluded by a

consular officer in which he did not enter expressly or
impliedly as an agent of the sending state.
b) By a third party for DAMAGES arising from an
accident in the receiving state caused by a vehicle,
vessel or aircraft.
Q: D, the Ambassador of the Kingdom of Nepal to the

Philippines leased a house in Baguio City as his
personal vacation home. On account of military
disturbance in Nepal, D did not receive his salary and
allowances from his government and so he failed to
pay his rental for more than one year. E, the lessor,
filed an action for recovery of his property with the
RTC of Baguio City. (2000, 1989 Bar)
a) Can the action of E prosper?
b) Can E ask for the attachment of the furniture and
other personal properties of d after getting hold of
evidence that D is about to leave the country?
c) Can E ask the court to stop Ds departure from the
Philippines?
A: a) Yes Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations provides:
A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the

criminal jurisdiction of the receiving state. He shall also
enjoy immunity from its civil and administrative
jurisdiction, except in the case of: A real action relating
to private immovable property situated in the territory of
the receiving state, unless he holds it on behalf of the
sending state for the purpose of the mission.
The action against the ambassador is a real action

involving private immovable property situated within the
territory of the Philippines as the receiving state. The
action falls within the exception to the grant of immunity
from the civil and administrative jurisdiction of the
Philippines.
Alternative A: No, the action will not prosper. Although

the action is a real action relating to private immovable
property within the territory of the Philippines, nonetheless,
the vacation house may be considered property held by
the Ambassador in behalf of his State (Kingdom of Nepal)
for the purposes of the mission, and therefore, such is

beyond the civil and administrative jurisdiction of the
Philippines, including its court.
b) No, E cannot ask for the attachment of the personal

properties of the Ambassador. Article 30 and 31 of the
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations provide that
the papers, correspondence and the property of the
diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. Therefore, a writ of
attachment cannot be issued against the furniture and any
personal property. Moreover, on the assumption that the
Kingdom of Nepal grants similar protection to Philippine
diplomatic agents, Section 4 of RA 75 provides that any
writ or process issued by any court in the Philippines for
the attachment of the goods or chattel of the ambassador
of a foreign state to the Philippines shall be void.
c) No, E cannot ask the court to stop the departure of the

Ambassador of the Kingdom of Nepal from the Philippines.
Article 29 of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic
Relations provides: The person of a diplomatic agent
shall be inviolable. He shall not be liable to any form of
arrest or detention.
Q: Explain, using example, the meaning of exequator.

(1991 Bar)
A: Exequator is an authorization from the receiving state
admitting the head of a consular post to the exercise of his
functions. For example, if the Philippines appoint a consul
general for New York, he cannot start performing his
functions unless the President of the United States issues
an exequator to him.
Q: X, a secretary and consul in the American embassy

in Manila, bought from B a diamond ring in the amount
of P 50,000, which he later gave as a birthday present
to his Filipino girlfriend. The purchase price was paid
in check drawn upon the Citibank. Upon presentment
for payment, the check was dishonored for

insufficiency of funds. Because Xs failure to make
good of the dishonored check, B filed a complaint
against X in the Office of the City Prosecutor of Manila
for violation of BP 22. After preliminary investigation,
the information was filed against X in the City Court of
Manila. X filed a motion to dismiss the case against
him on the ground that he is a Secretary and Consul in
the American Embassy enjoying diplomatic immunity
from criminal prosecution in the Philippines. If you
were the judge, how would you resolve the motion to
dismiss? (1997 Bar)
A: The motion to dismiss should be granted. As consul,

X is not immune from criminal prosecution. Under
paragraph 3 of Article 41 of the Vienna Conventions, a
consular officer is not immune from the criminal jurisdiction
of the receiving state. In Schneekenburger vs. Mora, 63
Phil 249, it was held that a consul is not exempt from
criminal prosecution in the country where he is assigned.
However, as a secretary in the American Embassy, X
enjoys diplomatic immunity from the criminal prosecution.
As secretary, he is a diplomatic agent. Under paragraph 1
of Article 3 of the Vienna Convention, a diplomatic agent
against enjoys immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of
the receiving state.
Q: a) A consul of a South American country stationed
in Manila was charged with serious physical injuries.
May he claim immunity from jurisdiction of the local
court? Explain.
b) Suppose after he was charged, he was appointed
as his countrys ambassador to the Philippines. Can
his newly gained diplomatic status be a ground for the
dismissal of his criminal case? Explain. (1995 Bar)
A: a) No, Under Article 41 of the Vienna Convention,
consuls do not enjoy immunity from the criminal
jurisdiction of the receiving state. He is not liable to arrest

or detention pending the trial unless the offense was
committed against his father, mother, child, ascendant,
descendant or spouse. Consuls are not liable to arrest
and detention pending trial except in the case of grave
crime and pursuant to a decision by the competent judicial
authority. The crime of physical injuries is not a grave
crime unless it is committed against the above-mentioned
persons.
b) Yes, Under Article 40 of the Vienna Convention, if a
diplomatic agent is in the territory of a third state, which
has granted him a passport visa if such was necessary,
while proceeding to take up his post, the third state shall
accord him inviolability and such other immunities as may
be required to ensure his transit.
MUNICHER v. CA
G.R. No. 142396, 11 February 2003
If the acts giving rise to a suit are those of a foreign

government done by its foreign agent, although not
necessarily a diplomatic personage, but acting in his
official capacity, the complaint could be barred by the
immunity of the foreign sovereign from suit without its
consent.
Q: Adams and Baker are American citizens residing in

the Philippines. Adams befriended Baker and became
a frequent visitor at his house. One day, Adams
arrived with 30 members of the Philippine National
Police, armed with a Search Warrant authorizing the
search of Bakers house and its premises for
dangerous drugs being trafficked to the United States
of America.
The search purportedly yielded positive results, and

Baker was charged with Violation of the Dangerous
Drugs Act. Adams was the prosecutions principal

witness. However, for failure to prove his guilt beyond
reasonable doubt, Baker was acquitted.
Baker then sued Adams for damages for filing

trumped-up charges against him. Among the
defenses raised by Adams is that he has diplomatic
immunity, conformably with the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations. He presented Diplomatic Notes
from the American Embassy stating that he is an
agent of the United States Drug Enforcement Agency
tasked with conducting surveillance operations on
suspected drug dealers in the Philippines believed to
be the source of prohibited drugs being shipped to the
U.S. It was also stated that after having ascertained
the target, Adams would then inform the Philippine
narcotic agents to make the actual arrest. (2005 Bar)
(a) As counsel of plaintiff Baker, argue why his
complaint should not be dismissed on the ground of
defendant Adams diplomatic immunity from suit.
(b) As counsel of defendant Adams, argue for the
dismissal of the complaint.
A: (a) As a counsel of Baker, I shall argue that Baker has
no diplomatic immunity, because he is not performing
diplomatic functions.
Alternative A: (a) As a counsel for Baker, I will argue that

Adams diplomatic immunity cannot be accepted as the
sole basis for the dismissal of the damage suit, by mere
presentation of Diplomatic Notes stating that he is an
agent of the US Drug Enforcement Agency. His
diplomatic status was matter of serious doubt on account
of his failure to disclose it when he appeared as principal
witness in the earlier criminal (drug) case against Baker,
considering that as a matter of diplomatic practice a
diplomatic agent may be allowed or authorized to give
evidence as a witness by the sending state. Thus, his
diplomatic status was not sufficiently established.
(b) As counsel of Adams, I shall argue that since he was

acting within his assigned functions with the consent of the
Philippines, the suit against him is a suit against the
United States without its consent and is barred by state
immunity from suit. [Minucher v. CA, 397 SCRA 244,
(2003)]
JURISDICTIONAL ASSISTANCE
Extradition Defined
Extradition distinguished from Double Criminality
Basis for Allowing Extradition
Rules in Interpretation of Extradition Treaty
Extradition Distinguished from Deportation
Fundamental Principles Governing Extradition
Extradition of War Criminals and Terrorists
Attentat Clause
Five Postulates of Extradition
Right of Asylum
Asylum Distinguished from Refugees
3 Essentials Elements of Refugees
Non-Refoulment Principle
Nationality Distinguished from Citizenship
Doctrine of Effective Nationality
Statelessness
Extradition
The delivery of an accused or a convicted individual to the
State in whose territory he is alleged to have committed a
crime by the State on whose territory the alleged criminal
or criminal happens to be at the time.
The legal duty to extradite a fugitive from justice is based

only on treaty stipulations, which are classified under two
major types:
Older Type Principle of

Double Criminality
One, which Sometimes called no list treaty
contains a
specific list of The more modern type contains no list of
offenses that a crimes but provides that the offenses in
fugitive should question should be punishable in both
have committed states.
in order to be
extradited. It should not require that the name of the
crime described should be the same in
both countries. It is enough that the
particular act charged is a crime in both
jurisdictions.
Q: What is extradition? To whom does it apply?

Held: It is the process by which persons charged with or
convicted of crime against the law of a State and found in
a foreign State are returned by the latter to the former for
trial or punishment. It applies to those who are merely
charged with an offense but have not been brought to trial;
to those who have been tried and convicted and have
subsequently escaped from custody; and those who have
been convicted in absentia. It does not apply to persons
merely suspected of having committed an offense but
against whom no charge has been laid or to a person
whose presence is desired as a witness or for obtaining or
enforcing a civil judgment. (Weston, Falk, D' Amato,
International Law and Order, 2nd ed., p. 630 [1990], cited
in Dissenting Opinion, Puno, J., in Secretary of Justice v.
Hon. Ralph C. Lantion, G.R. No. 139465, Jan. 18, 2000,
En Banc)
Q: Discuss the basis for allowing extradition.

Held: Extradition was first practiced by the Egyptians,
Chinese, Chaldeans and Assyro-Babylonians but their
basis for allowing extradition was unclear. Sometimes, it
was granted due to pacts; at other times, due to plain

good will. The classical commentators on international
law thus focused their early views on the nature of the
duty to surrender an extraditee --- whether the duty is legal
or moral in character. Grotius and Vattel led the school of
thought that international law imposed a legal duty called
civitas maxima to extradite criminals. In sharp contrast,
Puffendorf and Billot led the school of thought that the so-
called duty was but an "imperfect obligation which could
become enforceable only by a contract or agreement
between states.
Modern nations tilted towards the view of Puffendorf and

Billot that under international law there is no duty to
extradite in the absence of treaty, whether bilateral or
multilateral. Thus, the US Supreme Court in US v.
Rauscher (119 US 407, 411, 7 S Ct. 234, 236, 30 L. ed.
425 [1886]), held: x x x it is only in modern times that the
nations of the earth have imposed upon themselves the
obligation of delivering up these fugitives from justice to
the states where their crimes were committed, for trial and
punishment. This has been done generally by treaties x x
x Prior to these treaties, and apart from them there was
no well-defined obligation on one country to deliver up
such fugitives to another; and though such delivery was
often made it was upon the principle of comity x x x.
(Dissenting Opinion, Puno, J., in Secretary of Justice v.
Hon. Ralph C. Lantion, G.R. No. 139465, Jan. 18, 2000,
En Banc)
Q: What is the nature of an extradition proceeding? Is

it akin to a criminal proceeding?
Held: [A]n extradition proceeding is sui generis. It is not a
criminal proceeding which will call into operation all the
rights of an accused as guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.
To begin with, the process of extradition does not involve
the determination of the guilt or innocence of an accused.
His guilt or innocence will be adjudged in the court of the
state where he will be extradited. Hence, as a rule,

constitutional rights that are only relevant to determine the
guilt or innocence of an accused cannot be invoked by an
extraditee especially by one whose extradition papers are
still undergoing evaluation. As held by the US Supreme
Court in United States v. Galanis:
An extradition proceeding is not a criminal prosecution,

and the constitutional safeguards that accompany a
criminal trial in this country do not shield an accused from
extradition pursuant to a valid treaty. (Wiehl, Extradition
Law at the Crossroads: The Trend Toward Extending
Greater Constitutional Procedural Protections To Fugitives
Fighting Extradition from the United States, 19 Michigan
Journal of International Law 729, 741 [1998], citing United
States v. Galanis, 429 F. Supp. 1215 [D. Conn. 1977])
There are other differences between an extradition

proceeding and a criminal proceeding. An extradition
proceeding is summary in natural while criminal
proceedings involve a full-blown trial. In contradistinction
to a criminal proceeding, the rules of evidence in an
extradition proceeding allow admission of evidence under
less stringent standards. In terms of the quantum of
evidence to be satisfied, a criminal case requires proof
beyond reasonable doubt for conviction while a fugitive
may be ordered extradited upon showing of the existence
of a prima facie case. Finally, unlike in a criminal case
where judgment becomes executory upon being rendered
final, in an extradition proceeding, our courts may adjudge
an individual extraditable but the President has the final
discretion to extradite him. The United States adheres to
a similar practice whereby the Secretary of State
exercises wide discretion in balancing the equities of the
case and the demands of the nation's foreign relations
before making the ultimate decision to extradite.
As an extradition proceeding is not criminal in character

and the evaluation stage in an extradition proceeding is
not akin to a preliminary investigation, the due process
safeguards in the latter do not necessarily apply to the
former. This we hold for the procedural due process
required by a given set of circumstances must begin with
a determination of the precise nature of the government
function involved as well as the private interest that has
been affected by governmental action. The concept of
due process is flexible for not all situations calling for
procedural safeguards call for the same kind of
procedure. (Secretary of Justice v. Hon. Ralph C.
Lantion, G.R. No. 139465, Oct. 17, 2000, En Banc [Puno])
Q: Will the retroactive application of an extradition

treaty violate the constitutional prohibition against "ex
post facto" laws?
Held: The prohibition against ex post facto law applies

only to criminal legislation which affects the substantial
rights of the accused. This being so, there is no merit in
the contention that the ruling sustaining an extradition
treatys retroactive application violates the constitutional
prohibition against ex post facto laws. The treaty is
neither a piece of criminal legislation nor a criminal
procedural statute. (Wright v. CA, 235 SCRA 341, Aug.
15, 1994 [Kapunan])
Q: The Philippines and Australia entered into a Treaty

of Extradition concurred in by the Senate of the
Philippines on September 10, 1990. Both
governments have notified each other that the
requirements for the entry into force of the Treaty
have been complied with. It took effect in 1990.
The Australian government is requesting the

Philippine government to extradite its citizen, Gibson,
who has committed in his country the indictable
offense of Obtaining Property by Deception in 1985.

The said offense is among those enumerated as
extraditable in the Treaty.
For his defense, Gibson asserts that the retroactive

application of the extradition treaty amounts to an ex
post facto law. Rule on Gibsons contention. (2005
Bar)
A: The contention of Gibson is not tenable. The

prohibition in Section 22, Article III of the Constitution
refers to ex post facto laws. An extradition treaty is not a
criminal law. [Wright v. CA, 235 SCRA 341 (1994)]
Q: Discuss the rules in the interpretation of extradition

treaties.
Held: [A]ll treaties, including the RP-US Extradition
Treaty, should be interpreted in light of their intent.
Nothing less than the Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties to which the Philippines is a signatory provides
that a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in
accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the
terms of the treaty in their context and in light of its object
and purpose. X x x. It cannot be gainsaid that today,
countries like the Philippines forge extradition treaties to
arrest the dramatic rise of international and transnational
crimes like terrorism and drug trafficking. Extradition
treaties provide the assurance that the punishment of
these crimes will not be frustrated by the frontiers of
territorial sovereignty. Implicit in the treaties should be the
unbending commitment that the perpetrators of these
crimes will not be coddled by any signatory state.
It ought to follow that the RP-US Extradition Treaty calls

for an interpretation that will minimize if not prevent the
escape of extraditees from the long arm of the law and
expedite their trial. X x x
[A]n equally compelling factor to consider is the

understanding of the parties themselves to the RP-US
Extradition Treaty as well as the general interpretation of
the issue in question by other countries with similar
treaties with the Philippines. The rule is recognized that
while courts have the power to interpret treaties, the
meaning given them by the departments of government
particularly charged with their negotiation and enforcement
is accorded great weight. The reason for the rule is laid
down in Santos III v. Northwest Orient Airlines, et al. (210
SCRA 256, 261 [1992]), where we stressed that a treaty is
a joint executive-legislative act which enjoys the
presumption that it was first carefully studied and
determined to be constitutional before it was adopted and
given the force of law in the country. (Secretary of
Justice v. Hon. Ralph C. Lantion, G.R. No. 139465, Oct.
17, 2000, En Banc [Puno])
Q: What is the difference, if any, between extradition

and deportation? (1995 Bar)
A:
BASIS EXTRADITION DEPORTATION

Nature Normally committed with Even if no crime was
criminal offenses in the committed as long as
territory of the requesting the alien is
state extraditable
Benefit Effected for the benefit of Effected for the

the state to which the protection of the state
person being extradited expelling an alien
will be surrendered because his presence
because he is a fugitive is inimical to public
criminal in that state good
How? Effected on the basis of The unilateral act of

an extradition treaty or the state expelling the
upon the request of alien
another state
Where? The alien will be The undesirable alien

surrendered to the state may be sent to any
asking for his extradition state willing to accept
him
Fundamental Principles Governing Extradition:
a) There is no legal obligation to surrender a fugitive
unless there is a treaty.
b) Religious and political offenses are generally not
extraditable.
c) A person extradited can be prosecuted by the
requesting state only for the crime for which he was
extradited; and
d) Unless provided for in a treaty, the crime for which a
person is extradited must have been committed in the
territory of the requesting state.
Q: John is a former President of the Republic X, bent

on regaining power which he lost to President Harry in
an election. Fully convinced that he was cheated, he
set out to destabilize the government of President
Harry by means of a series of protest actions. His
plan was to weaken the government and when the
situation became ripe for a take-over, to assassinate
President Harry.
William, on the other hand, is a believer in human

rights and a former follower of President Harry.
Noting the systematic acts of harassment committed
by government agents against farmers protesting the
seizure of their lands, laborers complaining of low
wages, and students seeking free tuition, William
organized groups which held peaceful rallies in front

of the Presidential Palace to express their grievances.
On the eve of the assassination attempt, Johns men

were caught by member of the Presidential Security
Group. President Harry went on air threatening to
prosecute plotters and dissidents of his
administration. The next day, the government
charged John with assassination attempt and William
with inciting to sedition.
John fled to Republic A. William, who was in Republic

