CONTENTS:
1. Introduction ------------------------------------------------------- Page (1-2)
2. Theory ------------------------------------------------------- Page (3)
3. Process Diffusion Bonding -------------------------------------------------- Page (3-4)
4. Diffusion Bonding Set-up /Equipment -----------------------------------------Page (4-5)
5. Factors affecting the process -------------------------------------------------- Page (5-6)
6. Metallurgical Factors ----------------------------------------------------Page (6)
7. Material Combinations used in the process -----------------------------------Page (6)
8. Types of Diffusion Bonding ----------------------------------------------------Page (6-7)
9. Diffusion Bonding & Magnetic Materials -------------------------------------Page (7-8)
10. Applications --------------------------------------------- Page (8-9)
11. Advantages -------------------------------------------------------Page (9)
12. Disadvantages -------------------------------------------------------Page (9)
13. References -------------------------------------------------------Page (10)
INTRODUCTION:
Diffusion bonding or diffusion welding is a solid-state welding technique used in metalworking,
capable of joining similar and dissimilar metals. It operates on the principle of solid-state diffusion,
wherein the atoms of two solid, metallic surfaces intersperse themselves over time. This is typically
accomplished at an elevated temperature, approximately 50-70% of the absolute melting
temperature of the materials.The solid phase diffusion bonding of the product is used in various
industrial fields to make making to high performance and making to a high function near-net shape
in addition. Diffusion bonding offers many advantages, mainly the strength of the bonding line,
which is equal to the base metals. The microstructure at the bonded region is exactly the same as the
parent metals. On the other hand, this advantage joining process requires several strictly controlled
condition: clean and smooth contacting surfaces which are free from oxides, etc., high temperature
condition to promote diffusion process.
Diffusion bonding is an attractive manufacturing option for joining dissimilar metals and
for making the component with critical property continuity requirements. Unlike other joining
processes the diffusion bonding process preserves the base metal microstructure at the interface.
More importantly no localized thermal gradient is present to induce distortion or to create residual
stresses in the component.
Figure 1: Microstructure of Diffusion Bonding
Diffusion bonding involves no liquid fusion, and often no filler metal. No weight is added to the
total, and the join tends to exhibit both the strength and temperature resistance of the base metal(s).
The materials endure no, or very little, plastic deformation. Very little residual stress is introduced,
and there is no contamination from the bonding process. It may be performed on a join surface of
theoretically any size with no increase in processing time; practically speaking, the surface tends to
be limited by the pressure required and physical limitations. It may be performed with similar and
dissimilar metals, reactive and refractory metals, or pieces of varying thicknesses.
This bonding process conducted in vacuum or in inert environment to reduce oxidation. This
is widely used to join refectory materials in aerospace and nuclear industries.
THEORY:
Steady state diffusion is determined by the amount of diffusion flux that passes through the cross-
sectional area of the mating surfaces. Fick's first law of diffusion states:
where J is the diffusion flux, D is a diffusion coefficient, and dC/dx is the concentration gradient
through the materials in question. The negative sign is a product of the gradient. Another form of
Fick's law states:
where M is defined as either the mass or amount of atoms being diffused, A is the cross-sectional
area, and t is the time required. Equating the two equations and rearranging, we achieve the
following result:
As mass and area are constant for a given joint, time required is largely dependent on the
concentration gradient, which changes by only incremental amounts through the joint, and the
diffusion coefficient. The diffusion
coefficient is determined by the
equation:
where Qd is the activation energy for diffusion, R is the universal gas constant, T is the
thermodynamic temperature experienced during the process, and D0 is a temperature-independent
preexponential factor that depends on the materials being joined. For a given joint, the only term in
this equation within control is temperature.
PROCESS:
This process works on basic principle of diffusion. Diffusion means movement of molecules or
atoms from high concentration region to low concentration region. This is fundamental principle of
diffusion welding. In this welding process both the welding plates are placed one over other in high
pressure and temperature for a long period of time. This high pressure force starts diffusion between
interface surfaces. This diffusion can be accelerated by the application of high temperature. This
temperature does not melt the welding plates. The temperature range is about 50-60% of melting
temperature. This whole process takes place in vacuum or in inert environment which protects the
welding plates form oxidation.
The working of diffusion bonding can be summarized as follow.
First both the welding plate surfaces prepared for welding. In this process, both the interface
surfaces made equally flat which is basic requirement of diffusion process. The interface
surfaces should be machined, cleaned and polished well which remove all chemical
contaminants from the surface. Any contaminant particle can be reduced diffusion between
welding plates.
