CHAPTER 4

NETWORK STANDARDS
(THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL & IEEE 802.x Standard)

4. 1 The Needs Of Standard In Network Communication

4. 2 The OSI Reference Model
4. 3 Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model
4.4 The IEEE 802.x Standard

4.1. The Needs of Standard in Network Communication

Most networks are a combination of hardware and software from a variety of
vendors. This ability to combine the products manufactured by different vendors
is made possible by the existence of industry standards.

Standards are guidelines that vendors adhere /stick on to voluntarily in order to

make their products compatible with products from other vendors. In general
those standards address:
Size.
Shape.
Material.
Function.
Speed. Etc.
More specifically, the standards define physical and operational characteristics of:
Operating systems (NOS)
Communication Software.
For example, standards make it possible to buy a NIC manufactured by one vendor
for a computer manufactured by another vendor with reasonable assurance that
the card will:
Fit into the computer.
Work with the network cabling.
Translate signals from the computer and send them out onto the network.
Receive data from the network and deliver it to the computer.
When a vendor subscribes to a set of standards, it means that the vendor is
agreeing to make equipment that conforms to the specifications of the standard.

Standards have, in fact, been responsible for the success and growth of both the
computer and networking products industries.

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 4. 2. The OSI Reference Model
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a Paris-based
organization of member countries, each of which is represented by its leading
standard-setting organization. For example, American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) represents the United States, and the British Standards
Institution (BSI) represents the United Kingdom. Other organizations represented
at the ISO include:
Governmental bodies such as the U.S. State Department.
Businesses.
Educational institutes.
Research organizations. etc
The ISO works to establish international standardization of all services and
manufactured products.

In the area of computing, the ISO's goal is to establish global standards for
communications and information exchange. The standards will promote open
networking environments that let multivendor computer systems communicate with
one another using protocols that have been accepted internationally by the ISO
membership.

The ISO's major achievement in the area of networking and communications has
been to define a set of standards, known as the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) reference model which defines standards for the interaction of
computers connected by communications networks.

The OSI original document applied to systems that were open to each other
because they could all use the same protocols (the procedures used to control the
orderly exchange of information between stations on a data communication
network) and standards to exchange information.

The OSI reference model is the best-known and most widely used guide for
visualizing networking environments. Manufacturers adhere to the OSI reference
model when they design network products. It provides a description of how
network hardware and software work together in a layered fashion to make
communications possible. The model also helps to troubleshoot problems by
providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed to
function.

The main objective of dividing into seven layers include creating a manageable
layers by breaking down the complex network operations and allowing specialization
of research and development on each component of the OSI layer.

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In general, the Benefits of the OSI Reference model is given below
Reduces complexity

Standardizes interfaces

Facilitates modular/modification engineering

Ensures interoperable technology

Accelerates evolution

Simplifies teaching and learning

Figure 1. The 7 layers of the OSI reference model

The 7 layers of the OSI reference model and their functions.

Application Layer - Layer 7

Client A Client B

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 The user interfaces with the computer
Provides network services to application processes
such as Electronic mail, file transfer, database
access
Initiates a request or accepts a request to send a
packet

Presentation Layer - Layer 6

When computers from dissimilar systemssuch as

IBM, Apple, and Sunneed to communicate, a
certain amount of translation and byte reordering
must be done.
Within the sending computer, the presentation
layer translates data from the format sent down
from the application layer into a commonly
recognized, intermediary format.
At the receiving computer, this layer translates
the intermediary format into a format that can be
useful to that computer's application layer.
Tasks like data compression, decompression,
encryption and decryption are associated with this
layer
It's basically a translator and provides coding and
conversion functions.
Encryption The process of making information
indecipherable/unreadable to protect it from
unauthorized viewing or use, especially during
transmission or when the data is stored on a
transportable magnetic medium. A key is required
to decode the information

Session Layer - Layer 5

Starts, governs and stops transmission order

The Session layer also provides dialog
control between devices, or nodes.

Transport Layer - Layer 4

Data is broken into smaller pieces (one piece at a

time transmitted) and the TCP header is added. At
this point, the data at the Transport layer is
called a segment.

Each segment is sequenced so the data stream can

be put back together on the receiving side exactly
as transmitted.

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Network Layer - Layer 3

Each segment is then handed to the Network layer

for network addressing (logical addressing) and
routing through the internet network.
At the Network layer, we call the data (which
includes at this point the transport header and the
upper layer information) a packet.
The network layer, is responsible for addressing
messages and translating logical addresses and
names into physical addresses

Data Link Layer - Layer 2

Adds a customized header containing the hardware

destination and source address.