B attending a lecture on democracy, was advised by
his friends to stay in Republic B.
Both Republic A and Republic B have conventional

extradition treaties with Republic X.
If Republic X requests the extradition of John and

William, can Republic A deny the request? Why? State
your reason fully. (2002 Bar)
A: Republic A can refuse to extradite John, because his

offense is a political offense. John was plotting to take
over the government and the plan of John to assassinate
President Harry was part of such plan. However, if the
extradition treaty contains an attentat clause, Republic A
can extradite John because under the attentat clause, the
taking of the life or attempt against the life of a head of
state or that of the members of his family does not
constitute a political offense and is therefore extraditable.
Alternative A: Republic A may or can refuse the request

of extradition of William because he is not in its territory
and thus it is not in the position to deliver him to Republic
X.
Even if William were in the territorial jurisdiction of

Republic A, he may not be extradited because inciting to
sedition, of which he is charged, constitutes a political
offense. It is a standard provision of extradition treaties,
such as the one between Republic A and Republic X, that
political offenses are not extraditable.
Alternative A: Republic B can deny the request the

request of Republic X to extradite William, because his
offense was not a political offense. On the basis of the
predominance of proportionality test, his acts were not
directly connected to any purely political offense.
Q: On November 1, 1976, A, B, C and D, self styled

Moro rebels long wanted by the authorities for the
fatal ambuscade of a bus load of innocent civilians,
hijacked a PAL lane on its Manila-Davao flight which
they forcibly diverted to, and landed in Jakarta
Indonesia. In that country, A, B, C and D sought
political asylum, invoking the UN Declaration on
Human Rights. Reacting, the Philippine Government,
through proper diplomatic channels sought after their
extradition. May Indonesia grant asylum or should it
extradite A, B, C and D to the Philippines. (1976 Bar)
Q: Sergio Osmea III and Eugenio Lopez Jr. both

charged with attempted assassination of President
Marcos before the military tribunal, escaped from
military custody, flew to Hong Kong and then to
California USA where they are reportedly seeking
political asylum. There is no extradition treaty
however between the Philippines and the United
States. Assuming that the Philippine Government
desires the surrender of the above-named fugitives to
the Philippines to face trial before the military tribunal,
how can this be legally done under International Law?
(1978 Bar)
A: The Philippines may only request and cannot demand

the surrender of the two fugitives. As territorial sovereign,
the United States is not obliged to return them but may
decide to do so for reasons of comity. This is likely,
however, because the escapees are sought for political
offense and can claim the right of asylum under the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Q: Explain, using example, the principle of Double

Criminality. (1991 Bar)
A: The principle of double criminality is the rule in

extradition which states that for a request to be honored,
the crime for which the extradition is requested must be a
crime in both the requesting state and the state to which
the fugitive fled. For example, since murder is a crime
both in the Philippines and Canada, under the Treaty of
extradition between the Philippines and Canada, the
Philippines can request Canada to extradite Filipino who
has fled to Canada.
Q: Patrick is charged with illegal recruitment and

estafa before the RTC of Manila. He jumped bail and
managed to escape to America. Assume that there is
an extradition treaty between the Philippines and
America and it does not include illegal recruitment as
one of the extraditable offenses. Upon surrender of
Patrick by the US Government to the Philippines,
Patrick protested that he could not be tried for illegal
recruitment. Decide. (1998 Bar)
A: Under the principle of specialty in extradition, Patrick

cannot be tried for illegal recruitment since this is not
included in the list of extraditable offenses in the
extradition treaty between the Philippines and the United
States, unless the United States does not object to the trial
of Patrick for illegal recruitment.
Q: The Extradition Treaty between France and the

Philippines is silent as to applicability with respect to
crimes committed prior to its effectivity.
a) Can France demand the extradition of A, a French
national residing in the Philippines, for an offense
committed in France prior to the effectivity of the
treaty? Explain.
b)Can A contest his extradition on the ground that it
violates the ex post facto provision in the Philippine
Constitution? Explain. (1996 Bar)
A: a) In Clough vs. Strakesh, 109 Fed 330, it was held
that an extradition treaty applies to Crimes committed
before its effectivity unless the extradition treaty expressly
exempts them. As Whiteman points out, extradition does
not define crimes but merely provides a means by which a
state may obtain the return and punishment of persons
charged with or convicted of having committed a crime
who fled the jurisdiction of the state whose law has been
violated. It is therefore immaterial whether at the time of
the commission of the crime for which extradition is sought
no treaty was in existence. If at the time of extradition is
requested there is in force between the requesting and the
requested state a treaty covering the offense on which the
request is based, the treaty is applicable.
b) No, as held in WRIGHT vs. CA, 295 SCRA 341, the

prohibition against ex post facto laws in Section 22 of
Article III of the Constitution applies to penal laws only and
does not apply to extradition treaties.
Extradition of War Criminals and Terrorists

(Violators of crimes against international law)
As violators of crimes against international law, war
criminals are subject to extradition in 1946, the UN
General Assembly passed a resolution recommending to
members and calling upon all non-members to extradite
war criminals, including traitors.
Attentat Clause
A provision in an extradition treaty that stipulates that the
murder of the head of a foreign government or the
member of his family should not be considered as a
political offense.
Doctrine of Reciprocity
If the requesting state is shown to be willing to surrender
its own nationals for trial by the courts of another country,
the detaining state must also surrender its own citizens for
trial.
5 POSTULATES OF EXTRADITION
Extradition Is a Major Instrument for the Suppression

of Crime.
FIRST, extradition treaties are entered into for the purpose

of suppressing crime by facilitating the arrest and the
custodial transfer of a fugitive from one state to the other.
With the advent of easier and faster means of international

travel, the flight of affluent Criminals from one country to
another for the purpose of committing crime and evading
prosecution have become more frequent. Accordingly,
governments are adjusting their methods of dealing with
criminals and crimes that transcend international
boundaries.
Today, a majority of nations in the world community have

come to look upon extradition as the major effective
instrument of international co-operation in the suppression
of crime. It is the only regular system hat has been
devised to return fugitives to the jurisdiction of a court
competent to try them in accordance with municipal and
international law.
The Requesting State Will Accord Due Process to the

Accused.
SECOND, an extradition treaty presupposes that both

parties thereto have examined and that both accept and
trust each others legal system and judicial process. More
pointedly, our duly authorized representatives signature
on an extradition treaty signifies our confidence in the
capacity and the willingness of the other state to protect
the basic rights of the person sought to be extradited.
That signature signifies our full faith that the accused will
be given, upon extradition to the requesting state, all
relevant and basic rights in the criminal proceedings that
will take place therein; otherwise, the treaty would not
have been signed, or would have been directly attacked
for its unconstitutionality.
The Proceedings Are Sui Generis.
THIRD, as pointed out in Secretary of Justice vs. Lantion,

extradition proceedings are not criminal in nature. In
criminal proceedings, the constitutional rights of the
accused are at fore; in extradition, which is sui generis - in
a class by itself they are not.
Given the foregoing, it is evident that the extradition court

is not called upon to ascertain the guilt or the innocence of
the person sought to be extradited. Such determination
during the extradition proceedings will only result in
needless duplication and delay.
Extradition is merely a measure of international judicial

assistance through which a person charged with or
convicted of a crime is restored to a jurisdiction with the
best claim to try that person. It is not part of the function
of the assisting authorities to enter into questions, which
are the prerogative of that jurisdiction.
The ultimate purpose of extradition proceedings in court is

only to determine whether the extradition request complies
with the Extradition Treaty, and whether the person sought
is extraditable.
Compliance Shall Be in Good Faith.
FOURTH, our executive branch of government voluntarily

entered into the Extradition Treaty, and our legislative
branch ratified it. Hence, the Treaty carries the
presumption that its implementation will serve the national
interest.
Fulfilling our obligations under the Extradition Treaty

promotes comity with the requesting state. On the other
hand, failure to fulfill our obligations thereunder paints a
bad image of our country before the world community.
Such failure would discourage other states from entering
into treaties with us, particularly an extradition treaty that
hinges on reciprocity.
Verily, we are bound by pacta sunt servanda to comply in

good faith with our obligations under the Treaty. This
principle requires that we deliver the accused to the
requesting country if the conditions precedent to
extradition, as set forth in the Treaty, is satisfied. In other
words, the demanding government, where it has done all
that the treaty and the law require it to do, is entitled to the
delivery of the accused on the issue of the proper warrant,
and the other government is under obligation to make the
surrender. Accordingly, the Philippines must be ready
and in a position to deliver the accused, should it be found
proper.
There Is an Underlying Risk of Flight
FIFTH, persons to be extradited are presumed to be flight

risks. This prima facie presumption finds reinforcement in
the experience of the executive branch nothing short of
confinement can ensure that the accused will not flee the
jurisdiction of the requested state in order to thwart their
extradition to the requesting state.
The present extradition case further validates the premise

that persons sought to be extradited have a propensity to
flee. Indeed, extradition hearings would not even begin, if
only the accused were willing to submit to trial in the
requesting country. Prior acts of herein respondent:
c) Leaving the requesting state right before the conclusion

of his indictment proceedings there; and
d) Remaining in the requested state despite learning that
the requesting state is seeking his return and that the
crimes he is charged with are bailable - eloquently
speak of his aversion to the processes in the requesting
state, as well as his predisposition to avoid them at all
cost.
These circumstances point to an ever-present, underlying

high risk of flight. He has demonstrated that he has the
capacity and the will to flee. Having fled once, what is
there to stop him, given sufficient opportunity, from fleeing
a second time?
Q: Is the respondent in extradition proceeding entitled
to notice and hearing before the issuance of a warrant
of arrest?
A: Both parties cite section 6 of PD 1069 in support of
their arguments. It states:
SEC. 6. Issuance of Summons; Temporary Arrest,

Hearing, Service of Notices -
(1) Immediately upon receipt of the petition, the presiding

judge of the court shall, as soon as practicable, summon
the accused to appear and to answer the petition on the
day and hour fixed in the order. He may issue a warrant
for the immediate arrest of the accused which may be
served any where within the Philippines if it appears to the
presiding judge that the immediate arrest and temporary
detention of the accused will best serve the ends of
justice. Upon receipt of the answer, or should the accused
after having received the summons fail to answer within
the time fixed, the presiding judge shall hear the case or
set another date for the hearing thereof.
(2) The order and notice as well as a copy of the warrant

of arrest, if issued, shall be promptly served each upon the
accused and the attorney having charge of the case.
Does this provision sanction RTC Judge Purganans act of

immediately setting for hearing the issuance of a warrant
of arrest? We rule in the negative:
A. On the Basis of the Extradition law
It is significant to note that Section 6 of PD 1069, our

Extradition Law, uses the word immediate to qualify the
arrest of the accused. This qualification would be
rendered nugatory by setting for hearing the issuance of
the arrest warrant. Hearing entails sending notices to the
opposing parties, receiving facts and arguments from
them, and giving them time to prepare and present such
facts and arguments. Arrest subsequent to a hearing can
no longer be considered immediate. The law could not
have intended the word as a mere superfluity but on the
whole as a means of imparting a sense of urgency and
swiftness in the determination of whether a warrant of
arrest should be issued.
By using the phrase if it appears, the law further conveys

that accuracy is not as important as speed at such early
stage. The trial court is not expected to make an
exhaustive determination to ferret out the true and actual
situation, immediately upon the filling of the petition. From
the knowledge and the material then available to it, the
court is expected merely to get a good first impression - a
prima facie finding - sufficient to make a speedy initial
determination as regards the arrest and detention of the
accused.
We stress that the prima facie existence of probable cause

for hearing the petition and, a priori, for issuing an arrest
warrant was already evident from the petition itself and its
supporting documents. Hence, after having already
determined therefrom that a prima facie finding did not
exist, respondent judge gravely abused his discretion
when he set the matter for hearing upon motion of
Jimenez.
Moreover, the law specifies that the court se a hearing

upon receipt of the answer or upon failure of the accused
to answer after receiving the summons. In connection
with the matter of immediate arrest, however, the word
hearing is notably absent from the provision. Evidently,
had the holding of a hearing at that stage been intended,
the law could have easily so provided. It also bears
emphasizing at this point that extradition proceedings are
summary in nature. Hence, the silence of the Law and the
Treaty leans to the more reasonable interpretation that
there is no intention to punctuate with a hearing every little
step in the entire proceedings.
Verily, as argued by petitioner, sending to persons sought

to be extradited a notice of the request for their arrest and
setting it for hearing at some future date would give them
ample opportunity to prepare and execute an escape.
Neither the Treaty nor the Law could have intended that
consequence, for the very purpose of both would have
been defeated by the escape of the accused from the
requested state.
B. On the Basis of the Constitution
Even Section 2 of Article III of our Constitution, which is

invoked by Jimenez, does not require a notice or a hearing
before the issuance of a warrant of arrest. It provides:
Sec. 2 - The right of the people to be secure in their

persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures and seizures of
whatever nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable,
and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue
except upon probable cause to be determined personally
by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation
of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce,
and particularly describing the place to be searched and
the persons or things to be seized.
To determine probable cause for the issuance of arrest

warrants, the Constitution itself requires only the
examination - under oath or affirmation - of complainants
and the witnesses they may produce. There is no
requirement to notify and hear the accused before the
issuance of warrants of arrest.
In Ho vs. People and in all the cases cited therein, never

was a judge required to go to the extent of conducting a
hearing just for the purpose of personally determining
probable cause for the issuance of a warrant of arrest. All
we required was that the judge must have sufficient
supporting documents upon which to make his
independent judgment, or at the very least, upon which to
verify the findings of the prosecutor as to the existence of

probable cause.
In Webb vs. De Leon, the Court categorically stated that a

judge was not supposed to conduct a hearing before
issuing a warrant of arrest:
Again, we stress that before issuing warrants of arrest,

judges merely determine personally the probability, not
the certainty of guilt of an accused. In doing so, judges
do not conduct a de novo hearing to determine the
existence of probable cause. They just personally
review the initial determination of the prosecutor finding
a probable cause to see if it is supported by substantial
evidence.
At most, in cases of clear insufficiency of evidence on

record, judges merely further examine complainants and
their witnesses. In the present case validating the act of
respondent judge and instituting the practice of hearing
the accused and his witnesses at this early stage would be
discordant with the rationale for the entire system. If the
accused were allowed to be heard and necessarily to
present evidence during the prima facie determination for
the issuance of a warrant of arrest, what would stop him
from presenting his entire plethora of defenses at this
stage -- if he so desires -- in his effort to negate a prima
facie finding? Such a procedure could convert the
determination of a prima facie case into a full-blown trial of
the entire proceedings and possibly make trial of the main
case superfluous. This scenario is also anathema to the
summary nature of extraditions.
That the case under consideration is an extradition and

not a criminal action is not sufficient to justify the adoption
of a set of procedures more protective of the accused. If a
different procedure were called for at all, a more restrictive
one not the opposite would be justified in view of

respondents demonstrated predisposition to flee.
Q: Is respondent Mark Jimenez entitled to bail during

the pendency of the Extradition Proceeding?
A: We agree with petitioner: As suggested by the use of

the word conviction, the constitutional provision on bail
quoted above, as well as Section 4 of Rule 114 pf the
Rules of Court, applies only when a person has been
arrested and detained for violation of Philippine criminal
laws. It does not apply to extradition proceedings,
because extradition courts do not render judgments of
conviction or acquittal.
Moreover, the constitutional right to bail flows from the

presumption of innocence in favor of every accused who
should not be subjected to the loss of freedom as
thereafter he would be entitled to acquittal, unless his guilt
be proved beyond reasonable doubt.
It follows that the constitutional provision on bail will not

apply to a case like extradition, where the presumption of
innocence is not at issue.
The provision in the Constitution stating that the right to

bail shall not be impaired even when the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus is suspended does not detract from
the rule that the constitutional right to bail is available only
in criminal proceedings. It must be noted that the
suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus
finds application only to persons judicially charged for
rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly connected with
invasion. Hence, the second sentence in the
constitutional provision on bail merely emphasizes the
right to bail in criminal proceedings for the aforementioned
offenses. It cannot be taken to mean that the right is
available even in extradition proceedings that are not

criminal in nature.
That the offenses for which Jimenez is sought to be

extradited are bailable in the United States is not an
argument to grant him one in the present case. To stress,
extradition proceedings are separate and distinct from the
trial for the offenses for which he is charged. He should
apply for bail before the courts trying the criminal cases
against him, not before the extradition court.
Q: Will Mark Jimenez detention prior to the conclusion

of the extradition proceedings not amount of his right
to due process?
A: Contrary to his contention, his detention prior to the

conclusion of the extradition proceedings does not amount
to a violation of his right to due process. We reiterate the
familiar doctrine that the essence of due process is the
opportunity to be heard but, at the same time, point out
that the doctrine does not always call for a prior
opportunity to be heard. Where the circumstancessuch
as those present in an extradition case call for it, a
subsequent opportunity to be heard is enough. In the
present case, respondent will be given full opportunity to
be heard subsequently, when the extradition court hears
the Petition for Extradition. Hence, there is no violation of
his right to due process and fundamental fairness.
Contrary to the contention of Jimenez, we find no

arbitrariness, either, in the immediate deprivation of his
liberty prior to his being heard. That his arrest and
detention will not be arbitrary is sufficiently ensured by:
1) The DOJs filing in court of the Petition with its

supporting documents after a determination that the
extradition request meets the requirements of the law
and the relevant treaty;
2) The extradition judges independent prima facie

determination that his arrest will best serve the ends of
justice before the issuance of a warrant for his arrest;
and
3) His opportunity, once he is under the courts custody, to

apply for bail as an exception to the no-initial-bail rule.
It is also worth noting that before the US government

requested the extradition of respondent, proceedings had
already been conducted in that country. But because he
left the jurisdiction of the requesting state before those
proceedings could be completed, it was hindered from
continuing with the due processes prescribed under its
laws. His invocation of due process now has thus become
hollow. He already had that opportunity in the requesting
state; yet instead of taking it, he ran away.
In this light, would it be proper and just for the government
to increase the risk of violating its treaty obligations in
order to accord Respondent Jimenez his personal liberty
in the span of time that it takes to resolve the Petition for
Extradition? His supposed immediate deprivation of
liberty without the due process that he had previously
shunned pales against the governments interest in
fulfilling its Extradition Treaty obligations and in
cooperating with the world community in the suppression
of crime. Indeed, constitutional liberties do not exist in a
vacuum; the due process rights accorded to individuals
must be carefully balanced against exigent and palpable
government interests.
Too, we cannot allow our country to be a haven for

fugitives, cowards and weaklings who, instead of facing
the consequences of their actions, choose to run and hide.
Hence, it would not be good policy to increase the risk of
violating our treaty obligations if, through overprotection or
excessively liberal treatment, persons sought to be

extradited are able to evade arrest or escape from our
custody. In the absence of any provision - in the
Constitution, the law or the treaty - expressly guaranteeing
the right to bail in extradition proceedings, adopting the
practice of not granting them bail, as a general rule, would
be a step towards deterring fugitives from coming to the
Philippines to hide from or evade their prosecutors.
The denial of bail as a matter of course in extradition

cases falls into place with and gives life to Article 14 of the
Treaty, since this practice would encourage the accused
to voluntarily surrender to the requesting state to cut short
their detention here. Likewise, their detention pending the
resolution of extradition proceedings would fall into place
with the emphasis of the Extradition Law on the summary
nature of extradition cases and the need for their speedy
disposition.
Q: What are the exceptions to the No Bail Rule in

