FM 5-436

Chapter 8

Components of Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, and/or other
aggregates that are held together by a hardened paste of cement and
water. The properties of concrete vary depending on the ingredients used
and their proportions in the mix. Generally, concrete mix consists of 25 to
40 percent cement paste, 25 to 40 percent aggregate, and 7 to 15 percent
concrete. When cement and water are combined, hydration (liberation of
heat) occurs. The strength of concrete begins with hydration and increases
as long as hydration continues. After 28 days, the relative strength
increase levels off.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

8-1. Various types of portland cement have been standardized for different
uses. The type of construction, the chemical composition of the soil, the
economy, and the speed of construction determine the type of cement used.
The five types of portland cement are described below. Types I, II, and III are
the most widely used; Types IV and V are used for specific applications.
NOTE: Chapter 9 addresses air-entrained cement, which is a special
type of cement made with an air-entraining admixture.
Type I, normal portland cement. Type I cement is used in general
construction. It is used for pavement construction where concrete is
not subject to sulfate hazards or where heat generated through
hydration does not cause an objectionable rise in temperature.
Type II, modified portland cement. Type II cement generates
lower heat at a slower rate than Type I, and it has improved
resistance to sulfate. It is used in hot weather when moderate heat
generation tends to minimize the rise in temperature; Type I may be
preferable in cold weather. Type II cement can be used as a precaution
in areas where sulfate concentrations are higher than normal but are
not severe.
Type III, high-early-strength portland cement. Type III cement
is used when high strengths are needed very early in an operation.
Forms can be removed in a short time, and the concrete can be put into
quick service. It is also used to reduce the amount of time uncured
cement is exposed to low temperatures. Type III cement usually cures
in two days at 70F and three days at 50F. High strength can be
obtained at an early stage more satisfactorily and economically with
Type III cement than with Type I.
Type IV, low-heat portland cement. Type IV cement is used when
the amount and rate of generated heat must be kept to a minimum. It
develops strength at a slower rate than Type I. Type IV is normally
used in large, mass projects, such as concrete dams, to combat the rise

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 FM 5-436

in temperature where heat generated during hardening may be a

critical factor. It is seldom used for road or airfield construction.
Type V, sulfate-resistant portland cement. Type V cement is used
in structures that are exposed to severe sulfate action, such as areas
that have water with a high acid content. It gains strength at a slower
rate than Type I.

WATER
8-2. Water is mixed with cement to form a paste and produce hydration.
Foreign materials in the water that tend to retard or change the chemical
reaction are detrimental to concrete. Organic material and oil may inhibit the
bond between the hydrated cement and the aggregate by coating the
aggregate and preventing the paste from adhering to the aggregate. Several
alkalies and acids react chemically with cement and retard normal hydration,
and organic material may have the same effect. The result is a weakened
paste, and the contaminating substance will likely cause deterioration or
structural failure of the finished concrete.

SEA WATER
8-3. Sea water and cement can be mixed with satisfactory results; however,
concrete strength may be reduced by 10 to 20 percent. Salt water acts as an
accelerant much the same as calcium chloride (CaCl2). Avoid using sea water
in reinforced concrete if possible; but as a field expedient, decrease the water-
to-cement ratio to offset the strength loss. If the water-to-cement ratio cannot
be changed, consider the following to offset strength reduction:
If using ocean water with an average salt content, multiply the design
thickness by 1.15 to obtain a thickness of equal strength.
If using water from a landlocked sea, such as the Dead Sea, with an
extremely high salt content, multiply the design thickness by 1.25 to
obtain a thickness of equal strength.

WELL WATER (SULFUR)

8-4. Avoid using water with a high sulfur content (normally present in wells
and streams near underground mines) in concrete. If it is the best type of
water available, however, use sulfur-resistant cements. Sulfur water that is
not unpleasant to drink produces excellent results with Type V cement, good
results with Type II cement, and fair results with other types of cement. If the
water contains enough sulfates to make it unpleasant to drink, it produces
good results with Type V cement, fair results with Type II cement, and
marginal or unsatisfactory results with other types of cement. Some sulfur
water may also contain acids or alkalies, and adding an accelerator may offset
the harmful effects of these contaminants.

AGGREGATE
8-5. Aggregates can be added to cement paste as a filler; however, they affect
the proportions and the economy of a mix and the qualities of the finished

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FM 5-436

concrete. The most common fillers are crushed rock and natural deposits of
sand and gravel. Artificial aggregates, such as blast-furnace slag or specially
burned clay, can be used if natural aggregates are unavailable. A satisfactory,
expedient aggregate can sometimes be produced by crushing the rubble from
demolished structures.

TYPES
8-6. FA and CA can be used to produce concrete. Combining both types yields
a well-graded mix that produces a strong, durable, almost voidless building
stone. For portland-cement concrete, aggregate is considered fine when it
passes a number 4 sieve and is retained on a number 200 sieve with 3 to 5
percent passing a number 100 sieve. Use FA to fill voids between CA particles
and to reduce the amount of paste needed. Aggregate is considered coarse
when it passes a 3-inch sieve and is retained on a number 4 sieve. CA is
primarily used as a filler. For pavement, ensure that the maximum size CA
does not exceed 2 inches or one-third the thickness of the slab. The larger the
particle, the less paste is needed to coat the aggregate.