Now both the plates are clamped and placed one over another. This assembly placed into a
vacuum chamber or in a inert environment. This protects the welding surface from oxidation.
A high pressure and temperature applied on this assembly to start diffusion. The temperature
applied by the furnace heating or electric resistance heating. The high pressure is applied by
a hydraulic press, dead weight or by the differential gas pressure. This conditions are
maintained for a long duration of time for proper diffusion.
At the starting stage of this process, local deformation at the interface surface due to creep
and yield take place. Now the diffusion takes place which form a interface boundary.
After a long period of time, both the plates properly diffused into one another which makes a
strong joint. The interface boundary disappear which form a clean joint. This joint has same
properties or strength as the base material.
DIFFUSION BONDING SETUP EQUIPMENT:
1. Loading Equipment( Hydraulic/Mechanical)
2. Fixed Rod
3. Movable Rod
4. Vaccum Facility
5. Bonding Dies
6. Stage to carry specimens
PARAMETERS THAT AFFECT THE PROCESS:
1. Temperature is the most influential variable since it determine the extent of contact area
during stage one and the rate of diffusion which governs void elimination during the second
and third stages of welding.
2. Pressure is necessary only during the first stage of welding to produce a large area of
contact at the joining temperature. Removal of pressure after this stage does not significantly
affect joint formation. However, premature removal of pressure before completion of the
first stage is detrimental to the process.
3. Rough initial surface finishes generally adversely affect welding by impeding the first
stage and leaving large voids that must be eliminated during the later stages of welding
4. The time required to form a joint depends upon the temperature and pressure used; it is
not an independent variable.
5. Production tooling design
6. Service environment
METALLURGICAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE PROCESS:
Two factors of particular importance with similar metal weld are allotropic transformation and
micro structural factors that tend to modify diffusion rates.
Allotropic transformation (phase transformation) occurs in some metals and alloys. The
important of the transformation is that the metal is very plastic during that time. This tends
to permit rapid interface deformation at lower pressures in much the same manner as does
recrystallization. Diffusion rates are generally higher in plastically deformed metals as they
recrystalize.
Another means of enhancing diffusion is alloying or more specially, introducing elements
with high diffusivity into the systems at the interface. The function of a high diffusivity
element is to accelerate void elimination. Alloying must be controlled to avoid melting at
the joint interface. When using a diffusion-activated system, it is desirable to heat the
assembly for some minimum time either during or after the welding process to disperse the
high diffusivity element away from the interface. If this is not done, the high concentration
of the element at the joint may produce metallurgically unstable structures.
Diffusion bonding is often combine with superplastic forming (SPF) for aerospace titanium
structures. Combining the two processes of SPF and diffusion bonding in particular as concurrent
processes, provides a potential for considerable cost and weight saving when compared with
conventional fabricated structures which are typical of aerospace structures.
Cost saving accrue from the ability to form complex structure from simple starting blanks (in most
cases flat blanks) and to form this into a complete structure in one operation. This means of
manufacture significantly reduce the parts count relative to fabricate structures.
METAL COMBINATIONS USED:
1. Similar metals may be joined directly to form a solid-state weld. In this situation-required
pressures, temperatures, times are dependent onlyaccount the characteristics of the metals to
bejoined and their surface preparation.
2. Similar metals can be joined with a thin layer of a different metal between them. In this case,
the layer may promote more rapid diffusion or permit increased micro deformation at the
joint to provide more complete contact between the surfaces. This interface metal may be
diffused into the base metal by suitable heat treatment until it no longer remains a separate
layer.
3. Two dissimilar metals may be joined directly where diffusion-controlled phenomena occur
to form a bond.
4. Dissimilar metals may be joined with a third metal between the faying surfaces to enhance
weld formation either by accelerating diffusion or permitting more complete initial contact
in a manner similar to category (2) above.
SOME METALS AND MATERIALS COMMONLY USED:
Copper
Titanium
Molybdenum
Alumninum Oxide
Magnesium
Silver
Gold
Aluminium
Platinum
Stainless Steel
Other Special Alloys
TYPES OF DIFFUSION BONDING:
Two types of diffusion bonding processing have been investigated in the development of low cost
structure. These are :
1. Massive diffusion bonding
2. Thin sheet diffusion bonding
Massive diffusion bonding is a process used in the manufacture of heavy structure from plate
elements. The essential advantages of this manufacturing technique are its ability to produce
heavy sections with a much-improved material utilization relative to conventional processes such as
machining from solid.