Extradition Proceedings?
A: The rule, we repeat, is that bail is not a matter of right

in extradition cases.
However, the judiciary has the constitutional duty to curb

grave abuse of discretion and tyranny, as well as the
power to promulgate rules to protect and enforce
constitutional rights. Furthermore, we believe that the
right to due process is broad enough to include the grant
of basic fairness to extraditees. Indeed, the right to due
process extends to the life, liberty or property of every
person. It is dynamic and resilient, adaptable to every
situation calling for its application.
Accordingly and to best serve the ends of justice, we

believe and so hold that, after a potential extraditee has
been arrested or placed under the custody of the law, bail
may be applied for and granted as an exception, only

upon a clear and convincing showing of the following:
1) That, once granted bail, the applicant will not be a flight

risk or a danger to the community; and
2) That there exist special, humanitarian and compelling
circumstances including, as a matter of reciprocity,
those cited by the highest court in the requesting state
when it grants provisional liberty in extradition case
therein.
3) That, the extraditee will abide with all the orders and
processes of the extradition court.
Since this exception has no express or specific statutory

basis, and since it is derived essentially from general
principles of justice and fairness, the applicant bears the
burden of proving the above two-tiered requirement with
clarity; precision and emphatic forcefulness.
The Court realizes that extradition is basically an
executive; not a judicial, responsibility arising from the
presidential power to conduct foreign relations. In its
barest concept, it partakes of the nature of police
assistance amongst states, which is not normally a judicial
prerogative.
Hence, any intrusion by the courts into the exercise of this
power should be characterized by caution, so that the vital
international and bilateral interests of our country will not
be unreasonably impeded or compromised. In short, while
this Court is ever protective of the sporting idea of fair
play, it also recognizes the limits of its own prerogatives
and the need to fulfill international obligations.
Along this line, Jimenez contends that there are special

circumstances that are compelling enough for the Court to
grant his request for provisional release on bail. We have
carefully examined these circumstances and shall now
discuss them.
1. Alleged Disenfranchisement
While his extradition was pending, Respondent Jimenez

was elected as a member of the House of
Representatives. On that basis, he claims that his
detention will disenfranchise his Manila district of 600,000
residents. We are not persuaded. In People vs. Jalosjos,
the Court has already debunked the disenfranchisement
argument xxx.
It must be noted that even before private respondent ran

for and won a congressional seat in Manila, it was already
of public knowledge that the United States was requesting
extradition. Hence, his constituents were or should have
been prepared for the consequences of the extradition
case against their representative, including his detention
pending the final resolution of the case. Premises
considered and in line with Jalosjos, we are constrained to
rule against his claim that his election to public office is by
itself a compelling reason to grant him bail.
2. Anticipated Delay
Respondent Jimenez further contends that because the

extradition proceedings are lengthy, it would be unfair to
confine him during the pendency of the case. Again we
are not convinced. We must emphasize that extradition
cases are summary in nature. They are resorted to
merely to determine whether the extradition petition and its
annexes conform to the Extradition Treaty, not to
determine guilt or innocence. Neither is it, as a rule,
intended to address issues relevant to the constitutional
rights available to the accused in a criminal action. We
are not overruling the possibility that petitioner may, in bad
faith, unduly delay the proceedings. This is another matter
that is not at issue here. Thus, any further discussion of
this point would be merely anticipatory and academic.

However, if the delay were due to maneuverings of
respondent, with all the more reason would the grant of
bail not be justified. Giving premium to delay by
considering it as a special circumstance for the grant of
bail would be tantamount to giving him the power to grant
bail to himself. It would also encourage him to stretch out
and unreasonably delay the extradition proceedings even
more. This we cannot allow.
3. Not a Flight Risk?
Jimenez further claims that he is not a flight risk. To

support this claim, he stresses that he learned of the
extradition request in June 1999; yet, he has not fled the
country. True, he has not actually fled during the
preliminary stages of the request for his extradition. Yet,
this fact cannot be taken to mean that he will not flee as
the process moves forward to its conclusion, as he hears
the footsteps of the requesting government inching closer
and closer. That he has not yet fled from the Philippines
cannot be taken to mean that he will stand his ground and
still be within reach of our government if and when it
matters; that is, upon the resolution of the Petition for
Extradition.
In any event, it is settled that bail may be applied for and

granted by the trial court at anytime after the applicant has
been taken into custody and prior to judgment, even after
bail has been previously denied. In the present case, the
extradition court may continue hearing evidence on the
application for bail, which may be granted in accordance
with the guidelines in this Decision.
Discuss the Ten Points in

Extradition proceedings.
1) The ultimate purpose of extradition proceedings is to

determine whether the request expressed in the petition,
supported by its annexes and the evidence that may be
adduced during the hearing of the petition, complies with
the Extradition Treaty and Law and whether the person
sought is extraditable. The proceedings are intended
merely to assist the requesting state in bringing the
accused -- or the fugitive who has illegally escaped --
back to its territory, so that the criminal process may
proceed therein.
2) By entering into an extradition treaty, the Philippines is

deemed to have reposed its trust in the reliability or
soundness of the legal and judicial system of its treaty
partner, as well as in the ability and the willingness of the
latter to grant basic rights to the accused in the pending
criminal case therein.
3) By nature then, extradition proceedings are not

equivalent to a criminal case in which guilt or
innocence is determined. Consequently, an extradition
case is not one in which the constitutional rights of the
accused are necessarily available. It is more akin, if at all,
to a courts request to police authorities for the arrest of
the accused who is at large or has escaped detention or
jumped bail. Having once escaped the jurisdiction of the
requesting state, the reasonable prima facie presumption
is that the person would escape again if given the
opportunity.
4) Immediately upon receipt of the petition for

extradition and its supporting documents, the judge
shall make a prima facie finding whether the petition is
sufficient in form and in substance, whether it complies
with the Extradition Treaty and the Law, and whether the
person sought is extraditable. The magistrate has

discretion to require the petitioner to submit further
documentation, or to personally examine the affiants or
witnesses. If convinced that a prima facie case exists, the
judge immediately issues a warrant for the arrest of the
potential extraditee and summons him or her to answer
and to appear at scheduled hearing on the petition.
5) After being taken into custody, potential extraditees may

apply for bail. Since the applicants have a history of
absconding, they have the burden of showing that (a) their
is no flight risk and no danger to the community; and (b)
there exist a special, humanitarian or compelling
circumstances. The grounds used by the highest court in
the requesting state for the grant of bail therein may be
considered, under the principle of reciprocity as a special
circumstance.
In extradition cases, bail is not a matter of right; it is

subject to judicial discretion in the context of the peculiar
facts of each case.
6) Potential extraditees are entitled to the rights to due

process and to fundamental fairness. Due process
does not always call for a prior opportunity to be heard.
A subsequent opportunity to be heard is sufficient due
process to the flight risk involved. Indeed, available
during the hearings on the petition and the answer is the
full chance to be heard and to enjoy fundamental
fairness that is compatible with the summary nature of
extradition.
7) This Court will always remain a protector of human

rights, a bastion of liberty, a bulwark of democracy and
the conscience of society. But it is also well aware of
the limitations of its authority and of the need for respect
for the prerogatives of the other co-equal and co-
independent organs of government.
8) We realize that extradition is essentially an executive,

not a judicial, responsibility arising out of the presidential
power to conduct foreign relations and to implement
treaties. Thus, the Executive Department of
government has broad discretion in its duty and power
of implementation.
9) On the other hand, courts merely perform oversight

functions and exercise review authority to prevent the
exercise of grave abuse and tyranny. They should not
allow contortions, delays and over-due process every
little step of the way, lest these summary extradition
proceedings become not only inutile but also sources of
international embarrassment due to our inability to
comply in good faith with a treaty partners simple
request to return a fugitive. Worse our country should
not be converted into a dubious haven where fugitives
and escapes can unreasonably delay, mummify, mock,
frustrate, checkmate and defeat the quest for bilateral
justice and international cooperation.
10) At the bottom, extradition proceedings should be

conducted with all deliberate speed to determine
compliance with the Extradition Treaty and the Law; and
while safeguarding basic individual rights, to avoid the
legalistic contortions, delays and technicalities that may
negate that purpose.
CUEVAS V. MUOZ
G.R. No. 140520, 18 December 2000, Second Division,
De Leon, J.
JUAN ANTONIO MUOZ is charged with seven (7)

counts of accepting an advantage as an agent contrary to
Section 9(1)(a) of the Prevention of Bribery Ordinance of.
Cap 201 of Hong Kong, and seven (7) counts of
conspiracy to defraud, contrary to the common law of

Hong Kong, for each count of which, if found guilty, he
may be punished with seven (7) and fourteen (14) years
imprisonment, respectively. The Hong Kong Magistrates
Court issued a warrant for his arrest. Thereafter, the
Philippine DOJ received a request for the provisional
arrest of MUOZ pursuant to the RP-Hong Kong
Extradition Agreement. The Philippine DOJ forwarded the
request for provisional arrest to the NBI, which filed an
application for the provisional arrest of MUOZ with RTC
of Manila for and in behalf of the government of Hong
Kong. RTC granted the application. However, CA
declared the Order of Arrest null and void.
ISSUE: Whether Munoz should be provisionally arrested
HELD:
There was urgency for the provisional arrest of the
respondent. Urgency" connotes such conditions relating
to the nature of the offense charged and the personality of
the prospective extraditee which would make him
susceptible to the inclination if he were to learn about the
impending request for his extradition and/or likely to
destroy the evidence pertinent to the said request or his
eventual prosecution and without which the latter could not
proceed. Such conditions exist in Munozs case.
At the time the request for provisional arrest was made,

respondents pending application for the discharge of a
restraint order over certain assets held in relation to the
offenses with which he is being charged, was set to be
heard by the Court of First Instance of Hong Kong on
September 17, 1999. The Hong Kong DOJ was concerned
that the pending request for the extradition of the
respondent would be disclosed to the latter during the said
proceedings, and would motivate respondent to flee the
Philippines before the request for extradition could be
made.
There is also the fact that respondent is charged with

seven (7) counts of accepting an advantage as an agent
and seven (7) counts of conspiracy to defraud, for each
count of which, if found guilty, he may be punished with
seven (7) and fourteen (14) years imprisonment,
respectively. Undoubtedly, the gravity of the imposable
penalty upon an accused is a factor to consider in
determining the likelihood that the accused will abscond if
allowed provisional liberty. It is, after all, but human to fear
a lengthy, if not a lifetime, incarceration. Furthermore, it
has also not possessed of sufficient resources to facilitate
an escape from this jurisdiction.
That respondent did not flee despite the investigation

conducted by the Central bank and the NBI way back in
1994, nor when the warrant for his arrest was issued by
the Hong Kong ICAC in August 1997, is not a guarantee
that he will no flee now that proceedings for his extradition
are well on the way. Respondent is about to leave the
protective sanctuary of his mother state to face criminal
charges in another jurisdiction. It cannot be denied that
this is sufficient impetus for him to flee the country as soon
as the opportunity to do so arises.
Respondent also avers that his mothers impending death
makes it impossible for him to leave the country. However,
by respondents own admission, his mother finally expired
at the Cardinal Santos Hospital in Madaluyong City last
December 5, 1999.24
The request for provisional arrest of respondent and its

accompanying document are valid despite lack of
authentication. There is no requirement for the
authentication of a request for provisional arrest and its
accompanying documents. The pertinent provision of the
RP-Hong Kong Extradition Agreement enumerates the
documents that must accompany the request, as follows:
(1) an indication of the intention to request the surrender
of the person sought; (2) the text of a warrant of arrest or

judgement of conviction against that person; (3) a
statement of penalty for that offense; and (4) such further
information as would justify the issue of a warrant of arrest
had the offense been committed or the person convicted
within the jurisdiction of the requested party. That the
enumeration does not specify that these documents must
be authenticated copies, is not a mere omission of law.
This may be gleaned from the fact that while Article 11(1)
does not require the accompanying documents of a
request for provisional arrest to be authenticated, Article 9
of the same Extradition Agreement makes authentication a
requisite for admission in evidence of any document
accompanying a request for surrender or extradition. In
other words, authentication is required for the request for
surrender or extradition but not for the request for
provisional arrest.
the provisions of PD 1069 and the RP-Hong Kong

Extradition Agreement, as they are worded, serve the
purpose sought to be achieved by treaty stipulations for
provisional arrest. The process of preparing a formal
request for extradition and its accompanying documents,
and transmitting them through diplomatic channels, is not
only time-consuming but also leakage-prone. There is
naturally a great likelihood of flight by criminals who get an
intimation of the pending request for their extradition. To
solve this problem, speedier initial steps in the form of
treaty stipulations for provisional arrest were formulated.
Thus, it is an accepted practice for the requesting state to
rush its request in the form of a telex or diplomatic cable,
the practically of the use of which in conceded. even our
own Extradition Law (PD 1069) allows the transmission of
a request for provisional arrest via telegraph. In the
advent of modern technology, the telegraph or cable have
been conveniently replaced by the facsimile machine.
Therefore, the transmission by the Hong Kong DOJ of the
request for respondents provisional arrest and the
accompanying documents, namely, a copy of the warrant

of arrest against respondent, a summary of the facts of the
case against him, particulars of his birth and address, a
statement of the intention to request his provisional arrest
and the reason therefor, by fax machine, more than serves
this purpose of expediency.
In tilting the balance in favor of the interests of the State,

the Court stresses that it is not ruling that the private
respondent has no right to due process at all throughout
the length and breath of the extrajudicial proceedings.
Procedural due process requires a determination of what
process is due when it is due and the degree of what is
due. Stated otherwise, a prior determination should be
made as to whether procedural protections are at all due
and when they are due, which in turn depends on the
extent to which an individual will be condemned to suffer
grievous loss, We have explained why an extraditee has
not right to notice and hearing during the evaluation stage
of the extradition process. As aforesaid, P.D. 1069 xxx
affords an extraditee sufficient opportunity to meet the
evidence against him once the petition is filed in court. The
time for the extraditee to know the basis of the request for
his extradition is merely moved to the filing in court of the
formal petition for extradition. The extradites right to know
is momentarily withheld during the evaluation stage of the
extradition process to accommodate the more compelling
interest of the State to prevent escape of potential
extradites which can be precipitated by premature which
can be precipitated by premature information of the basis
of the request for his extradition. No Less compelling at
that stage of the extradition proceedings is the need to be
more deferential to the judgement of a co-equal branch of
the governments, the Executive, which has been endowed
by our Constitution with greater power over matters
involving our foreign relations. Needless to state, this
balance of interests is not a static but a moving balance
which can be adjusted as the extradition process moves
from the administrative stage to the execution stage

depending on factors that will come into play. In sum, we
rule that the temporary hold on private respondents
privilege of notice and hearing is a soft retrains on his right
to due process which will not deprive him of fundamental
fairness should he decide to resist the request for his
extradition to the United States. There is no denial of due
process as long as fundamental fairness is assured a
party.
GOVERNMENT OF HONG KONG SPECIAL

ADMINISTRATIVE REGION V. JUDGE OLALIA, JR.
AND MUOZ,
GR No. 153675, April 19, 2007
Bail Can Be Granted to Potential Extraditee on Basis
of Clear and Convincing Evidence
In its petition, Hong Kong sought the nullification of the

Manila RTCs December 20, 2001 Order allowing Muoz
to post bail, and April 10, 2002 Order denying the motion
to vacate the said Order filed by the Government of Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, represented by the
Philippine Department of Justice. Hong Kong alleged that
both Orders were issued by the judge with grave abuse of
discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction as
there is no provision in the Constitution granting bail to a
potential extraditee.
A potential extraditee may be granted bail on the basis of

clear and convincing evidence that the person is not a
flight risk and will abide with all the orders and processes
of the extradition court.
Thus held the Supreme Court in dismissing the petition of

the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region to nullify two orders by a Manila Regional Trial
Court (RTC) allowing a potential extraditee to post bail.
In a unanimous decision penned by Justice Angelina

Sandoval-Gutierrez in Government of Hong Kong v. Judge
Olalia, Jr. and Muoz (GR No. 153675), the Court also
remanded to the Manila RTC, Branch 8 to determine
whether Juan Antonio Muoz is entitled to bail on the
basis of clear and convincing evidence. If Muoz is not
entitled to such, the trial court should order the
cancellation of his bail bond and his immediate detention;
and thereafter, conduct the extradition proceedings with
dispatch.
Muoz was charged before the Hong Kong Court with

three counts of the offense of accepting an advantage as
agent, in violation of sec. 9 (1) (a) of the Prevention of
Bribery Ordinance, Cap. 201 of Hong Kong. He also faces
seven counts of the offense of conspiracy to defraud,
penalized by the common law of Hong Kong.
Citing the various international treaties giving recognition

and protection to human rights, the Court saw the need to
reexamine its ruling in Government of United States of
America v. Judge Purganan which limited the exercise of
the right to bail to criminal proceedings.
It said that while our extradition law does not provide for
the grant of bail to an extraditee, there is no provision
prohibiting him or her from filing a motion for bail, a right
under the Constitution.
The time-honored principle of pacta sunt servanda

demands that the Philippines honor its obligations under
the Extradition Treaty.However, it does not necessarily
mean that in keeping with its treaty obligations, the
Philippines should diminish a potential extraditees rights
to life, liberty, and due process. More so, where these
rights are guaranteed, not only by our Constitution, but
also by international conventions, to which the Philippines
is a party. We should not, therefore, deprive an extraditee

of his right to apply for bail, provided that a certain
standard for the grant is satisfactorily met, the Court said.
RP, being a signatory to the 1996 UN General Assembly

which adopted the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, is under obligation to make available to
every person under detention such remedies which
safeguard their fundamental right to liberty, said the
Court. The RP and Hong Kong signed in 1995 an
extradition treaty which became effective in 1997.
The Court noted that Munoz had been detained from

September 23, 1999 to December 20, 2001, or for over
two years without having been convicted of any crime.
If bail can be granted in deportation cases, we see no

justification why it should not also be allowed in extradition
cases. Likewise, considering that the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights applies to deportation cases,
there is no reason why it cannot be invoked in extradition
cases. After all, both are administrative proceeding where
the innocence or guilt of the person detained is not in
issue, the Court said.
It further said that even if a potential extradite is a criminal,

an extradition proceeding is not by its nature criminal, for it
is not punishment for a crime, even though such
punishment may follow extradition. It added that
extradition is not a trial to determine the guilt or innocence
of potential extraditee. Nor is it a full-blown civil action, but
one that is merely administrative in character. By Jay B.
Rempillo (SC website)
The Right of Asylum
Every foreign State can be at least a provisional asylum

for any individual, who, being persecuted in his home
State, goes to another State. In the absence of any
international treaty stipulating the contrary, no state is, by
international laws, obliged to refuse admission into its
territory to such a fugitive or in case he has been admitted,
to expel him or deliver him up to the prosecuting state.
The right of asylum is not a right possessed by an alien to

demand that a state protect him and grant him asylum. At
present, it is just a privilege granted by a state to allow an
alien escaping from the persecution of his country for
political reasons to remain and to grant him asylum.
Q: Explain the right of asylum in international law.