Adds error checking information and prepares

packet for sending out over the physical
connection

Physical Layer - Layer 1

Sends/receives the packet as a bit stream

This layer is often referred to as the "hardware
layer." Although the rest of the layers can be
implemented as firmware (chip-level functions on
the NIC), rather than actual software, the other
layers are software in relation to this first layer.

Figure Peer-to-peer communications of the OSI layers

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In short, the logical presentation of the seven layers is shown in the diagram
below.

ClientA ClientB

Application Provides Application service to Application

users such as email and FTP

Rules for data conversion such as

Presentation encryption Presentation

Starts, governs and stops

Session transmission order Session

Ensures delivery of complete

Transport message Transport

Routes data to different Networks

Network Network

Data Link Transmits data from node to node Data Link

Transmits bits across the connection media

Physical Physical

4.3. Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model

The data packets are assembled and disassembled according to the OSI reference model.
The packet-creation process begins at the application layer of the OSI reference model,
where the data is generated. Information to be sent across the network starts at the
application layer and descends through all seven layers.

At each layer, information relevant to that layer is added to the data. This information is
for the use of the corresponding layer in the receiving computer. The data-link layer in
the receiving computer, for instance, will read information added at the data-link layer in
the sending computer. The figure below shows the assembly of a packet in the sending
workstation and the disassembly of the packet in the receiving workstation.

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 igure 4 packet assembly/encapsulation and disassembly/decapsulation
process in the OSI model
At the transport layer, the original block of data is broken into the actual packets. The
protocol defines the structure of the packets used by the two computers.

When the packet reaches the transport layer, sequence information is added that guides
the receiving computer in reassembling the data from packets.

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When the packets finally pass through the physical layer on their way to the cable, they
contain information from each of the other six layers.

4.4. The IEEE 802.x Standard

The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model pertain to hardware: the NIC and the
network cabling. To further refine the requirements for hardware that operate within
these layers, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has developed
enhancements specific to different NICs and cabling. Collectively, these refinements are
known as the 802 project.

Project 802 defined network standards for the physical components of a network (the
interface card and the cabling) that are accounted for in the physical and data-link layers
of the OSI reference model.

The 802 specifications define the ways NICs access and transfer data over physical
media. These include connecting, maintaining, and disconnecting network devices.
NOTE : Choosing which protocol to run at the data-link layer is the single most important
decision you make when designing a LAN. This protocol defines the speed of the network,
the method used to access the physical network, the types of cables you can use, and the
NICs and drivers you install.

IEEE 802 Categories

The LAN standards defined by the 802 committees are classified into 16 categories that can be
identified by their 802 number as shown in the table below

Table 802 Specification Categories

Specification Description
802.1 Sets Internetworking standards related to network management.
802.2 Defines the general standard for the data-link layer. The IEEE divides
this layer into two sublayers: the LLC and MAC layers (discussed in
the previous lesson). The MAC layer varies with different network
types and is defined by standard IEEE 802.3.
802.3 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use Carrier-Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). This is the
Ethernet Standard.
802.4 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-passing
mechanism (Token Bus LAN).
802.5 Defines the MAC layer for token ring networks (Token Ring LAN).
802.6 Sets standards for metropolitan area networks (MANs), which are
data networks designed for towns or cities. In terms of geographic
breadth, MANs are larger than LANs, but smaller than WANs. MANs
are usually characterized by very-high-speed connections using fiber-
optic cables or other digital media.
802.7 Used by the Broadband Technical Advisory Group.
802.8 Used by the Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group.
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802.9 Defines integrated voice/data networks.
802.10 Defines network security.
802.11 Defines wireless network standards.
802.12 Defines Demand Priority Access LAN, 100BaseVG-AnyLAN.
802.13 Unused.
802.14 Defines cable modem standards.
802.15 Defines wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
802.16 Defines broadband wireless standards.

Enhancements to the OSI Reference Model

The bottom two OSI layers, the physical layer and the data-link layer, define how multiple
computers can use the network simultaneously without interfering with each other.

The IEEE 802 project incorporated the specifications in those two layers to create standards that
have defined the dominant LAN environments. Figure 6 shows the data-link layer and its two
sublayers.

After deciding that more detail was needed at the data-link layer, the 802 standards committee
divided the data-link layer into two sublayers:

Logical Link Control (LLC) Establishing and terminating links, controlling frame
traffic, sequencing frames, and acknowledging frames

Media Access Control (MAC) Managing media access, delimiting frames, checking
frame errors, and recognizing frame addresses

Figure 6 Project 802 LLC and MAC sublayers

Media Access Control (MAC)

This defines how packets are placed on the media (cable). Contention media (Ethernet) access is
first come first served access where everyone shares the same bandwidth. Physical addressing is
defined here. What's Physical addressing? It's simple.