Figure: Massive Diffusion Bonding
The most common diffusion bonding process practicedin airframe structure manufacture is thin
sheet diffusion bonding because of the large area bonds associated with thin sheet structures and
the fact that the sheets are at Superplastic Forming (SPF) temperature, bonding is affected by means
of inert gas pressure applied in a bonding tool. This process ensures uniform pressure over the
whole bond area and enables mismatch between the mating faces to be overcome by the SPF
properties of the material.
Figure: Thin sheet Diffusion Bonding
DIFFUSION BONDING & MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Diffusion Bonding is an important manufacturing technique that can be used to manufacture some
materials based on ceramics and magnetic materials that can be used as cores etc.
PiezoElectric stacks used have previously been bonded together using organic Methods.
These in general have moduli an order of magnitude lower and loss factors an order of magnitude
higher than the themselves. As a consequence, degradation of the electromechanical coupling factor
and decreased efficiency occur. This leads to increased operating temperatures and possibly thermal
runaway. To avoid these difficulties, it has been necessary to use relatively thick to minimize the
number of bonds.
Magnetic pulse welding (MPW) is a joining process in which lap joint surfaces of
cylindrical shape metals, such as pipes and tubes, are welded by impact, using electromagnetic
forces. MPW is classed in the group of solid-state bonding processes together with explosive
welding (EXW). MPW process is very fast, produces no heat affected zone (HAZ) and may be
performed without filler metals and protective gases. Nevertheless, it was detected a very thin film
(10 to 40 m) of two welded metals in the form of intermetallic phases, in which melting and
solidification processes took place.
OTHER APPLICATIONS:
It is mostly used to weld refectory materials used in aerospace and nuclear industries.
Diffusion bonding is used to weld titanium, zirconium and beryllium metals and its alloy.
It can weld nickel alloy like Inconel, Wrought Udimet etc.
It is used to weld dissimilar metals like Cu to Ti, Cu to Al etc.
Since this form of bonding takes a considerable amount of time compared to other joining
techniques such as explosion welding, parts are made in small quantities, and often fabrication is
mostly automated. However, due to different requirements, some of the time interval could be
accomplished in few minutes. In an attempt to reduce fastener count, labor costs, and part count,
diffusion bonding, in conjunction with superplastic forming, is also used when creating complex
sheet metal forms. Multiple sheets are stacked atop one another and bonded in specific sections.
The stack is then placed into a mold and gas pressure expands the sheets to fill the mold. This is
often done using titanium or aluminum alloys for parts needed in the aerospace industry.
Typical materials that are welded include titanium, beryllium, and zirconium. In many military
aircraft diffusion bonding will help to allow for the conservation of expensive strategic materials
and the reduction of manufacturing costs. Some aircraft have over 100 diffusion-bonded parts,
including; fuselages, outboard and inboard actuator fittings, landing gear trunnions, and nacelle
frames.
ADVANTAGES:
The joint have same mechanical and physical properties as parent material.
This process produces clean joint which is free from interface discontinuity and porosity.
Both similar and dissimilar material can be joint by diffusion bonding process.
It provides good dimension tolerance. So it is used to make precision components.
Low running cost.
It is simple in working.
It does not use filler material, flux etc. which are used in arc welding process.
It can weld complex shapes.
DOWNSIDES/DISADVANTAGES:
High initial or setup cost.
It is time consuming process. It takes more time compare to other welding process.
Surface preparations of welding plates are more critical and difficult.
Size of the weld is limited according to equipment available.
This process is not suitable for mass production.
Highly depend on welding parameters like surface finish, welding material, temperature,
pressure etc.
REFERENCES:
1. Nguyentat, Thinh, Diffusion Bonding An Advance Material Process For Aerospace
Technology Material Science Forum, 2000.
2. Stephen, D., The Application of Superplastic Forming And Diffusion Bonding To Air
Frame Design And Manufacture, International Symposium on Aeronautical Science And
Technology Of Indonesia, Jakarta, 1986.
3. Welding handbook, 7th ed. Vol. 3, Resistance And Solid State Welding And Other joining
Processes.
4. https:/www.mech4study.com
5. https:/www.wikipedia.org/diffusion bonding
6. Weisert, Edward D.,Saving Up To 50% - Superplastic Forming / Diffusion Bonding,
Mantech Journal vol. 5 No. 3, 1980.
7. E. Rigby - IBM General Products Division, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A.