(Bar)
A: The right of asylum is the competence of every state
inferred from its territorial supremacy to allow a
prosecuted alien to enter and to remain on its territory
under its protection and thereby grant asylum to him.
Asylum and Refugees

A refugee is any person who is outside the country of his
nationality or the country of his former habitual residence
because he has or had well founded fear of persecution by
reason of his race, religion, nationality or political opinion
and is unable or, because of such fear, is unwilling to avail
himself of the protection of the government of the country
of his nationality, or, if he has no nationality, to return to
the country of his former habitual residence.
3 Essential Elements to be considered a Refugee:

1) The person is outside the country of his nationality, or
in the case of stateless persons, outside the country
of habitual residence;
2) The person lacks national protection;
3) The person fears persecution in his own country.
The second element makes, a refugee a stateless person.

Because a refugee approximates a stateless person, he
can be compared to a vessel on the open sea not sailing
under the flag of any state, or be called flotsam and res
nullius.
Only a person who is granted asylum by another state can

apply for refugee status; thus the refugee treaties imply
the principle of asylum.
Q: Sandovals Open Question No. 1

Is a refugee is included in the term stateless person or
is it the other way around?
Suggested Answer: Analyze the elements before one

could be considered a refugee.
Non-Refoulment Principle
Non-refoulment non-contracting state expel or return
(refouler) a refugee, in any manner whatsoever, to the
frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be
threatened. (Article 33 of the Convention Relating to the
Status of Refugees)
The Principle of the non-refoulment was declared to be a
generally accepted principle by the Convention relating to
the status of stateless persons.
Nationality v. Citizenship
Nationality is the membership in a political community with
all its concomitant rights and obligations. It is the tie that
binds an individual to his state, from which he can claim
protection from the laws, which he is also obliged to follow.
Citizenship has a more exclusive meaning in that it applies

only to certain members of the state accorded more
privileges than the rest of the people who owe it
allegiance. Its significance is municipal and not
international.
Nationality is Important in Intl Law

It is important because an individual can ordinarily
participate in international relations only through the
instrumentality of the state to which he belongs, as when
his government asserts a claim on his behalf for injuries
suffered by him in foreign jurisdiction. This remedy would
not be available to a stateless person who will have no
state with international personality to intercede for him
under the laws of nations.
Example, in the case of Holy See vs. Rosario, the

defendant in this case can invoke his rights against the
Holy See not under the Municipal Law but under
International Law through his government, which will
espouse his cause of action in his behalf. If this happens,
his concern ceases to be a private one but becomes one
for the public, that is, for the state.
DOCTRINE OF EFFECTIVE NATIONALITY

Within a third state, a person having more than one
nationality shall be treated as if he had only one. Under
the principle of effective nationality, the third state shall
recognized conclusively in its territory either the nationality
of the country in which he is habitually and principally
present or the nationality of the country with which he
appears to be in fact most closely connected.
Statelessness
Statelessness is the condition or status of an individual
who is born without any nationality or who loses his
nationality without retaining or acquiring another.
An example of the first case would be that of an individual

born in a state where only the jus sanguinis is recognized
to parents whose state observes only jus soli. The second
case may be illustrated by an individual who, after
renouncing his original nationality in order to be
naturalized in another state, is subsequently denaturalized
and thereafter denied repatriation by his former country.
Q: Who are stateless persons under International

Law? (1995 Bar)
A: They are those who are not considered as national by
any state under the operation of its laws.
Q: What are the consequences of statelessness?

(1995 Bar)
A: These are:
i. No state can intervene or complain in behalf of
the stateless person for an international delinquency
committed by another state in inflicting injury upon
him;
ii. He cannot be expelled by the state if he is
lawfully in its territory except on grounds of national
security or public order;
iii. He cannot avail himself of the protection and
benefits of citizenship like securing for himself a
passport or visa and personal documents.
Q: Victor Korchnoi, a stateless resident of

Switzerland, was the challenger to the world chess
title held by Russian Anatoly Karpov. After 32
grueling games were played in Baguio city, Karpov
finally retained his title of a close 6 to 5 win. Korchnoi
protested no-payment of his prize money and alleged
unfair treatment he received from the tournament
organizers in the Philippines particularly in the 32 nd
crucial game, which he attributes as the main case of
his defeat. May he press for his right to the prize
money against the Philippine government through the

Swiss government? (1978 Bar)
A: No, Switzerland even if she so desires, cannot

espouse a diplomatic claim against the Philippines in
behalf of Victor Korchnoi. Nationality is the basis of the
right of state to espouse such claim. In this case,
Korchnoi is not a Swiss national but a stateless person.
Q: Is a stateless person entirely without right,

protection or recourse under the Law of Nations?
Explain. (1995 Bar)
A: No. Under the Convention in Relation to the Status of
Stateless Persons, the Contracting States agree to accord
the stateless persons within their territories treatment at
least as favorable as that accorded their nationals with
respect to;
a) Freedom of religion;
b) Access to the courts;
c) Rationing of products in short supply;
d) Elementary education;
e) Public relief and assistance;
f) Labor legislation; and
g) Social Security
They also agree to accord them treatment not less
favorable than that accorded to aliens generally in the
same circumstances. The Convention also provides for
the issuance of identity papers and travel documents to
the stateless persons.
Q: What measures, if any, has International Law taken

to prevent statelessness? (1995 Bar)
A: In the Convention on the Conflict of Nationality Laws of

1930, the Contracting States agree to accord nationality to
persons born in their territory who would otherwise be
stateless. The convention on the Reduction of
Statelessness of 1961 provides that if the law of the
Contracting States results in the loss of nationality, as a

consequence of marriage or termination of marriage, such
loss must be conditional upon possession or acquisition of
another nationality.
The Law on International Obligations
Sources of International Obligations

The Law of Treaties
Treaty Defined
2 Kinds of Treaties
Parties
Requisites for Validity
Peremptory Norm
Process of Treaty Making
Principle of Alternat
Subject Matters of Treaties
Subject Matters of Executive Agreements
Most Favored Nation Clause
Pacta Sunt Servanda
Rebus Sic Stantibus
Effect of Territorial Changes
Interpretation of Treaties
Termination of Treaties
State Responsibility for Injury to Aliens
Doctrine of State Responsibility
Conditions for Enforcement of Claim
1. nationality of the claim
2. exhaustion of local remedies
3. waiver
4. unreasonable delay
5. improper behavior by the injured alien
Methods of Pressing Claims
Nature and Measure of Damages

Sources:
1) International agreements e.g. treaties concluded
between States
2) Customary international law e.g. the doctrine of
rebus sic stantibus
A. THE LAW OF TREATIES

Treaty Defined
Q: What is a Treaty? Discuss.

Held: A treaty, as defined by the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties, is an international instrument
concluded between States in written form and governed
by international law, whether embodied in a single
instrument or in two or more related instruments, and
whatever its particular designation. There are many other
terms used for a treaty or international agreement, some
of which are: act, protocol, agreement, compromis d'
arbitrage, concordat, convention, declaration, exchange of
notes, pact, statute, charter and modus vivendi. All
writers, from Hugo Grotius onward, have pointed out that
the names or titles of international agreements included
under the general term treaty have little or no significance.
Certain terms are useful, but they furnish little more than
mere description
Article 2(2) of the Vienna Convention provides that the

provisions of paragraph 1 regarding the use of terms in the
present Convention are without prejudice to the use of
those terms, or to the meanings which may be given to
them in the internal law of the State. (BAYAN [Bagong
Alyansang Makabayan] v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo
Zamora, G.R. No. 138570, Oct. 10, 2000, En Banc
[Buena])
Protocol de Clture
A final act, sometimes called protocol de cloture is an

instrument which records the winding up of the
proceedings of a diplomatic conference and usually
includes a reproduction of the texts of treaties,
conventions, recommendations and other acts agreed
upon and signed by the plenipotentiaries attending the
conference. It is not the treaty itself. It is rather a
summary of the proceedings of a protracted conference
which may have taken place over several years.
Q: What is a "protocol de cloture"? Will it require

concurrence by the Senate?
Held: A final act, sometimes called protocol de cloture, is

an instrument which records the winding up of the
proceedings of a diplomatic conference and usually
includes a reproduction of the texts of treaties,
conventions, recommendations and other acts agreed
upon and signed by the plenipotentiaries attending the
conference. It is not the treaty itself. It is rather a
summary of the proceedings of a protracted conference
which may have taken place over several years. It will not
require the concurrence of the Senate. The documents
contained therein are deemed adopted without need for
ratification. (Tanada v. Angara, 272 SCRA 18, May 2,
1997 [Panganiban])
Treaty as main instrument

The treaty is the main instrument with which the society of
States is equipped for the purpose of carrying out its
multifarious transactions. LORD McNAIR
Synonymous words
a) Convention
b) Pact
c) Protocol
d) Agreement
e) Arrangement
f) Accord
g) Final Act
h) General Act
i) Exchange of Notes
The use of particular terminology has no legal

significance in international law.
Matters usually dealt with by treaties:

a) lease of naval bases
b) the sale or cession of territory
c) the regulation of conduct of hostilities
d) the termination of war
e) the formation of alliances
f) the regulation of commercial relations
g) the settling of claims
h) the establishment of international organizations
2 Kinds of Treaties
a) traites-lois law making treaties
b) traits-contrats contract treaties
1969 Convention on the Law of Treaties

Adopted by the Conference of the Law of Treaties (Vienna
Convention). Entered into force on January 27, 1960.
PARTIES
Rule: Only States may enter into treaties or international
agreements. Agreements between State and individuals or
entities other than States DO NOT come within the
category of treaties.
Exceptions: States may enter into treaties or

international agreements with:
a) International Organizations
b) Belligerent States
4 Essentials of Validity
1) Capacity of parties
Rule: Every State possesses capacity to conclude
treaties as an attribute of its sovereignty.
Exceptions:
a) When it limits itself; or
b) When it is limited by some other international

arrangements respecting some matters.
2) Competence of particular organs concluding

the treaty
Rule: The municipal law of the State concerned shall
determine what organ may conclude a treaty. As a
rule, it is the Head of State who possesses the treaty-
making power to be concurred in by the legislative
branch.
Exceptions:
a) When it is in estoppel
b) When it has performed acts validating or curing the
defects in competence.
c) When it has received benefits or has exercised its
rights under the subject treaty without expressly
reserving its non-liability or without interposing
other valid reasons for receiving or exercising it.
3) Reality of Consent
Rule: The plenipotentiaries of States or the State
itself must possess the capacity to consent which
consent is given in a manner that is voluntary and free
from fear, force, coercion, intimidation, or corruption.
Exceptions:
a) Ratification waiving the right to withdraw from the
treaty and declaring its consent thereon as valid.
b) Estoppel - exercising its rights and respecting the
obligations in the treaty notwithstanding knowledge
of facts that vitiate its consent and exercises them

without protest.
c) Prescription filing of protest after the lapse of
allowable period within which the same may be
entertained. Thus, the State is deemed to have
ratified its consent.
Remedy: Where the consent of a party has been

given in error or induced through fraud on the part of
the other party, the treaty would be VOIDABLE.
Thus, the erring State must as soon as possible or
within the time given in the treaty, withdraw or correct
its consent.
Consent How Given

a) through a signature
b) exchange of instruments
c) ratification
d) acceptance
e) approval or accession; or
f) by other means so agreed.
4) Legality of Object
Rule: Immorality, illegality or impossibility of purpose
or obligations makes a treaty null and void. e.g. a
treaty by which a State agrees with another to
appropriate a portion of the high seas.
Exceptions:
a) If the immorality, illegality or impossibility does not
run counter to a universally recognized peremptory
norm of international law but only against a remote
and minor norm.
b) If it does not contravene or depart from an absolute

or imperative rule or prohibition of international law.
e.g. jus dispositivum.
PEREMPTORY NORM
A norm generally accepted by the international community

of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation
is permitted and which can be modified only by a
subsequent norm of general international law having the
same character. e.g. jus cogens
Q: Explain, using example, jus cogens in international

law. (1991 Bar)
A: Jus cogens is a peremptory norm of general

international law accepted and recognized by the
international community as a whole. e.g. the prohibition
against the use of force in dealing with States.
INCOMPATIBILITY v. INCONSISTENCY
Inconsistency raises the problem of conflict of obligations.
Incompatibility, on the other hand, raises the question of
nullity. e.g. Art. 103 of the UN Charter provides that in the
event of conflict between the obligations of the Members
under the UN Charter and their obligations under any
international agreement, their obligations under the UN
Charter shall prevail.
Effect of Form on Validity

There is no rule that treaties should be in written form.
Oral treaties are NOT prohibited. However, orally agreed
treaties are a rarity.
Note: The Vienna Convention, however, defines a treaty

as an international agreement concluded between States
in written form and governed by international law, whether
embodied in a singe instrument or in two or more related
instruments and whatever its particular designation (is).
PROCESS OF TREATY-MAKING
Usual Steps Taken

1) Negotiation of parties
2) Signature of the agreed text
3) Ratification or accession made by the treaty-
making organs of States concerned
4) Exchange or deposit of the instruments of
ratification or accession.
At present, treaties are prepared and adopted by means of

international diplomatic conferences. Also, a large
number of multilateral conventions have been adopted by
international organizations such as the General Assemble
of the UN.
Principle of Alternat
According to this principle, the order of the naming of the
parties, and of the signatures of the plenipotentiaries is
varied so that each party is named and its plenipotentiary
signs first in the coy of the instrument to be kept by it.
However, with respect to treaties with many parties, the

practice is usually to arrange the names alphabetically
in English or in French.
Significance of Signature
Rule: The act of signature has little legal significance
except as a means of authenticating the text of the treaty.
It is the act of ratification that is required to make a treaty
binding.
Exceptions:
a) the treaty provides that signature shall have such effect;
b) it is otherwise established that the negotiating States
were agreed that signatures should have that effect; or
c) the intention of the State to give that effect to the
signature appears from the full powers of its
representative or was expressed during the

negotiations.
Ratification
The act by which the provisions of a treaty are formally
confirmed and approved by a State. By ratifying a treaty
signed in its behalf, a State expresses its willingness to be
bound by the provisions of such treaty.
State may ratify a treaty only when it is a signatory to it.
There is no moral duty on the part of the States to ratify

a treaty notwithstanding that its plenipotentiaries have
signed the same. This step, however, should not be
taken lightly.
A treaty may provide that it shall not be valid even

ratified but shall be valid only after the exchange or
deposit of ratification has transpired.
Q: What is ratification? Discuss its function in the

treaty-making process.
Held: Ratification is generally held to be an executive act,

undertaken by the head of state or of the government, as
the case may be, through which the formal acceptance of
the treaty is proclaimed. A State may provide in its
domestic legislation the process of ratification of a treaty.
The consent of the State to be bound by a treaty is
expressed by ratification when: (a) the treaty provides for
such ratification, (b) it is otherwise established that the
negotiating States agreed that ratification should be
required, (c) the representative of the State has signed the
treaty subject to ratification, or (d) the intention of the State
to sign the treaty subject to ratification appears from the
full powers of its representative, or was expressed during
the negotiation. (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang Makabayan]
v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No.