CHARACTERISTICS
8-7. To produce high-quality concrete, ensure that the aggregate is clean,
hard, strong, durable, and round or cubical in shape. (See FM 5-472 for
information on testing bulk-specific gravity, absorption of aggregates, surface
moisture of FA, and organic matter in sand.)
8-8. Organic matter, dirt, silt, clay, or chemicals may cause finished concrete
to deteriorate by inhibiting the bond between the cement paste and the
aggregate or by reacting with the constituents of the cement. Excessive fines
may also inhibit bonding and produce a mix that is structurally weak and
susceptible to breakdown by weathering. Wash the aggregate to remove
harmful ingredients. To determine mix proportions, ensure that the aggregate
is in a saturated, surface-dry condition or adjust the water-to-cement ratio to
compensate for the amount of water contained in the aggregate.
8-9. Aggregate should be strong and resistant to abrasion from weathering
and wear. Weak, friable, laminated, or very absorptive aggregate particles are
likely to cause deterioration of the finished concrete. Inspect aggregate
frequently to disclose weaknesses.

GRADATIONS
8-10. Aggregate gradation and size affect the relative proportions,
workability, and economy of a mix and the watertightness and shrinkage of
finished concrete. In general, aggregate used for concrete must be well-graded
to produce a dense mass with minimum voids. Aggregate that is not well-
graded may reduce the strength of finished concrete and increase the cost of
the mix because of the additional paste required to fill voids. (See FM 5-472
for a more detailed explanation of aggregate gradations.) Table 8-1 lists the
recommended limits for FA and CA.

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Table 8-1. Recommended Aggregate Gradation Limits for Portland-Cement Concrete

Amounts Finer Than Laboratory Sieve (Square Openings),

Size Percent by Weight
Nominal Size
Number 2 1/2 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 1/2 3/8
No. 4 No. 8
Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch

3, 5, 7 2 inch to No. 4 100 95-100 70-90 35-70 50-20 10-30 20-5 0-5 ---

4, 6, 7 1 1/2 inch to No. 4 --- 100 95-100 60-85 35-70 25-50 10-30 0-5 ---

5, 7 1 inch to No. 4 --- --- 100 95-100 60-80 25-60 15-45 0-10 0-5

6, 7 3/4 inch to No. 4 --- --- --- 100 90-100 55-80 20-55 0-10 0-5

7 1/2 inch to No. 4 --- --- --- --- 100 90-100 40-70 0-15 0-5

3 2 to 1 inch 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-15 0-15 --- --- ---

4 1 1/2 to 3/4 inch --- 100 90-100 0-15 0-15 0-10 0-5 --- ---

FINENESS MODULUS
8-11. The fineness modulus is an index of the relative fineness or coarseness
of sand in a concrete mix. It is calculated by adding the cumulative
percentages of an aggregate sample that is retained on each sieve of a
specified series and dividing the result by 100. The sieves ordinarily used are
numbers 3, 4, 8, 16, 50, and 100. Aggregate with a very low or high fineness
modulus is not as satisfactory for concrete as aggregate with a medium
fineness modulus.

BLENDING
8-12. If the aggregate gradation does not meet recommended limits due to the
lack or abundance of certain particle sizes, blend the material to meet the
requirements. Correct deficiencies by adding missing particles or screening
out abundant particles.

ADMIXTURES
8-13. Admixtures used with portland cement are air-entraining agents,
accelerators, retardants, plasticizers, cement-dispersing agents, concrete
densifiers, and waterproofing agents. They are used to change the
characteristics of a mix or a finished concrete. Do not use admixtures if the
end result can be achieved more economically by altering mix proportions.
This manual addresses admixtures used in concrete pavements; cement-
dispersing agents, concrete densifiers, and waterproofing agents are only used
for constructing structural members.

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FM 5-436

AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS
8-14. Air-entraining agents increase the resistance to frost action and
chemicals and improve the workability of a mix. These agents are liquids
derived from wood resin, animal fats, vegetable oils, and other wetting agents
(alkali salts, sulfonated organic compounds, various water-soluble soaps).
Many different air-entraining agents can be used to produce air-entrained
concrete.

ACCELERATORS
8-15. Accelerators are used in a concrete mix to hasten hydration, which
increases generated heat and produces a high-early strength cement. CaCl2 is
the most widely used accelerator, and it can be used if it is economical and the
increased hydration will not cause flash set or undue shrinkage. Use 1 to 2
percent CaCl2 by weight of the cement. This amount increases the flexural
strength by 40 to 90 percent on the first day and 5 to 35 percent by the third
day when moist-cured at 70F. Flexural strength increases are lower at 40F,
and acceleration is usually greatest during the first three days.
8-16. With the same water-to-cement ratio, the ultimate strength at one year
is about the same or slightly higher for cement mixed with CaCl 2. Because
CaCl2 increases the workability of a mix, lower water-to-cement ratios can be
used with subsequent increases in strength. Do not use CaCl2 for curing, on
the surface, or as an admixture. Sodium chloride (NaCl) can also be used to
accelerate hydration, but it will reduce the strength of concrete.