You will come across 2 addressing terms, 1)Logical addressing 2)Physical addressing.

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Logical addressing is basically the address which is given by software e.g IP address. When you
get an IP address, this is considered a "logical address" which is provided to you after your
TCP/IP stack is loaded.

Physical addressing is an address which is given not by the software, but the hardware. Every
network card has a "MAC" address which is burnt into the card's eprom (a special memory chip)
and this special address is used to uniquely identify your computer's network card from all the
others on the network.

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This sublayer is responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and then encapsulating them
when they are about to be transmitted onto the network or decapsulate them when it receives a
packet from the network and pass it onto the layer above it, which is the Network layer. An LLC
header tells the Datalink layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received. For example, a
host (computer) will receive a frame and then look in the LLC header to understand that the
packet is destined for the IP protocol at the Network layer. The LLC can also provide flow
control and sequencing of control bits.

The LLC sublayer manages data-link communication and defines the use of logical interface
points called service access points (SAP). Other computers can refer to and use SAPs to transfer
information from the LLC sublayer to the upper OSI layers. Category 802.2 defines these
standards.

Media Access Control (MAC) Sub layer

As Figure 7 indicates, the MAC sub layer is the lower of the two sublayers, providing shared
access to the physical layer for the computers' NICs. The MAC layer communicates directly with
the NIC and is responsible for delivering error-free data between two computers on the network.

Categories 802.3, 802.4, 802.5, and 802.12 define standards for both this sublayer and OSI layer
1, the physical layer.

Figure 7 Project 802 LLC and MAC standards

IEEE 802 standards categories are listed in the left column. The right column represents the
description of what each category represents.

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 802.x Standard Basis for standard
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
802.3 CSMA/CD Ethernet
802.4 Token Bus LAN
802.5 Token Ring LAN
802.6 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
802.7 Broadband technologies
802.8 Fiber-optic technologies
802.9 Hybrid voice/data networks
802.10 Network security
802.11 Wireless networks
802.12 High-speed LANs
802.13 Unused.
802.14 Defines cable modem standards.
802.15 Defines wireless personal area networks (WPAN).
802.16 Defines broadband wireless standards.

MAC and IP address

MAC addresses are physical addresses, unlike IP addresses which are logical addresses. Logical
addresses require you to load special drivers and protocols in order to be able to configure your
network card/computer with an IP Address, whereas a MAC address doesn't require any drivers
whatsoever. The reason for this is that the MAC address is actually "burnt-in" into your network
card's memory chipset.

Each computer on a network needs to be identified in some way. If you're thinking of IP

addresses, then you're correct to some extent, because an IP address does identify one unique
machine on a network, but that is not enough. Got you mixed up?

You see, the IP address of a machine exists on the 3rd Layer of the OSI model and, when a
packet reaches the computer, it will travel from Layer 1 upwards, so we need to be able to
identify the computer before Layer 3.

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This is where the MAC address - Layer 2 comes into the picture. The Physical Layer understands
the electrical signals on the network and creates the frame which gets passed to the Datalink
layer. If the packet is destined for the computer then the MAC address in the destination field of
the packet will match, so it will accept it and pass it onto the Layer above (3) which, in turn, will
check the network address of the packet (IP Address), to make sure it matches with the network
address to which the computer has been configured.

When looking at a MAC address, you will always see it in HEX format. It is very rare that a
MAC address is represented in Binary format because it is simply too long.

When a vendor, e.g Intel, creates network cards, they don't just give them any MAC address they
like, this would create a big confusion in identifying who created this network card and could
possibly result in clashing with another MAC address from another vendor e.g D-link, who
happened to choose the same MAC address for one of their network cards !

To make sure problems like this are not experienced, the IEEE group split the MAC address in
half, and used the first half to identify the vendor, and the second half is for the vendor to allocate
as serial numbers:

The Vendor code is specified by RFC - 1700. You might find a particular vendor having more
than just one code; this is because of the wide range of products they might have. They just apply
for more, as they need !

Keep in mind that even the MAC address is "burnt-in" to the network card's memory, some
vendors will allow you to download special programs to change the second half of the MAC
address on the card. This is because the vendors actually reuse the same MAC addresses for their
network cards because they create so many that they run out of numbers ! But at the same time,
the chances of you buying two network cards which have the same MAC address are so small
that it's almost impossible !

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