138570, Oct. 10, 2000, En Banc [Buena])
Accession or Adherence
When a State, who has NOT SIGNED a treaty, accedes to
it.
Binding Effects of a Treaty

As a rule, a treaty is binding only on the contracting
parties, including not only the original signatories but also
other states, which, although they may not have
participated in the negotiation of the agreement, have
been allowed by its terms to sign it later by a process
known as accession. Non-parties are usually not bound
under the maxim of pacta tertiis nec noceat nec
prosunt.
Q: Enumerate instances when a third State who is

non-signatory may be bound by a treaty.
A:
1. When a treaty is a mere formal expression of
customary international law, which, as such is
enforceable on all civilized states because of their
membership in the family of nations.
2. Under Article 2 of its charter, the UN shall ensure

that non-member States act in accordance with the
principles of the Charter so far as may be necessary for
the maintenance of international peace and security.
Under Article 103, obligations of member-states shall
prevail in case of conflict with any other international
agreement including those concluded with non-
members.
3. The treaty itself may expressly extend its benefits

to non-signatory states.
4. Parties to apparently unrelated treaties may also

be linked by the most-favored nation clause.
21, A.VII, 1987 Phil. Constitution

No treaty or international agreement shall be valid and
effective unless concurred in by at least 2/3 of ALL the
Members of the Senate.
20, A.VII, 1987 Phil. Constitution

The President may contract or guarantee foreign loans on
behalf of the RP with the prior concurrence of the
Monetary Board, and subject to such limitations as may be
provided by law. The MB shall, within 30 days from the
end of every quarter of the calendar year, submit to the
Congress a complete report of its decisions on
applications for loans to be contracted or guaranteed by
the Government or government-owned and controlled
corporations which would have the effect of increasing the
foreign debt, and containing other matters as may be
provided by law.
4, A.XVIII, 1987 Phil. Constitution

All exiting treaties or international agreements which have
not been ratified shall not be renewed or extended without
the concurrence of at least 2/3 of ALL the Members of the
Senate.
25, A.XVIII, 1987 Phil. Constitution

After the expiration in 1991 of the Agreement between the
RP and the USA concerning the Military Bases, foreign
military bases, troops, or facilities shall not be allowed in
the Philippines except under a treaty duly concurred in by
the Senate and, when the Congress so requires, ratified
by a majority of the votes cast by the people in a national
referendum held for that purpose, and recognized as a
treaty by the other contracting State.
NOTE: This section prohibits, in the absence of a treaty,

the stationing of troops and facilities of foreign countries in
the Philippines. However, it DOES NOT INCLUDE the
temporary presence in the Philippines of foreign troops for
the purpose of a combined military exercise. Besides, the
holding of combined military exercise is connected with
defense, which is a sovereign function.
Q: Discuss the binding effect of treaties and executive

agreements in international law.
Held: [I]n international law, there is no difference between

treaties and executive agreements in their binding effect
upon states concerned, as long as the functionaries have
remained within their powers. International law continues
to make no distinction between treaties and executive
agreements: they are equally binding obligations upon
nations. (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang Makabayan] v.
Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No. 138570,
Oct. 10, 2000, En Banc [Buena])
Q: Does the Philippines recognize the binding effect of

executive agreements even without the concurrence
of the Senate or Congress?
Held: In our jurisdiction, we have recognized the binding
effect of executive agreements even without the
concurrence of the Senate or Congress. In Commissioner
of Customs v. Eastern Sea Trading (3 SCRA 351, 356-357
[1961]), we had occasion to pronounce:
x x x the right of the Executive to enter into binding

agreements without the necessity of subsequent
Congressional approval has been confirmed by long
usage. From the earliest days of our history we have
entered into executive agreements covering such subjects
as commercial and consular relations, most-favored-nation
rights, patent rights, trademark and copyright protection,
postal and navigation arrangements and the settlement of
claims. The validity of these has never been seriously

questioned by our courts. " (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang
Makabayan] v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora,
G.R. No. 138570, Oct. 10, 2000, En Banc [Buena])
Q: An Executive Agreement was executed between

the Philippines and a neighboring State. The Senate
of the Philippines took it upon itself to procure a
certified true copy of the Executive Agreement and
after deliberating on it, declared, by a unanimous vote,
that the agreement was both unwise and against the
best interest of the country. Is an Executive
Agreement binding from the standpoints a) of
Philippine law and b) of international law? Explain.
(2003 Bar)
A: a) YES, from the standpoint of Philippine law, the

Executive Agreement is binding. According to
Commissioner of Customs v. Eastern Sea Trading, 3 S
351 [1961], the President can enter into an Executive
Agreement WITHOUT the necessity of concurrence by the
Senate.
b) YES, it is also binding from the standpoint of

international law. As held in Bayan V. Zamora, 342 S 449
[2000], in international law executive agreements are
equally binding as treaties uon the States who are parties
to them. Additionally, under Article 2(1)(a) of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, whatever may be the
designation of a written agreement between States,
whether it is indicated as a Treaty, Convention or
Executive Agreement is not legally significant. Still it is
considered a treaty and governed by the international law
of treaties.
Q: The President authorized the Secretary of Public

Works and Highways to negotiate and sign a loan
agreement with the German Government for the

construction of a dam. The Senate, by a resolution,
asked that the agreement be submitted to it for
ratification. The Secretary of Public Works and
Highways did not comply with the request of the
Senate. (1994 Bar)
a) Under the Constitution, what is the role of
the Senate in the conduct of foreign affairs?
b) Is the president bound to submit the
agreement to the Senate for ratification?
A:
a) The Senate plays a role in the conduct of
foreign affairs, because of the requirement in Section 21
Article VII of the Constitution that to be valid and
effective, a treaty or international agreement must be
concurred in by at least 2/3 of all members of the
senate.
b) No, the President is not bound to submit
the agreement to the Senate for ratification. Under
Section 20 Article VII of the Constitution, only the prior
concurrence of the Monetary Board is required for the
President to contract foreign loans on behalf of the
Republic of the Philippines.
Q: In accordance with the opinion of the Secretary of

Justice, and believing that it would be good for the
country, the President enters into an agreement with
the Americans for an extension for another five (5)
years of their stay at their military bases in the
Philippines, in consideration of:
a) A yearly rental of one billion US dollars, payable to
Philippine government in advance;
b) An undertaking on the part of the American
government to implement immediately the min-
Marshall plan for the country involving ten billion
US dollars in aids and concessional loans, and
c) An undertaking to help persuade American banks to

condone interests and other charges on the
countrys outstanding loans.
In return, the President agreed to allow American

nuclear vessels to stay for short visits at Subic, and
in case of vital military need, to store nuclear weapons
at Subic and at Clark Field. A vital military need
comes, under the agreement, when hostile military
forces threaten the sea-lanes from the Persian Gulf to
the Pacific.
The Nuclear Free Philippines Coalition comes to you

for advice on how they could legally prevent the same
agreement entered into by the President with the US
government from going into effect. What would you
advice them to do? Give your reasons. (Bar)
A: If the agreement is not in the form of treaty, it is not
likely to be submitted to the Senate for ratification as
required in Article VII, Section 21. It may not, therefore,
be opposed in that branch of the government. Nor a
judicial review is feasible at this stage because there is no
justiciable controversy. While Article VIII, Section 1,
paragraph 2 states that judicial power includes the duty of
courts of justice to determine whether or not there has
been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or
instrumentality of the government, it is clear that this
provision does not do away with the political question
doctrine. It was inserted in the Constitution to prevent
courts from making use of the doctrine to avoid what
otherwise are justiciable controversies, albeit involving the
Executive Branch of the government during the martial law
period. On the other hand, at this stage, no justiciable
controversy can be framed to justify judicial review. I
would therefore advice the Nuclear Free Philippines
Coalition to resort to the media to launch a campaign
against Agreement
Subject Matter of Treaties

1) Political Issues
2) Changes in National Policies
3) Involve International Agreements of a
Permanent Character
Subject Matter of EAs

1) Have transitory effectivity
2) Adjustment of details carrying out well-established
national policies and traditions
3) Arrangements of temporary nature
4) Implementation of treaties, statutes, well established
policies.
Q: How does a treaty differ from executive

agreement?
A: An executive agreement is not a treaty in so far as its

ratification may not be required under the Constitution.
However, the distinction is purely municipal and has no
international significance. From the standpoint of
international law, treaties and executive agreement are
alike in that both constitute equally binding obligations
upon the nations. (FB Sayre, 39 Columbia Law Review,
p. 75, 1939)
An executive agreement is NOT a treaty. As such,

concurrence by two-thirds vote (2/3) of all the members of
the Senate is not necessary for it to become binding and
effective.
Q: Is VFA a treaty or a mere executive agreement?
A: In the case of Bayan vs. Zamora, VFA was considered

a treaty because the Senate concurred in via 2/3 votes of
all its members. But in the point of view of the US
Government, it is merely an executive agreement.
Q: What is the implication if only the senate of the

Philippines concur but not the senate of USA?
A: None, it is only a matter of policy and the same is

governed by their respective Municipal Law.
Q: Senate Bill No. 1234 was passed creating a joint

legislative-executive commission to give on behalf of
the Senate, its advice, consent and concurrence to
treaties entered into by the President. The bill
contains the guidelines to be followed by the
commission in the discharge of its functions. Is the
bill constitutional? (1996 Bar)
A: NO, the bill is not constitutional. The Senate cannot
delegate its power to concur to treaties ratified by the
President.
Q: Can the House of Representatives take active part

in the conduct of foreign relations, particularly in
entering into treaties and international agreements?
(1996 Bar)
A: NO. As held in US v. Curtiss Wright Export Corporation

299 US 304, it is the President alone who can act as
representative of the nation in the conduct of foreign
affairs. Although the Senate has the power to concur in
treaties, the President alone can negotiate treaties and
Congress is powerless to intrude into this. However, if the
matter involves a treaty or an executive agreement, the
HR may pass a resolution expressing its views on the
matter.
Reservations
A unilateral statement, however phrased or named, made
by a State, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving,
or acceding to a treaty, whereby it purports to exclude or
modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in

their application to that State.
When Reservation cannot be made

a) If the treaty itself provides that NO reservation shall be
admissible, or
b) the treaty allows only specified reservations which do
not include the reservation in question, or
c) the reservation is incompatible with the object and
purpose of the treaty.
Form and Time of Reservation
Written statement or declaration recorded at the time of
signing or ratifying or acceding to the treaty.
Objected Reservations
Parties to the treaty may object to the reservations of a
State entering the treaty. A 1951 Advisory Opinion of the
ICJ held that a reserving State may be a party to a treaty
notwithstanding that one or more parties to the
convention, but not all, objects to its reservations and such
reservations are not contrary to the object and purpose of
said convention.
REGISTRATION & PUBLICATION
Article 102, UN Charter

1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered
into by any Member of the UN after the present Charter
comes into force shall as soon as possible be registered
with the Secretariat and published by it.
2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement

which has not been registered in accordance with the
provisions of para.1 of this Article may invoke that treaty or
agreement before any organ of the UN.
The treaty, however, remains valid although not

registered and not published in the UN.
Entry into Force

Means the date of effectivity of a treaty as provided in the
stipulations of the parties. In the absence of such
stipulation, it is deemed in force as soon as the consent of
ALL the parties are established.
Q: Are Treaties Self-Executing?

A: Qualified answer. In international law, it self-executes
from the time of its entry into force.
However, there is NO absolute rule that treaties are self-
executing within the sphere of municipal law. Some
municipal laws require further steps such as publication
and promulgation before it can produce legal effect.
Nevertheless, in the Philippines, treaties are part of the

law of the land. INCORPORATION CLAUSE.
MOST-FAVORED-NATION CLAUSE
Q: What is the most-favored-nation clause? What is

its purpose?
A: 1. The most-favored-nation clause may be defined, in

general, as a pledge by a contracting party to a treaty to
grant to the other party treatment not less favorable than
that which has been or may be granted to the most
favored among other countries. The clause has been
commonly included in treaties of commercial nature.
There are generally two types of most-favored-nation

clause, namely, conditional and unconditional. According
to the clause in its unconditional form, any advantage of
whatever kind which has been or may in future be granted
by either of the contracting parties to a third State shall
simultaneously and unconditionally be extended to the
other under the same or equivalent conditions as those
under which it has been granted to the third State.

(Salonga & Yap, Public International Law, 5th Edition,
1992, pp. 141-142)
2. The purpose of a most favored nation clause is to grant

to the contracting party treatment not less favorable than
that which has been or may be granted to the "most
favored" among other countries. The most favored nation
clause is intended to establish the principle of equality of
international treatment by providing that the citizens or
subjects of the contracting nations may enjoy the
privileges accorded by either party to those of the most
favored nation (Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. S.C.
Johnson and Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87, 107-108, June 25,
1999, 3rd Div. [Gonzaga-Reyes])
Q: Explain the meaning of the concept of most

favored nation treatment? (1997 Bar)
A: The most favored nation treatment is that granted by
one country to another not less favorable than that which
has been or may be granted to the most favored among
other countries. It usually applies to commercial
transactions such as international trade and investments.
Q: What is the essence of the principle behind the

"most-favored-nation" clause as applied to tax
treaties?
Held: The essence of the principle is to allow the

taxpayer in one state to avail of more liberal provisions
granted in another tax treaty to which the country of
residence of such taxpayer is also a party provided that
the subject matter of taxation x x x is the same as that in
the tax treaty under which the taxpayer is liable.
In Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. S.C. Johnson and

Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87, June 25, 1999, the SC did not
grant the claim filed by S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., a non-
resident foreign corporation based in the USA, with the
BIR for refund of overpaid withholding tax on royalties
pursuant to the most-favored-nation clause of the RP-US
Tax Treaty in relation to the RP-West Germany Tax
Treaty. It held:
Given the purpose underlying tax treaties and the rationale

for the most favored nation clause, the concessional tax
rate of 10 percent provided for in the RP-Germany Tax
Treaty should apply only if the taxes imposed upon
royalties in the RP-US Tax Treaty and in the RP-Germany
Tax Treaty are paid under similar circumstances. This
would mean that private respondent (S.C. Johnson and
Son, Inc.) must prove that the RP-US Tax Treaty grants
similar tax reliefs to residents of the United States in
respect of the taxes imposable upon royalties earned from
sources within the Philippines as those allowed to their
German counterparts under the RP-Germany Tax Treaty.
The RP-US and the RP-West Germany Tax Treaties do

not contain similar provisions on tax crediting. Article 24
of the RP-Germany Tax Treaty x x x expressly allows
crediting against German income and corporation tax of
20% of the gross amount of royalties paid under the law of
the Philippines. On the other hand, Article 23 of the RP-
US Tax Treaty, which is the counterpart provision with
respect to relief for double taxation, does not provide for
similar crediting of 20% of the gross amount of royalties
paid. X x x
X x x The entitlement of the 10% rate by U.S. firms despite

the absence of matching credit (20% for royalties) would
derogate from the design behind the most favored nation
clause to grant equality of international treatment since the
tax burden laid upon the income of the investor is not the
same in the two countries. The similarity in the

circumstances of payment of taxes is a condition for the
enjoyment of most favored nation treatment precisely to
underscore the need for equality of treatment.
2 Types
a) Unconditional any advantage of whatever kind which
has been or may in future be granted by either of the
contracting parties to a third State shall simultaneously
and unconditionally be extended to the other under the
same or equivalent conditions as those under which it has
been granted to the third State.
b) Conditional advantages are specified and limited not

universal.
CIR V. JOHNSON & SON, INC. (1999)
The purpose of a most favored nation clause is to grant to

the contracting party treatment not less favorable than that
which has been or may be granted to the "most favored"
among other countries. The most favored nation clause is
intended to establish the principle of equality of
international treatment by providing that the citizens or
subjects of the contracting nations may enjoy the
privileges accorded by either party to those of the most
favored nation.
PACTA SUNT SERVANDA (PSS)

(AGREEMENT MUST BE KEPT)
Means that treaties must be performed in good faith. One
of the oldest and most fundamental rules of international
law.
Q: Explain the pacta sunt servanda rule.
Held: One of the oldest and most fundamental rules in

international law is pacta sunt servanda international
agreements must be performed in good faith. A treaty
engagement is not a mere moral obligation but creates a
legally binding obligation on the parties x x x. A state
which has contracted valid international obligations is
bound to make in its legislations such modifications as
obligations undertaken. (Tanada v. Angara, 272 SCRA
18, May 2, 1997 [Panganiban])
Influences to ensure observance to PSS

a) national self-interest
b) a sense of duty
c) respect for promises solemnly given
d) desire to avoid the obloquy attached to breach of
contracts
Breach involves the obligation to make reparations.
There is, however, no necessity to state this rule of
reparation in the treaty itself because they are
indispensable complement of failure to comply to
ones obligations.
TAADA V. ANGARA (1997)
One of the oldest and most fundamental rules in

international law is pacta sunt servanda - international
agreements must be performed in good faith. "A treaty
engagement is not a mere moral obligation but creates a
legally binding obligation on the parties x x x. A state
which has contracted valid international obligations is
bound to make in its legislations such modifications as
obligations undertaken."
SEC. OF JUSTICE V. LANTION (2000)
The rule of pacta sunt servanda, one of the oldest and

most fundamental maxims of international law, requires
the parties to a treaty to keep their agreement therein in
good faith. The observance of our country's legal duties
under a treaty is also compelled by Section 2, Article II of
the Constitution which provides that "[t]he Philippines
renounces war as an instrument of national policy, adopts
the generally accepted principles of international law as
part of the law of the land, and adheres to the policy of
peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation and amity
with all nations." Under the doctrine of incorporation, rules
of international law form part of the law of the land and no
further legislative action is needed to make such rules
applicable in the domestic sphere (citing Salonga & Yap,
Public International Law, 1992 ed., p. 12).
CIR V. ROBERTSON (1986)
"The obligation to fulfill in good faith a treaty engagement

requires that the stipulations be observed in their spirit as
well as according to their letter and that what has been
promised be performed without evasion, or subterfuge,
honestly and to the best of the ability of the party which
made the promise." (citing Kunz, The Meaning and Range
of the Norm (Pacta Sunt Servanda, 29 A.J.I.L. 180 (1945);
cited in Freidmann, Lisstzyn, Pugh, International Law
(1969) 329). Somehow, the ruling becomes an
anacoluthon and a persiflage.
AGUSTIN V. EDU (1979)
t is not for this country to repudiate a commitment to which

it had pledged its word. The concept of pacta sunt
servanda stands in the way of such an attitude, which is,
moreover, at war with the principle of international

morality.
REBUS SIC STANTIBUS (RSS)