RETARDANTS
8-17. Retardants are used when the rate of hydration must be slowed down to
allow proper placement and consolidation of the concrete before it sets. They
can also be used to increase the strength and durability of concrete when it is
revibrated before it sets. Many commercial retardants are available; and they
basically consist of fatty acids, sugars, and starches. Use retardants when
the
Danger of flash set exists.
Heat of hydration is expected to be excessively high.
Cement comes in contact with high ground temperatures (as in
grouting operations).
Concrete is laid during hot weather.

PLASTICIZERS
8-18. Plasticizers are used to make the concrete more workable. Do not use
them as substitutes for proper aggregate gradation. Some materials that can
be used as plasticizers include
Admixtures, which increase the workability of a mix.
Air-entraining agents.
CaCl2 and other pozzolans.
Lime.

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Finely pulverized inert fillers, which increase the workability of a mix

that is deficient in fines. They also increase the amount of mixing
water required.
8-19. A pozzolan is a siliceous material that becomes cement-like when it is
combined with lime. It is normally used as a cement replacement agent. Fly
ash, volcanic ash, calcined diatomaceous earth, and calcined shale are
examples of pozzolans.
8-20. Fly ash, the most widely used pozzolan, is a waste product from large,
powdered-coal furnaces. Used as a cement replacement agent, fly ash can
replace up to 50 percent of the cement by weight. Using fly ash changes nearly
all the properties of concrete in its plastic and hardened states. In general, fly
ash improves the workability of plastic concrete. If the same amount of
aggregate is used in a mix, identical slumps are obtained with cement/fly-ash
mixes and portland-cement mixes; however, cement/fly-ash mixes have a
lower water-to-cement ratio. Fly ash acts as a plasticizer, improves the
workability of a mix, and greatly reduces bleeding and segregation. When
compared to modified portland cement, fly ash reduces the heat of hydration
by 40 to 50 percent. Fly-ash concrete does not gain strength and durability as
fast as portland-cement concrete during the first month of hydration.
Although after the first year, the strength and durability of fly-ash concrete
are equal to or greater than portland-cement concrete.

MATERIALS HANDLING AND STORAGE

AGGREGATE
8-21. Concrete quantities that justify batch plants also justify stockpiles of
aggregates at batch, crushing, and screening plants. Stockpiling prevents
shortages at the batch plant and the paver. Stockpile aggregates for concrete
pavement using the procedures discussed in Chapter 4 for bituminous
pavements.

CEMENT
8-22. Sacked cement that will be stored for a long time should be in a
warehouse or a shed that is as airtight as possible. Ensure that the floor of the
shed is above ground, and close up all cracks in the walls. Store the sacks close
together to reduce air circulation; however, do not stack them against a wall.
Stack cement sacks on a raised, wooden platform and cover them with
tarpaulins (Figure 8-1, page 8-8). Note that tarpaulins extend over the edge of
the platform to prevent rain from collecting on the platform and reaching the
bottom sacks. Use tarpaulins for protection against moisture even when
storing a small amount of cement for a short time. Ensure that the concrete
mixer is located near the storage shed.
8-23. Cement retains its quality indefinitely when it is kept dry. If it is packed
tightly and stored for a long time, it may develop warehouse pack. To correct
warehouse pack, roll the sacks on the floor. Cement must be free-flowing and
free of lumps when it is used. If the lumps are hard to break up, test the
cement for suitability (see FM 5-472).

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FM 5-436

Figure 8-1. Cement Stored Under Tarpaulins

8-24. Bulk portland cement is blown through ducts from railroad cars to
cement bins and weighing hoppers. The hoppers stand alongside trucks,
beyond the aggregate batcher, and dump the cement into each batch. Open
cement sacks and dump them into each batch from a roadside platform. Stack
the sacks on the platform or the dunnage and cover them with tarpaulins or
roofing paper. When hauling cement, cover it on the truck beds with tightly
fitted canvas to prevent loss from wind and avoid damage from light showers.
Depending on the length of the haul and the weather conditions, unopened
sacks of cement may have to be opened at the mixer and dumped into each
batch.
8-25. Loading platforms may be located at any point along the route from the
batching plant to the paver. Hand trucks and roller conveyors are useful at
loading points. Two people can toss cement sacks using a lifting-and-swinging
rhythm. Empty sacks by cutting the underside lengthwise with a sharp,
curved linoleum knife and pulling the empty sack free. When handling
cement, wear goggles, respirators, and gloves. Avoid skin irritation by
precoating exposed skin surfaces with petroleum jelly or neats-foot oil. Store
water near the mixer or water trailers, and ensure that water containers are
clean and rust-free.

8-8 Components of Concrete