(THINGS REMAINING AS THEY ARE)
This doctrine involves the legal effect of change in
conditions underlying the purposes of a treaty. Simply
stated, the disappearance of the foundation upon which it
rests.
Authors, jurists, and tribunals are varied in the application

of this doctrine. A majority, however, hold that the
obligation of a treaty terminates when a change occurs in
circumstances which existed at the time of the conclusion
of the treaty and whose continuance formed, according to
the intention or will of the parties, a condition of the
continuing validity of the treaty. The change must be vital
or fundamental. Also, under this doctrine, a treaty
terminates if the performance of obligations thereof will
injure fundamental rights or interests of any one of the
parties.
Explain the "rebus sic stantibus" rule (i.e., things

remaining as they are). Does it operate automatically
to render a treaty inoperative?
Held: According to Jessup, the doctrine constitutes an
attempt to formulate a legal principle which would justify
non-performance of a treaty obligation if the conditions
with relation to which the parties contracted have changed
so materially and so unexpectedly as to create a situation
in which the exaction of performance would be
unreasonable. The key element of this doctrine is the vital
change in the condition of the contracting parties that they
could not have foreseen at the time the treaty was
concluded.
The doctrine of rebus sic stantibus does not operate

automatically to render the treaty inoperative. There is a
necessity for a formal act of rejection, usually made by the

head of state, with a statement of the reasons why
compliance with the treaty is no longer required. (Santos
III v. Northwest Orient Airlines, 210 SCRA 256, June 23,
1992)
Limitations to RSS
a) It applies only to treaties of indefinite duration;
b) The vital change must have been unforeseen or
unforeseeable and should have not been caused by the
party invoking the doctrine.
c) It must be invoked within reasonable time; and
d) It cannot operate retroactively upon the provisions of a
treaty already executed prior to the change in
circumstances.
Rules Governing Termination of RSS

a) a fundamental change (FC) must have occurred with
respect to circumstances existing at the time of the
conclusion of the treaty;
b) the existence of those circumstances constituted the
basis of the consent of the parties to be bound by the
treaty; and
c) the change has radically transformed the extent of the
obligations still to be performed under the treaty.
When FC cannot be invoked

a) if the treaty establishes a boundary
b) if the FC is the result of the breach by the party invoking
it of an obligation owed to any other party to the treaty.
SANTOS V. NORTHWEST AIRLINES (1992)
Obviously, rejection of the treaty, whether on the ground of

rebus sic stantibus or pursuant to Article 39, is NOT a
function of the courts but of the other branches of
government. This is a political act. The conclusion and

renunciation of treaties is the prerogative of the political
departments and may not be usurped by the judiciary. The
courts are concerned only with the interpretation and
application of laws and treaties in force and not with their
wisdom or efficacy.
PNCC V. CA (1997)
The principle of rebus sic stantibus neither fits in with the

facts of the case. Under this theory, the parties stipulate in
the light of certain prevailing conditions, and once these
conditions cease to exist, the contract also ceases to exist.
This theory is said to be the basis of Article 1267 of the
Civil Code, which provides:
ART. 1267. When the service has become so difficult

as to be manifestly beyond the contemplation of the
parties, the obligor may also be released therefrom, in
whole or in part.
This article, which enunciates the doctrine of unforeseen

events, is NOT, however, an absolute application of the
principle of rebus sic stantibus, which would endanger the
security of contractual relations. The parties to the contract
must be presumed to have assumed the risks of
unfavorable developments. It is therefore only in
absolutely exceptional changes of circumstances that
equity demands assistance for the debtor
EFFECT OF TERRITORIAL CHANGES

(1978 CONVENTION ON SUCCESSION OF STATES IN
RESPECT TO TREATIES)
Dispositive Treaties
These are treaties which deal with rights over territory and
are deemed to run with the land and are not affected by
changes of sovereignty. e.g. treaties dealing with
boundaries between States.
When an existing State acquires a territory, it does not

succeed to the predecessor States treaties, but its own
treaties becomes applicable to the newly acquired
territory.
New States Formed Through Decolonization

a) a new State is under NO obligation to succeed to the old
State as a party to a multilateral treaty, but if it wants to
do so, it has to notify the depository that it regards itself
as a succeeding party to the treaty.
b) a new State can be a party to an existing treaty between
the predecessor State and another State only if the
other State and the new State both agree. Such,
however, may be implied from the conduct of both
States.
New States Formed Through Secession or

Disintegration
Succeeds AUTOMATICALLY to most of the predecessors
treaties applicable to the territory that has seceded or
disintegrated.
Clean Slate Doctrine Under this doctrine, seceding

or disintegrating States DOES NOT make succession to
an existing treaty automatic.
Interpretation of Treaties
A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance

with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the
treaty in their context and in the light of its object and
purpose. There are, however, NO TECHNICAL RULES.
CANONS OF INTERPRETATION
Generally regarded by publicists as applicable to treaties
consist largely of the application of principles of logic,
equity and common sense to the text for the purpose of
discovering its meaning.
TRAVAUX PREPARATOIRES
Preparatory works as a method of historical interpretation
of a treaty. These works are examined for the purpose of
ascertaining the intention of the parties.
The interpretation of one State, even according to its

municipal laws and given by its authorized organs within
the State, is NOT BINDING to the other party unless the
latter accepts it.
No interpretation is needed when the text is clear and

unambiguous.
A treaty may be authoritatively interpreted:

a) by interpretation given by the treaty itself
b) by mutual agreement or
c) through international court arbitration
TERMINATION OF TREATIES
Most Common Causes:
a) Termination of the treaty or withdrawal of a party in
accordance with the terms of the treaty;
b) In bipartite treaties, the extinction of one of the parties
terminates the treaty. Moreover, when the rights and
obligations under the treaty would not devolve upon the

State that may succeed to the extinct State.
c) Mutual agreement of ALL the parties;
d) Denunciation of the treaty by one of the parties. RIGHT
OF DENUNCIATION the right to give notice of
termination or withdrawal which must be exercised if
provided for in the treaty itself or impliedly;
e) Supervening impossibility of performance;
f) Conclusion of a subsequent inconsistent treaty between
the same parties;
g) Violation of the treaty;
h) Doctrine of RSS;
i) War between the parties war does not abrogate ipso
facto all treaties between the belligerents.
j) Severance of diplomatic or consular relations;
k) Emergence of a new peremptory norm contrary to the
existing treaty.
l) Voidance of the treaty because of defects in its
conclusion or incompatibility with international law or the
UN Charter.
B. STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR INJURY TO ALIENS

Rule: NO State is under obligation to admit aliens. This
flows from sovereignty.
Exception: If there is a treaty stipulation imposing that
duty.
State may subject admission of aliens to certain legal

conditions. e.g. quota system
State may expel aliens within its territory. Expulsion

may be predicated on the ground that the presence of
the alien in the territory will menace the security of the
State.
This is subject to the Non-Refoulement Principle.

Reconduction
It means the forcible conveying of aliens. As a State

cannot refuse to receive such of its subjects as are
expelled from abroad, the home State of such aliens as
are reconducted has the obligation to receive them.
Position of Aliens After Reception

When aliens are received, they are subject to the
municipal laws of the receiving State.
a) Transient -
b) Domiciled/Residents domicile creates a sort of
qualified or temporary allegiance. Subjected to
restrictions not usually imposed against transient
aliens.
Limitations - aliens rights are not at par with citizens

as regards political or civil rights.
Bases of Grant of Rights

a) Principle of Reciprocity
b) MFN treatment
c) Nationality treatment equality between nationals and
aliens in certain matters.
d) 1948 UDHR and other treaties
DOCTRINE OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY

A State is under obligation to make reparation to another
State for the failure to fulfill its primary obligation to afford,
in accordance with international law, the proper protection
due to an alien who is a national of the latter State.
Rule: A State is responsible for the maintenance of law

and order within its territory.
Exception: If the injury is not directly attributable to the
receiving State and when it was proximately caused by the
alien himself.
When acts of violence occur therein, it may be said that

the State is indirectly responsible; on the other hand, the
State cannot be regarded as an absolute insurer of the
morality and behavior of all persons within its
jurisdiction.
Q: Is the State liable for death and injury to aliens?

A: NO, unless it participates directly or is remiss or
negligent in taking measures to prevent injury, investigate
the case, punish the guilty, or to enable the victim or his
heirs to pursue civil remedies.
Function
To provide, in the general world interest, adequate
protection for the stranger, to the end that travel, trade and
intercourse may be facilitated.
Essential Elements:
1) an act or omission in violation of international law
2) which is imputable to the State
3) which results in injury to the claimant either directly or
indirectly through damage to a national.
Acts or Omissions Imputable to the State

It is necessary to distinguish acts of private individuals and
those of government officials and organs.
Denial of Justice
This term has been restrictively construed as an injury
committed by a court of justice. There is denial of justice
when there is:
a) unwarranted delay, obstruction or denial of
access of courts;
b) gross deficiency in the administration of judicial
or remedial process;
c) failure to provide those guarantees usually

considered indispensable to the proper
administration of justice; or
d) a manifestly unjust judgment.
Why is there no denial of justice unless misconduct is

extremely gross? The reason is that the independence
of the courts is an accepted canon of democratic
government, and the law does not lightly hold a State
responsible for error committed by the courts.
Minimum International Standard (MIS)

NO PRECISE DEFINITION
The treatment of an alien, in order to constitute an
international delinquency, should amount to an outrage, to
bad faith, to willful neglect of duty or to an insufficiency of
governmental action so far short of international standards
that every reasonable and impartial man would readily
recognize its insufficiency. NEERS CASE, US-MEXICAN
CLAIMS COMMISSION
Expropriation of Foreign-Owned Property

Western countries maintain that MIS requires:
a) expropriation must be for a public purpose;
b) it must be accompanied by payment of compensation
for the full value of the property that is prompt,
adequate and effective.
Communist countries, however, maintain that States

may expropriate the means of production, distribution
and exchange without paying compensation.
Developing countries, hoping to attract foreign

investments, are inclined to accept Western view.
CONDITIONS FOR ENFORCEMENT OF CLAIMS

1) nationality claim
2) exhaustion of local remedies
3) no waiver
4) no reasonable delay in filing the claim
5) no improper behavior by injured alien
Nationality of claim
In asserting the claims of its nationals, by resorting to
diplomatic actions on his behalf, the State is in reality
asserting its own right. It is the bond of nationality
between the state and the individual which confers upon
the State the right of diplomatic protection.
Doctrine of Genuine Link

The bond of nationality must be real and effective in order
that a State may claim a person as its national for the
purpose of affording him diplomatic protection.
NOTTEBOHN CASE 1955 ICJ *
Doctrine of Effective Nationality

When a person who has more than one nationality is
within a third State, he shall be treated as if had only one
either the nationality of the country which he is habitually
and principally a resident or the nationality of the country
with which in the circumstances he appears to be most
closely connected without prejudice to the application of
its (3rd States) law in matters of personal status and of any
convention in force. ART. 5, HAGUE CONVENTION OF
1903. *
These two doctrines are used interchangeably by

authors and commentators without any effort to make
a distinction between the two. It may be treated alike.
Q: What is the doctrine of effective nationality

(genuine link doctrine)?
Held: This principle is expressed in Article 5 of the Hague
Convention of 1930 on the Conflict of Nationality Laws as
follows:
Art. 5. Within a third State a person having more than one

nationality shall be treated as if he had only one. Without
prejudice to the application of its law in matters of personal
status and of any convention in force, a third State shall, of
the nationalities which any such person possesses,
recognize exclusively in its territory either the nationality of
the country in which he is habitually and principally
resident or the nationality of the country with which in the
circumstances he appears to be in fact most closely
connected. (Frivaldo v. COMELEC, 174 SCRA 245, June
23, 1989)
Non-Refoulement Principle
Non-refoulement is a principle in international law,
specifically refugee law, that concerns the protection of
refugees from being returned to places where their lives or
freedoms could be threatened. Unlike political asylum,
which applies to those who can prove a well-grounded
fear of persecution based on membership in a social
group or class of persons, non-refoulement refers to the
generic repatriation of people, generally refugees into war
zones and other disaster areas.
An example of the non-refoulement principle can be found

in the 2007 issue of Israel jailing 320 refugees from the
Darfur conflict in Western Sudan. Due to laws erected for
the protection of Israel from the anti-Semitic atmosphere in
the region, refugees fleeing to Israel in avoidance of the
Darfur conflict were jailed in the interest of national
security. After some 200 were determined to not be a
threat, usual repatriation guidelines could not be followed
in part due to non-refoulement principles. Many of them
were released to Israeli collective farms called kibbutzim
and moshavim to work until the conflict subsides enough
for their return. (Source: Wikipedia)
FRIVALDO v. COMELEC
174 SCRA 245, 23 June 1989
The Nottobohm Case is not relevant in the petition before

us because it dealt with a conflict between the nationality
laws of two states as decided by a third State. No third
State is involved in the case at bar, in fact, even the US is
not claiming Frivaldo as its national. The sole question
presented to us is WON Frivaldo is a citizen of the
Philipines under our own laws, regardless of other
nationality laws. We can decide this question alone as
sovereign of our own territory, conformable the Sec. 1 of
the Hague Convention (1903) which provides: it is for
each State to determine under its laws who are its
nationals.
3 Modes of Acquiring Nationality

1) Birth
a. jus sanguinis (by blood)
b. jus soli (by place)
2) Naturalization
a. naturalization proceedings
b. marriage
c. legitimation
d. option
e. acquisition of domicile
f. appointment as
government official
3) Resumption or Repatriation recovery of the original

nationality upon fulfillment of certain conditions.
5 Modes of Losing Nationality

1) Release
2) Deprivation
3) Expiration
4) Renunciation
5) Substitution
1, AIV, 1987 Phil. Constitution

The following are citizens of the Philippines:
1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of
the adoption of the Constitution;
2) Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the
Philippines;
3) Those who elect Philippine citizenship pursuant to the
provisions of the Constitution of 1935;
4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
Exhaustion of Local Remedies

Rule: The alien himself must have first exhausted the
remedies provided by the municipal law, if there be any.
Exceptions:
a) When the injury is inflicted directly by the State
such as when its diplomats are attacked.
b) When there are no remedies to exhaust;
c) The application for remedies would result in no
redress.
No waiver
The claim belongs to the State and not to the individual.
Thus, waiver of individual does not preclude the State to
pursue the claim.
CALVO CLAUSE
Named after an Argentinean lawyer and statesman who

invented it stipulating that the alien agrees in advance
not to seek diplomatic intervention.
disregarded by international arbitral tribunals because

the alien cannot waive a claim that does not belong to
him but to his government.
Q: Is the Calvo clause lawful?
A: Insofar as it requires alien to exhaust the remedies

available in the local state, it may be enforced as a
lawful stipulation. However, it may not be interpreted to
deprive the aliens state of the right to protect or
vindicate his interests in case they are injured by local
state.
No improper behavior by injured alien.

He who comes to court for redress must come with clean
hands.
Methods of Pressing Claims

1) Diplomatic Intervention
2) International judicial settlement The ICJ is authorized
to assume jurisdiction to determine the nature or extent of
the reparation to be made for the breach of an
international obligation, but only after the State-parties
agree thereto.
What is the International standard of justice?

It is defined as the standard of the reasonable state and
calls for compliance with the ordinary norms of official
conduct observed in civilized jurisdictions. It may refer to
the intrinsic validity of the laws passed by the state or to
the manner in which such laws are administered and

enforced.
For example, a law imposing death penalty for a petty theft

would fall short of the international standard. So to would
one calling for the arbitrary punishment of accused
persons without compliance with the usual requisites of
due process.
Nature and Measure of Damages

Reparation may consist of restitution:
a) in kind
b) specific performance
c) apology
d) punishment of the guilty
e) pecuniary compensation
f) or the combination of the above
Measure estimate of the loss caused to the injured

individual, or, if he has lost his life, on the loss caused by
the death to his dependents.
Q: What is the principle of attribution? (1992 Bar)

A: The acts of private citizens or groups cannot
themselves constitute a violation by the Philippines if said
acts cannot be legally attributed to the Philippines as a
State.
Q: In a raid conducted by rebels in a Cambodian town,

an American businessman who has been a long-time
resident of the place was caught by the rebels and
robbed of his cash and other valuable personal
belongings. Within minutes two truckloads of
government troops arrived prompting the rebels to
withdraw. Government troopers immediately
launched pursuit operations and killed several rebels.
No cash or other valuable property taken from the
American businessman was recovered.
In an action for indemnity filed by the US Government

in behalf of the businessman for injuries and losses in
cash and property, the Cambodian Government
contended that under International Law it was not
responsible for acts of the rebels.
1. Is the contention of the Cambodian Government

correct? Explain.
2. Suppose the rebellion is successful and a new
government gained control of the entire State,
replacing the lawful Government that was toppled,
may the new government be held responsible for the
injuries or losses suffered by the American
businessman? Explain. (1995 Bar)
A: 1. YES. Unless it clearly appears that the Cambodian
government has failed to use promptly and with
appropriate force its constituted authority, it can not be
held responsible for the acts of the rebels for the rebels
are not their agents and their acts were done without its
volition. In this case, the government troopers
immediately pursued the rebels and killed several of them.
2. YES. Victorious rebel movements are responsible for
the illegal acts of their forces n the course of the rebellion.
The acts of the rebels are imputable to them when they
assume as duly constituted authorities of the State.
Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
Nature
International Dispute Defined
Optional Clause
Types
1. Negotiation
2. Good Offices
3. Mediation
4. Enquiry
5. Conciliation
6. Arbitration
7. Judicial Settlement
Nature
It is well established in international law that no State can,
without its consent, be compelled to submit its disputes
with other States either to mediation or arbitration, or to
any other kind of pacific settlement (PS). (PCIJ on
STATUS OF EASTERN CARELIA.)
Dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a

conflict of legal views or interests between two persons.
The mere denial of the existence of a dispute does not
prove its non-existence because disputes are matters for
objective determination.
International Dispute if the dispute arises between two

or more States.
The charging of one State and the denial of another of

the dispute as charged, creates an international dispute
as there has thus arisen a situation in which the two
sides hold clearly opposite views concerning the
questions of the performance or non-performance of
their treaty obligations. Confronted with such a

situation, the Court must conclude that international
disputes have arisen. ICJ Reports 1950
Legal Dispute the following are deemed constitutive of

a legal dispute:
i. interpretation of a treaty;
ii. any question of international law;
iii. the existence of any fact which, if established, would
constitute a breach of an international obligation;
iv. the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for
the breach of an international obligation.
Dispute v. Situation
A dispute can properly be considered as a disagreement
on a matter at issue between two or more States which
has reached a stage at which the parties have formulated
claims and counterclaims sufficiently definite to be passed
upon by a court or other body set up for the purpose of
pacific settlement. A situation, by contrast, is a state of
affairs which has not yet assumed the nature of conflict
between the parties but which may, though not
necessarily, come to have that character.
Optional Clause
[OPTIONAL JURISDICTION CLAUSE]
The following are deemed legal disputes:
1. Interpretation of a treaty;
2. Any question of international law;
3. The existence of any fact which, if established, would
constitute a breach of an international obligation; and
4. The nature or extent of the reparation to be made for
the breach of an international obligation.
TYPES OF Pacific Settlement

I. Negotiation
The legal and orderly administrative process by which
governments, in the exercise of their unquestionable
powers, conduct their relations with one another and

discuss, adjust and settle their differences.
The chief and most common method of settling
international disputes. By this method, the parties seek a
solution of their differences by direct exchange of views
between themselves. This is the very essence of
diplomacy.
II. Good Offices

An attempt of a third party to bring together the disputing
States to effect a settlement of their disputes. This is NOT
to be regarded as an unfriendly act.
Tender of good office

A tender of good office may be made by:
a) Third State
b) international organs such as the UN; or
c) Individuals or eminent citizens of a third State.
III. Mediation
This is the action of a third party in bringing the parties to a
dispute together and helping them in a more or less
informal way to find a basis for the settlement of their
dispute.
Mediation v. Good Offices

In good offices, once the parties have been brought
together, the third party tendering good offices has no
further functions to perform. In mediation, on the other
hand, the third party mediates and is the more active
one, for he proposes solution, offers his advice and in
general attempts to conciliate differences.
IV. Enquiry
Enquiry is the establishment of the facts involved in a
dispute and the clarification of the issues in order that their
elucidation might contribute to its settlement.
Basis it rests on the theory that certain disputes

could be settled if the facts of the case were
established.
Object of Enquiry - to ascertain the facts underlying a

dispute and thereby prepare the way for a negotiated
adjustment or settlement of the dispute.
V. Conciliation
This is the process of settling disputes by referring them to
commissions or other international bodies, usually
consisting of persons designated by agreement between
the parties to the conflict, whose task is to elucidate the
facts and make a report containing proposals, for a
settlement, which, however, have no binding character.
OPPENHEIM
Conciliation v. Enquiry in enquiry, the main object is

to establish the facts. In conciliation, the main object is
not only to elucidate the facts but to bring the parties to
an agreement.
VI. Arbitration
This is a procedure for the settlement of disputes between
States by a binding award on the basis of law and as the
result of an undertaking voluntarily accepted.
Principle of Free Determination

this principle applies to the competence of the arbitral
tribunal, the law to be applied and the procedure to be
followed.
Choice of Arbitrators the arbitrators should be either

freely selected by the parties or, at least, the parties
should have been given the opportunity of a free
choice of arbitrators.
States are under no legal obligation to arbitrate their

disputes.
compromis d arbitrage the agreement to

arbitrate. It is the charter of the arbitral tribunal.
Contains the following:
a) the questions to be settled;
b) the method of selecting arbitrators and their
number;
c) venue;
d) expenses;
e) the arbitral award;
f) rules of procedure; and
g) the law to be applied.
VII. Judicial Settlement

This means settlement by a permanent international court
of justice, in accordance with judicial methods. Arbitration
proceedings may be similar to the functions and process
of judicial settlement but the arbitral tribunal is NOT a
permanent body as compared to the body referred to in
this type of PS.
Forcible Measures Short of War
Severance of Diplomatic Relations

Retorsion
Reprisals
Embargo
Boycott
Non-intercourse
Pacific Blockade
Collective Measures under the Charter
I. Severance of Diplomatic Relations

Severance may take place:
a) to mark severe disapproval of a States
conduct;
b) to influence the offending State to remedy
the consequences of some unfriendly or illegal act;
c) to serve notice on the other State that the
issue between them has reached a point where
normal diplomatic intercourse is no longer possible
and that sterner measures might possibly follow.
Suspension of Relations has been used to denote a

less drastic step than complete severance of diplomatic
ties. It involves withdrawal of diplomatic representation,
but not the severance of consular relations.
No breach in intl. law there exists no obligation to

maintain diplomatic intercourse with other States, thus,
severance of an existing relation does not tantamount to
breach of international law.
II. Retorsion
Consists of an unfriendly, but not international illegal act of
one State against another in retaliation for the latters
unfriendly or inequitable conduct. It does not involve the

use of force.
States resorting to retorsion retaliate by acts of the same

or similar kind as those complained of. It is resorted to by
States usually in cases of unfair treatment of their citizens
abroad.
III. Reprisals
Any kind of forcible or coercive measures whereby one
State seeks to exercise a deterrent effect or to obtain
redress or satisfaction, directly or indirectly, for the
consequences of the illegal acts of another State, which
has refused to make amends for such illegal conduct.
Criteria for Legitimacy

a) that the State against which reprisals are taken
must have been guilty of a breach of international law;
b) that prior to recourse to reprisals an adequate
attempt must have been made, without success, to
obtain redress from the delinquents State for the
consequences of its illegal conduct; and
c) That acts of reprisals must not be excessive.
2 Kinds of Reprisals:
a) Reprisal as a form of self-help is resorted to for the
purpose of settling a dispute or redressing a
grievance without going to war, consequently no state
of war exists between the State resorting to reprisals
and the State against whom such acts are directed.
b) Reprisal taken by belligerents in the course of war

the purpose of the latter kind of reprisals is to compel
a belligerent to observe or desist from violating the
laws of warfare; it presupposes, therefore, the
existence of a state of war between the parties
concerned.
c)
Reprisals Retorsion
Consists of acts which Consists of retaliatory
would ordinarily be conduct which is
illegal. legitimate or is not in
violation of international
law.
Generally resorted to Acts which give rise to
by a State in retorsion though
consequence of an obnoxious do not
act or omission of amount to an
another State which international
under international delinquency.
law constitutes an
international
delinquency.
Forms of Reprisals
a) military occupation
b) display of force
c) naval bombardment
d) seizure of ships at sea
e) seizure of properties of nationals of the delinquent
State
f) freezing of assets of its citizens
g) embargo
h) boycott
i) pacific blockade
Letters Of Marque or Special Reprisals

Act of a State granting their subjects who could not
obtain redress for injury suffered abroad, authorizing
them to perform acts of self-help against the offending
State or its nationals for the purpose of obtaining
satisfaction for the wrong sustained.
IV. Embargo (Sequestration / Hostile Embargo)

This is originally a form of reprisal consisting of forcible
detention of the vessels of the offending State or of its
nationals which happened to be lying in the ports of the
injured or aggrieved State. Later, the practice was
extended to such vessels also as were seized in the high
seas, or even within the territorial waters of the offending
State.
Vessels sequestered are not considered condemned

or confiscated, but must be returned when the
delinquent State makes the necessary reparation.
Civic or Pacific Embargo

A form of embargo employed by a State to its own
vessels within its national domain or of resources which
otherwise might find their way into foreign territory.
Collective Embargo
Embargo by a group of States directed against an
offending State. This may be:
a) collective embargo on import or export of narcotic
drugs
b) collective embargo by way of enforcement action
under the UN Charter
V. Boycott
A comparatively modern form of reprisal which consists of
a concerted suspension of trade and business relations
with the nationals of the offending State.
VI. Non-intercourse
Consists of suspension of ALL commercial intercourse
with a State. A complete or partial interruption of
economic relations with the offending State as a form of
enforcement measure.
VII. Pacific Blockade

A naval operation carried out in time of peace whereby a
State prevents access to or exit from particular ports or
portions of the coast of another State for the purpose of
compelling the latter to yield to certain demands made
upon it by the blockading State.
Third States do not acquire the status of neutrals

because there is no belligerency between the blockader
and the State.
Quarantine [See movie Thirteen Days]

The right to stop and search vessels of third States
suspected of carrying specified cargo to the
quarantined State has been asserted by the
blockading State. THE CUBAN QUARANTINE.
Blockade may no longer be resorted to by States

Members as a measure of self-help. It may only be
used collectively by or on behalf of the UN as an
enforcement action under Article 41 of the UN
Charter.
VIII. Collective Measures under the Charter
A system of peace enforcement under the UN Charter. It

envisages the employment, if necessary, of compulsive
measures to maintain or restore peace. These measures
may or may not involve the use of armed forces.
The enforcement provisions of the Charter are brought

into play only in the event that the SC determines, under
Article 39, that there exists a threat to peace, a breach of
the peace, or an act of aggression.

The SC may decide what measures not involving the use

of armed forces are to be employed to give effect to its
decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the UN to
apply such measures. These may include complete or
partial interruption of:
a) economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal,
telegraphic, radio, and other means of
communication; and
b) severance to the diplomatic relations.

Should the SC consider that measures provided for in
Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be
inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land
forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore
international peace and security. Such action may
include:
a) demonstrations
b) blockade and
c) other operations by air, sea, or land forces of
Members of the UN.
The Laws of War
Definition of War
Legality of War
Rules of Warfare
Sanctions of the Laws of War
Commencement and Termination of War
Effects of Outbreak of War
Conduct of Warfare
War INGRID DETTER DE LUPIS

A sustained struggle by armed forces of a certain intensity
between groups of certain size, consisting of individuals
who are armed, who wear distinctive insignia and who are
subjected to military discipline under responsible
command.
Legality of War under UN

The use of armed force is allowed under the UN Charter
only in case of individual or collective self-defense, or in
pursuance of a decision or recommendation of the SC to
take forcible action against an aggressor.
As Self-Defense the use of force in self-defense is

permitted only while the SC has not taken the necessary
measures to maintain or restore international peace and
security.
The laws of war are not applicable to war alone in its

technical sense, but to all armed conflicts.
Nature of Enforcement Action under UN

UN Forces must behave in a manner consistent with the
purposes and ideals of the Organization and must obey
the rules of war which represent a general international

attempt to humanize armed conflict.
Temperamenta of Warfare
Grotius advocated moderation in the conduct of hostilities
for reasons of humanity, religion and farsighted policy.
Rules of War Obsolete

The radical change in the character of war, both in scope
and method, has rendered many of the traditional rules of
warfare obsolete, or at any rate frightfully inadequate.
Sanctions of the laws of war

Observance of the rules of warfare by belligerents is
secured through several means recognized by
international law:
1) reprisals
2) punishment of war crimes committed by enemy
soldiers and other enemy subjects
3) protest lodged with the neutral powers
4) compensation
The taking of hostages, formerly considered a

legitimate means of enforcing observance of the
laws of war, is no longer permitted at present time.
International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

These are the laws of armed conflict. It used to be called
the laws of war.
It regulates the conduct of actual conflict (jus in bello) as
distinguished from laws providing for the instances of the
lawful resort to force (jus ad bellum).
It is a functional and utilitarian body of laws, not just
humanitarian.
It is part of International Criminal Law and deals with
breaches of international rules on the laws of armed
conflict entailing the personal liability of the individuals
concerned, as opposed to the responsibility of the State
which is covered by Public International Law proper. (IHL:

A Field Guide to the Basics, The 2007 Metrobank Lecture
on International Law, 22 Nov. 2007 by Associate Justice
Adolfo S. Azcuna)
COMMENCEMENT
It was customary to notify an intended war by letters of
defiance, herald, or preliminary warning by declaration
or ultimatum.
1907 2nd Hague Conference The contracting States

recognized that hostilities between them ought not to
commence without previous and unequivocal warning
which might take the form of either:
a) a declaration of war giving reasons;
b) an ultimatum with a conditional declaration of war.
animo belligerendi
From the point of view of international law, war
commences upon the commission of an act of force by
one party done in animo belligerendi. War
Anglo-American Rule
Bound by a statement by the executive as to when a
state of war is commenced.
Q: What are some kinds of non-hostile intercourse

between the belligerents?
A: Among the kinds of non-hostile intercourse are flags of
truce, cartels, passports, safe-conduct, safeguards and
license to trade.
Q: By what agreements may hostilities be suspended

between the belligerents?
A: Hostilities may be superceded by a suspension of
arms, an armistice, a cease-fire, a truce, or a capitulation.
Suspension of Arms
It is the temporary cessation of hostilities by agreement of
the local commanders for such purposes as the gathering
of the wounded and the burial of the dead.
ARMISTICE
It is the suspension of all hostilities within a certain area
(local) or in the entire region of the war (general) agreed
upon by the belligerent governments, usually for the
purpose of arranging terms of peace.
CEASEFIRE
It is the unconditioned stoppage of hostilities by order of
an international body like the Security Council for the
purpose of employing peaceful means of settling the
conflict.
TRUCE
Sometimes use interchangeably with armistice, but is now
understood to refer to a ceasefire with conditions attached.
CAPITULATION
It is the surrender of military troops, forts or districts in
accordance with the rules of military honor.
TERMINATION
a) by simple cessation of hostilities, without the
conclusion of a formal treaty of peace since no
formal treaty of peace is concluded, the problems
concerning ownership of property which have
changed hands during the course of the war are
generally settled by the application of the rule of uti
possidetis.
b) by a treaty of peace this is the usual method of

terminating war. It may be a negotiated peace treaty.
Or a peace treaty thru a dictated treaty.
c) by unilateral declaration if the war results in the

complete defeat or unconditional surrender of a
belligerent the formal end of the war depends on the
decision of the victor.
uti possidetis
Each belligerent is regarded as legally entitled to such
property as are actually in its possession at the time
hostilities ceased.
status quo ante bellum

Each of the belligerents is entitled to the territory and
property which it HAD possession of at the
commencement of the war.
Dictated Treaty
This happens where the decisive victory of one of the
belligerents leads it to impose its will on the other.
Imposed by the victor.
End of War NAVARRO VS. BARREDO

Termination of war when used in private contracts refers
to the formal proclamation of peace by the US and not
the cessation of hostilities between RP and Japan
during the WWII.
Q: What is the meaning or concept of uti possidetis?

(1977 Bar)
A: The problem concerning ownership of property which
have changed hands during the course of the war are
generally settled by the application of the rule of uti
possidetis, by which each belligerent is regarded as legally
entitled to such property as are actually in its possession
at the time hostilities ceased.
Postliminium (See movie: The Gladiator)

A term borrowed from Roman Law concept which meant
that persons or properties captured or seized and taken
beyond (post) the boundary (limen) could be enslaved or
appropriated, but upon return they recovered their former

status.
Modern Practice
To denote the doctrine that territory, individuals and
property, after having come under the authority of the
enemy, revert to the authority of the original sovereign
ipso facto upon retaking possession.
Legitimate Acts of Military Occupant

Postliminium has no effects upon the acts of a military
occupant during the occupation which under
international law it is competent to perform e.g.
collection of ordinary taxes. However, appropriation of
property is not allowed to be performed by the military
occupant, hence, the ownership of the property reverts
back after the military occupancy without payment of
compensation.
Q: When is the principle of postliminium applied?

(1979 Bar)
A: Where the territory of one belligerent state is occupied
by the enemy during war, the legitimate government is
ousted from authority. When the belligerent occupation
ceases to be effective, the authority of the legitimate
government is automatically restored, together with all its
laws, by virtue of the jus postliminium.
EFFECTS OF WAR OUTBREAK

1. Rupture of diplomatic relations and termination
of consular activities
2. On enemy persons
3. On enemy properties
4. On trading and intercourse
5. On contracts
6. On treaties
Rupture of diplomatic relations / termination of

consular activities
The respective diplomatic envoys are allowed to leave for
their home countries. War also brings about the cessation
of consular activity. The official residence of the envoy, the
archives of the mission, and consular archives are usually
left under the protection of another foreign envoy or consul
of another State.
On enemy persons
International law leaves each belligerent free, within wide
limits, to designate the persons whom it will treat as
having enemy character.
Determination of enemy character

a) territorial test enemy character depends on the
residence or domicile of the person concerned
b) nationality test this is the preferred continental

practice. The subjects of the belligerent are deemed
enemy persons regardless of where they are.
c) activities test whether national or not, resident or

not. Thus, subjects of a neutral State may be treated
as enemies because of certain activities where they
participate.
d) territorial or commercial domicile test in matters

pertaining to economic warfare.
e) controlling interest test this is the test as to

corporations in addition to the place of incorporation
test. A corporation is regarded as enemy person if it:
1) is incorporated in an enemy teriroty; or
2) is controlled by individuals bearing enemy
character.
Rules for interment of enemy aliens
(1) to provide for the internees safety and

welfare;
(2) to furnish adequate food and clothing
(3) to provide family accommodations with due
privacy and facilities;
(4) to provide facilities for religious, intellectual
and physical activities;
(5) to permit the use of their personal
properties and financial resources;
(6) to permit a degree of communication with
the outside world;
(7) the refrain from excessive or inhuman penal
and disciplinary measures;
(8) to make transfers only in a humane
manner;
(9) to record and duly certify deaths, and to
inquire into deaths other than from natural causes;
(10) to release internees when the reasons for
internment cease or when hostilities terminate. 1949
GENEVA CONVENTION
Locus standi during occupation

The practice of states are varied. Some consider the
enemy persons ex lege during the whole duration of the
hostilities. Some allowed them to sue and be sued
subject to so many exceptions. In the Philippines, when
an enemy subject is unable to sue during war, a right of
action which has accrued to him before the war is
deemed suspended for the duration of the war. Further,
war suspends the operation of the statute of limitations.
On enemy property
In general, goods belonging to enemy persons are
considered enemy property.
public confiscated
private sequestered only and subject to return

or reimbursement
On trading and intercourse

The practice of belligerents in modern wars of forbidding
by legislation all intercourse with alien enemies, except as
such as are permitted under license. The main object of
such laws was to prohibit transactions which would benefit
the enemy or enemy persons.
On contracts
International law leaves each belligerent free to regulate
this matter by his own domestic law. In general, it may be
stated that States treat as void contracts which may give
aid to the enemy or add to his resources, or necessitate
intercourse or communication with enemy persons.
On treaties
Modern view is that war does NOT ipso facto terminate all
treaties between belligerents.
Treaties may contain provisions to the effect that it will
remain in force notwithstanding the existence of war.
Treaties dealing with political matters, such as treaties

of alliance, and with commercial relations are deemed
abrogated by the outbreak of war between the parties
thereto.
CONDUCT OF WARFARE
(See movie: The Patriot)
3 Basic Principles of IHL:
1. Military necessity
2. Humanity
3. Chivalry
Doctrine of Military Necessity

A belligerent is justified in resorting to all measures
which are indispensable to bring about the complete
submission of the enemy, as soon as possible, by

means of regulated violence not forbidden by
conventional or customary rules of war and with the
least possible loss of lives, time and money.
Principle of Humanity
[THE ETHICS OF WARFARE]
Forbid the use of weapons which cause indiscriminate
destruction or injury or inflict unnecessary pain or
suffering.
Principle of Chivalry
This principle requires the belligerents to give proper
warning before launching a bombardment or prohibit the
use of perfidy in the conduct of hostilities. This principle
does not prohibit espionage.
Q: Who constitute combatants?

A: They are the following:
1) Regular Forces (RF) the army, navy, and air force.
Non-combatant members of the armed forces include:
chaplains, army services and medical personnel.
2) Irregular Forces (IF) also known as franc-tireurs

consist of militia and voluntary corps. They are treated
as lawful combatants provided that:
a) they are commanded by a person responsible for

his subordinates;
b) they wear a fixed distinctive sign recognizable for
his subordinates;
c) they carry arms openly; and
d) they conduct their operations in accordance with
the laws and customs of war.
Guerilla warfare considered as IF.

Hostilities conducted by armed bodies of men who do

not form part of an organized army.
3) Non-privileged Combatants (NPC) individuals

who take up arms or commit hostile acts against the
enemy without belonging to the armed forces or forming
part of the irregular forces. If captured, they are not
entitled to the status of prisoners of war.
Mercenaries considered as NPC

Those who, having been recruited in another country,
from military forces for personal gain, are not covered
by protection.
Spies A soldier employing false pretenses or acts

through clandestine means to gather information from
the enemy. A soldier not wearing uniform during
hostilities runs the risk of being treated as a spy and not
entitled to prisoner of war status. When caught, they
are not to be regarded as prisoners of war. Military
Scouts are not spies.
4) Levee en masse
Takes place when the population spontaneously rises
in mass to resist the invader. They enjoy privileges
due to armed forces.
NOTE: Only RF, IF and Levee may be treated as

prisoners of war under Protocol I of 1977. See this
reviewers section on POW.
Restrictions on weapons
Prohibited weapons:
1) explosive bullets
2) use of dum-dum bullets
3) employment of projectiles whose only object is
diffusion of asphyxiating, poisonous, or other gases, and
all analogous liquids, materials or devices
4) the use of bacteriological methods of warfare.

5) The laying of contact mines
6) Explosives from balloons
3 Protocols on Restrictions
Protocol I on Fragmentation Weapons
Protocol II on Treacherous Weapons
Protocol III on Incendiary Weapons
Other Questionable weapons

1) Fuel explosive weapons that kill by air shock waves
2) Flame blast munitions that combine fuel air explosive
effect with radiation in chemical fireball munitions;
3) Laser weapons which cause burns and blindness
4) Infrasound devices that cause damage to the central
nervous system.
LIMITATION ON TARGETS OF ATTACK

Only military targets are subject to attack by the armed
forces of a belligerent as a basic rule of warfare. Likewise,
certain places and objectives are not subject to attack,
such as:
1) Neutralized areas or zones these are zones in the

theater of operations established by special agreement
between the belligerents for treatment of the wounded
and civilians.
EX: Aland Islands, the Spitzbergen, the Magellan
Straits, the Suez Canal and Panama Canal.
2) Open towns also known as non defended locality.

A place free of combatants.
3) Cultural property and places of worship
4) Civil defense includes personnel, buildings and

assets, clearly indicated by a blue triangle on an orange
background distinctive sign.
5) Dangerous installations dams, dikes, or nuclear

electric plants.
6) Civilians and persons hors de combat persons

hors de combat are those who are either wounded or,
for other reasons, have permanently joined the civilian
population.
7) Parachutists those who bail out from aircrafts in

distress. Must only be treated as POW.
8) Hospitals, hospital ships and medical units a clear

marking or a Red Cross to show their status.
9) Food supplies and crops
FORBIDDEN METHODS
No Quarter such orders implying that no survivors are
to be left after an attack.
Starvation
Reprisals are not reprisals as a form of self-help,

instead, belligerent reprisals are of a completely
different type. These are acts of vengeance by a
belligerent directed against groups of civilians or
POWs in retaliation of or response to an attack by
other civilians against the belligerent.
Perfidy on treachery this includes:

a) Improper use of white flag
b) Feigning surrender or pretending to have been

wounded or to have a civilian status
c) Using the uniform of the enemy
d) Claiming neutral status
e) Falsely flying the Red Cross flag

f) Making hospitals, churches and the like as shield

from attack.
g) Area bombing
PRISONERS OF WAR (POW)
The following persons captured must be treated as POW:

1) members of the armed forces, as well as members of
militias or volunteer corps forming part of such armed
forces;
2) members of other militias or volunteer groups, including
those of organized resistance movements, subject to
compliance with certain conditions;
3) members of regular armed forces professing allegiance
to a government or an authority not recognized by the
capturing State;
4) various categories of persons accompanying an army
unit, such as civilian members of military aircraft crew,
war correspondents, etc., provided they are authorized
to be with the army or unit;
5) members of the crew of merchant vessels and civilian
aircraft who do not benefit by more favorable treatment
under any other provisions of internal law;
6) members of the population of non-occupied territory
who take up arms as a levee en masse against an
invading army.
Q: What are the core crimes in IHL?

A: The core crimes in IHL are genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes and aggression.
These core crimes are specified in the Statues of the
ICC (or the Rome Statute for an ICC) which describes
them as the most serious crimes of concern to the
international community as a whole. These crimes are
within the jurisdiction of the ICC.
NOTE: Although the Philippines has signed but not yet

ratified the Rome Statute establishing the ICC, the ICC
Statutes and definitions of the core crimes are
authoritative statements for us since they are practically
lifted from customary international law sources and from
the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and other treaties to
which we are parties. (IHL: A Field Guide to the Basics,
The 2007 Metrobank Lecture on International Law, 22
Nov. 2007 by Associate Justice Adolfo S. Azcuna)
1949 Geneva Convention III

The rules of POW applies to prisoners of war who are
captured in a properly declared war or any other kind of
armed conflict, even if any of the combatant powers do
not recognize the existence of a state of war and even
though these conflicts are not of an international
character.
Q: Is guerilla warfare recognized under International

Law and may a captured guerilla demand treatment
afforded a prisoner of war under the 1949 Geneva
Convention? Explain.
A: Yes. Under Article 4 of the 1949 Geneva Convention
on Prisoners of War, guerilla warfare, which consists in
hostilities conducted in territory occupied by the enemy by
armed bodies of men who do not form part of an
organized army, is recognized. Guerillas are entitled to be
treated as prisoners of war provided they fulfill the
following conditions:
1) They are commanded by a person responsible for his
subordinates;
2) They have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at
a distance;
3) They carry arms openly; and
4) They conduct their operations in accordance with the
laws and custom of war. (1982 Bar)
When POW should be returned

Upon cessation of war or hostilities. However, POWs
facing criminal trial may be detained until the termination
of the proceedings or punishment.
When is a Territory Deemed Under

Military Occupation?
Territory is deemed to be occupied when it is placed as a
matter of fact under the authority of the hostile army.
TAN SE CHIANG v. DIRECTOR OF POSTS
Belligerent occupation becomes an accomplished fact the

moment the government of the invaded territory is
rendered incapable of publicly exercising its authority and
the invader is in a position to substitute and has
substituted his own authority for that of the legitimate
government of the occupied territory.
NOTE: Belligerent occupation is different from Military

occupation.
Rights & Duties of a Belligerent Occupant

to continue orderly government
to exercise control over the occupied territory and its
inhabitants.
NOTE: The belligerent occupant cannot compel the

inhabitants to swear allegiance to him.
CO KIM CHAN V. VALDEZ TAN KEH

75 Phil 371
His rights over the occupied territory are merely that of

administration; hence he cannot, while the war continues,
annex the territory or set it up as an independent State.
Q: Can the belligerent occupant impose and collect

taxes or contributions?
A: YES. Under the Hague Regulations, the occupant is
empowered to collect taxes, dues and tolls, as far as
possible in accordance with the rules of assessment and
incidence in force, and he is bound to defray the
expenses of administration out of the proceeds.
Contributions are money impositions on the inhabitants

over and above such taxes.
Conditions on levying taxes:

1) they must be for the needs of the army or local
administration;
2) they can be imposed by written order of the
Commander-in-Chief only, in contradistinction to
requisitions which may be demanded by the
Commander in a locality;
3) a receipt must be given to each contributor;
4) the levy must be made as far as possible, in accordance
with the rules in existence and the assessment in force
for taxes.
Neutrality
Neutrality Defined
Neutrality v. Neutralization
Rights and Duties of Neutrals and Belligerents
Passage of Belligerent Warships
Prohibition of Warlike Activities in Neutral Territory
Neutral Asylum to Land and Naval Forces of Belligerent
Right of Angary
Blockade
Contraband
Unneutral Service
Right of Visitation
Neutrality
An attitude of impartiality adopted by third States towards
belligerents and recognized by the belligerents, such
attitude creating rights and duties between the impartial
States and the belligerents.
Neutrality vs. Neutralization (1988 Bar)
Neutrality Neutralization
Obtains only during war A condition that applies
in peace and war
A status created under A status created by
international law, by means of a treaty
means of a stand on the
part of a state not to side
with any of the parties at
war
Brought about by a Cannot be effected by
unilateral declaration by unilateral act only but
neutral state must be recognized by
other states.
Q: Switzerland and Austria are outstanding examples

of neutralized states. What are the characteristics of
neutralized states? (1988 Bar)
A: Whether simple or composite, a state is said to be

neutralized where its independence and integrity are
guaranteed by an international convention on the condition
that such state obligates itself never to take up arms
against any other state, except for self-defense, or enter
into such international obligations as would indirectly
involve it in war. A state seeks neutralization where it is
weak and does not wish to take an active part in
international politics. The power that guarantees its
neutralization may be motivated either by balance of
power considerations or by desire to make the state a
buffer between the territories of the great powers.
Rights and Duties of Neutrals & Belligerents

The nature of their rights are correlative, that is, a right of
a neutral gives rise to a corresponding duty on the part of
the belligerents, and a right of a belligerent corresponds to
a duty of the neutral.
1) duty of abstention (negative) should not give

assistance, direct or indirect, to either belligerent in
their war efforts.
2) duty of prevention (positive) places the neutral

State under obligation to prevent its territory from
becoming a base for hostile operations by one
belligerent against the other.
3) duty of acquiescence (passive) requires a neutral

to submit to acts of belligerents with respect to the
commerce of its nationals if such acts are warranted
under the law of nations.
PASSAGE OF BELLIGERENT WARSHIPS

A neutral State may allow passage of belligerent warships
through the maritime belt forming part of its territorial
waters. What is prohibited is the passage upon its
national rivers or canals. The exception, however, are the
canals which have become international waterways (such
as the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal).
PROHIBITION OF WARLIKE ACTIVITIES IN NEUTRAL

TERRITORY
The Hague Convention No. XIII provides that belligerents
are forbidden to use neutral ports and waters as base of
naval operations against their adversaries. Thus, a
neutral must prevent belligerent warships from cruising
within its maritime belt for the purpose of capturing enemy
vessels as soon as they leave it.
In the event that a neutral port or roadstead is used for

repairs, the neutral state may allow it as long as such
repairs are absolutely necessary to render them
seaworthy, not repairs which would add in any way to
their fighting force. Also, belligerent warships cannot take
shelter in a neutral port for any undue length of time in
order to evade capture. The maximum length of stay
permissible is 24 hours, unless the neutral state has
prescribed otherwise in their municipal laws or unless the
nature of repairs to be done or the stress of weather would
require a longer time.
Neutral ports may not become places of asylum or

permanent rendezvous for belligerent prizes. The rule is
that a prize may not be brought into a neutral port, except
under certain circumstances.
NEUTRAL ASYLUM TO LAND AND NAVAL FORCES

OF BELLIGERENT
POWs who escape into neutral territory or are brought
into neutral territory by enemy troops who themselves take
refuge there shall become free ipso facto, and the neutral
State shall leave such prisoners at liberty, but if it allows
them to remain in its territory, it may assign them a place
of residence so as to prevent them from rejoining their
forces.
As regards fugitive soldiers, the neutral State is not

obliged to grant them asylum, although it is not forbidden
to do so.
Belligerent aircraft and their personnel, if they are

compelled to land in neutral territory, must be interned.
In case a belligerent men-of-war refuses to leave neutral

port in which it is not entitled to remain, the neutral State
concerned has the right to take such measures as it
deems necessary to render the ship incapable of putting to
sea for the duration of the war. When the belligerent ship
is detained by a neutral State, the officers and crew are
likewise interned, either in the ship itself or in another
vessel or on land, and may be subjected to such
restrictions as may be necessary.
RIGHT OF ANGARY
A right of a belligerent to requisition and use, subject to
certain conditions, or even to destroy in case of necessity,
neutral property found in its territory, in enemy territory or
in the high seas.
3 Conditions
a. there must be an urgent need for the property in
connection with the offensive or defensive war;
b. the property is within the territory or jurisdiction of the
belligerent;
c. compensation must be paid to the owner.
NOTE: A neutral subject within the territory of a belligerent

is not entitled to indemnity from either side against the loss
of property occasioned by legitimate acts of war.
BLOCKADE
An operation of war carried out by belligerent seacraft or
other means, for the purpose of preventing ingress and
egress of vessels or aircraft of all nations to and from the
enemy coast or any part thereof.
CONTRABAND
A term used to designate those goods which are
susceptible of use in war and declared to be contraband
by a belligerent, and which are found by that belligerent on
its way to assist the war operations or war effort of the
enemy. STONE
Requisites:
a) susceptible of use in war
b) destined for the use of a belligerent in its war effort.
Kinds of Contrabands
a) absolute goods which by their very nature are
intended to be used in war.
b) conditional goods which by their nature are not
destined exclusively for use in war, but which are
nevertheless of great value to a belligerent in the
prosecution of the war. e.g. foodstuff, clothing, fuel,
horses, etc.
Hostile destination
In case of absolute contraband it is necessary only to
prove that the goods had as their destination any point
within enemy or enemy-controlled territory. In the case of
conditional contraband, it is required that the goods be
destined to the authorities or armed forces of the enemy.

In both, the destination as of moment of seizure is critical.
Doctrine of continuous voyage

Goods which are destined to a neutral port cannot be
regarded as contraband of war.
Consequences of contraband carriage

Neutral States are not under obligation to prevent their
subjects from carrying contraband to belligerents.
However, Neutral States have the duty to acquiesce in the
suppression by belligerents of trade in contraband.
Doctrine of Infection
Under the British and American practice, the penalty for
carriage of contraband would be confiscation of the
contraband cargo. Innocent cargo belonging to the same
owner would also be subject to confiscation. Innocent
cargo belonging to another owner would be released, but
without compensation for delay and detention in the Prize
Court.
Doctrine of Ultimate Consumption

Goods intended for civilian use which may ultimately find
their way to and be consumed by the belligerent forces are
also liable to seizure on the way.
Doctrine of Ultimate Destination

The liability of contraband to capture is determined not by
their ostensible but by their real destination. Even if the
vessel stops at an intermediate neutral port, it will still be
considered as one continuous voyage provided it can be
shown that its cargo will ultimately be delivered to a hostile
destination.
UNNEUTRAL SERVICE
Denotes carriage by neutral vessels of certain persons

and dispatches for the enemy and also the taking of direct
part in the hostilities and doing a number of other acts for
the enemy. A neutral vessel engaged in unneutral service
may be captured by a belligerent and treated, in general,
in the same way as neutral vessels captured for carriage
of contraband.
RIGHT OF VISITATION
The right of belligerents (exercised only by men-of-war
and military aircraft of belligerents) to visit and, if it be
needed, to search neutral merchantmen for the purpose of
ascertaining whether they really belong to the merchant
marine of neutral States, and if this is found to be the
case, whether they are attempting to break blockade,
carrying contraband or rendering unneutral service. Only
private or merchant vessels may be subjected to visit and
search.
CAPTURE
Takes place if the cargo, or the vessel, or both, are liable
to confiscation, or if grave suspicion requires further
search which can only be undertaken in a port.
TRIAL BEFORE A PRIZE COURT

The captured vessel and cargo, must be brought before a
Prize Court for trial.
END

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PUBLIC

NOTES AND QUESTIONS

Nam omnia praeclara tam difficilia quam rara sunt

Three Grand Divisions

Relations between International and Municipal Law

Public International Law Distinguished From Private

5. Infractions are Generally, entails

BASIS OF PIL 3 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT [Why are

1. Laws of Peace normal relations between states in the

2. Laws of War relations between hostile or belligerent

3. Laws of Neutrality relations between a non-

RELATIONS BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND

From the Viewpoint of Doctrine

From the Viewpoint of Practice

Art. 27, Vienna Convention in the law of Treaties A

2. Municipal Sphere depends on what doctrine is

This is followed in the Philippines:

Q: What are these generally accepted principles?

Secretary Of Justice v. Judge Lantion and Jimenez

FACTS: A possible conflict between the US-RP

ISSUE: WON, under the Doctrine of Incorporation,

Under the doctrine of incorporation, rules of international

legislative action is needed to make such rules applicable

The doctrine of incorporation is applied whenever local

First, efforts should first be exerted to harmonize them, so

However, if the conflict is irreconcilable and a choice has

This is because such courts are organs of municipal law

The doctrine of incorporation, as applied in most countries,

In case of conflict, the courts should harmonize both laws

In states where the constitution is the highest law of the

Supreme Court has the power to invalidate a treaty Sec.

Q: What is the doctrine of incorporation? How is it

The doctrine of incorporation is applied whenever

Accordingly, the principle of lex posterior derogat priori

Q: Is sovereignty really absolute and all-

Held: While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed

By their inherent nature, treaties really limit or restrict the

diverse matters as, for example, the lease of naval bases,

Generally accepted rules of international law are not per

Pacta Sunt Servanda

state which has contracted a valid international obligation

Taada vs. Angara

While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed absolute

By the doctrine of incorporation, the country is bound by

The constitutional policy of a "self-reliant and independent

Concept of Sovereignty as Autolimitation

Q: A treaty was concurred between RP and China.

A: A treaty is part of the law of the land. But as internal

Article 38 of the Statute of International Court of Justice

I. Treaties or International Conventions 2 KINDS:

Bilateral arrangements concerning matters of particular

2. Law-Making Treaty [Traite-Loi]

2. Stipulating or laying down new general rules for

II. International Custom

Custom is the practice that has grown up between States

It exists when a clear and continuous habit of doing certain

This conviction is called Opinio Juris

When theres no conviction that it is obligatory and right,

Usage is also a usual course of conduct, a long-