Mansoura University
Faculty of Medicine
Microbiology & Immunology
Department
Logbook &Laboratory
Work Guide of Medical
Microbiology and
Immunology
For third year medical students
2013-2014
1
Student name: ......
Student number:
Number of practical section:.....................
Group number:
2
Preface
The purpose of this study guide and workbook is to introduce
the essentials of clinical and practical microbiology as well as to
provide the student with an organized, user-friendly tool to better
enable him or her to understand laboratory aspects of microbiology
using an interactive format of lab quizzes. This book is composed of
three sections. In the first section, the students studies the basic
methods for microbial isolation and identification and how to examen
their characteristic morphologies, cultural characters and biochemical
behavior, all help the student to establish a laboratory identification of
medically important microbes. Also in the first section the students
study different methods of sterilization and disinfection and laboratory
biosafety. The second section of this book comprises clinical
microbiology cases of medically important microorganisms, and how
to proceed in laboratory diagnosis of infections caused by these
microorganisms. In the end of each session, the student is asked to
observe the spots demonstrated in the laboratory and to draw some of
these demonstrations in the workbook as a part of student's activities.
The end of each session includes as well some highlight points that
help the students to self assess the knowledge that they acquired from
the session. The third section of the book includes the skill lab, which
improve infection control practice and heighten awareness of risks
associated with poor infection control practice in health care setting,
laboratory and community. We hope you enjoy this workbook and we
also hope it makes your study of microbiology a bit easier. We thank
all those who supported and helped in the preparation of this work.
Prof. Mohammad Abo Elela
Professor and Head of Medical
Microbiology & immunology Department
3
ATTENDENCE SHEET
Topic Section
Date Supervisor
Number
Section I
Biosafety, Microscopy and Staining Methods 1
Sterilization and Disinfection (1) 2
Sterilization and Disinfection (2) 3
Culture Media (1) 4
Culture Media (2) 5
Collection of samples for Bacteriological 6
Examination
Methods of isolation of bacteria, identification of 7
isolated bacteria and antibiotic sensitivity
testing.
Serological Tests (1) 8
Serological Tests (2) 9
Bacteriology cases: Staphylococci 10
Bacteriology cases: Streptococci 11
Bacteriology cases: Neisseria and haemophilus 12
Bacteriology cases: Clostridia 13
Bacteriology cases: Corynebacteria 14
Bacteriology cases: Mycobacteria 15
Bacteriology cases: Enterobacteriaceae 16
Bacteriology cases: Salmonella, Vibrio, 17
Bacteriology cases: Helicobacter and Brucella. 18
Mycoplasma, Legionella & Chlamydia
Bacteriology cases: Spirochetes (Treponema) 19
Virology cases 20
Mycology cases 21
Standards of Infection Control measures for 22
Hospital Acquired Infections
Section II: Microbiology skill lab (infection
control skills)
4
Course specification
Overall Aims of Course:
To educate students about the basic features of general bacteriology,
virology and mycology .
To provide students with an understanding of the immune system, its
protective functions and its role in the patho-physiology of infectious and
non- infectious diseases.
To learn about microbial genetics and advanced biotechnology
techniques.
To define the following terms: antimicrobial agent, antibiotic,
chemotherapeutic agent and to describe the mechanisms of action of
antimicrobial chemotherapeutic agent with the origin and the different
mechanisms of drug resistance.
To familiarize students with the common infections and diseases of medical
importance, their microbial causes, as well as laboratory diagnosis,
treatment, prevention and control of such diseases.
To enable the students to practice the principles of sterilization and
infection control.
Intended Learning Outcomes of Course (ILOs):
a-Knowledge and Understanding:
By the end of this course the student should be able to:
a1- Illustrate general bacterial morphology, physiology and genetics.
a2- Recognize the host parasite relationship and microbial pathogenesis.
a3- Explain the physiology of the immune system, its beneficial role, as well
as its detrimental role in immunopathology (hypersensitivity, autoimmunity
and transplant rejection).
a4- Recognize the most important infectious clinical conditions and outline
the diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control of the most likely organisms
causing such diseases.
a5- Describe the morphology, culture character, antigenic structure and
virulence factors of microorganisms of medical importance.
a6- Describe the most important methods of decontamination and principles
of infection control.
5
a 7- Describe the basics of antimicrobial uses and resistance.
A8- Understand the impact of molecular technology in microbiology and
immunology.
b- Intellectual Skills:
By the end of this course the student should be able to:
b1- Interpret results of microbiological, serological and molecular tests
b2- Formulate a systematic approach for laboratory diagnosis of common
infectious clinical conditions and select the most appropriate tool to the
identification of the causative organism.
b3- Evaluate according to evidence the causal relationship of microbes and
diseases.
b4- Categorize a microorganism as a bacterium, virus or fungus according to
standard taxonomy.
c-Professional and Practical Skills:
By the end of this course the student should be able to:
c1-Elicit medically important bacteria based on microscopic examination of
stained preparations.
c2-Perform a Gram stain and a Ziehl-Neelsen stain and identify, according to
morphology and characteristics, stained preparations.
c3- Elicit culture media ,biochemical tests and serological tests commonly
used for bacterial identification and distinguish positive and negative
results.
c4- Perform hand wash and identify different methods of physical and
chemical methods of sterilization.
c5- Use the virtual lab to learn standard practices and procedures, get
familiarity with the equipments, apply the scientific method and develop the
online critical thinking skills.
C6- Improve infection control practice by skill lab and heighten awareness of
risks associated with poor IC practice in health care setting, laboratory and
community.
d-General and Transferable Skills:
By the end of this course the student should be able to:
d1- Establish a concise scientific activity according to standard scientific
thinking and integrity.
6
d2- Explain the danger of handling and use of infectious agents on
community and environment as a part of their ethical heritage.
d3- Interact and communicate effectively with other health care professionals
during infection control practice.
7
STUDENT ASSESSEMENT
Attendance Criteria:
Students should attend no less than 70 % of practical classes and/or small
group sessions as an essential prerequisite to be legible for the final exams.
Student Assessment Methods:
5.1 - Written Exam to assess ILOs: a1-8
5.2 MCQs to assess ILOs:a1-8, b1-4
5.3 - Practical examination to assess ILOs: a1-8, b1-4 ,c1-4
5.4 - Oral exam to assess ILOs:a1-8 , b1-4, c1-4, d1-3.
Assessment Schedule:
Mid year exam 35 marks
Oral Examination 20marks
Practical Examination 40 marks divided as
Practical exam. 37 marks
Skill lab 3 marks
Log book and practical book 5 marks
Final Written Exam 100 marks
Total 200 marks
8
Contents
Topic Page
number
Section I
Biosafety and Microscopy 1
Staining Methods 2
Sterilization 3
Culture Media 4
Collection of samples for Bacteriological Examination 6
Laboratory diagnosis of infection 7
Serological Tests 8
Section II: Clinical microbiology cases
Bacteriology cases: Staphylococci 10
Bacteriology cases: Streptococci 12
Bacteriology cases: Neisseria 13
Bacteriology cases: Bacillus and Corynebacteria 14
Bacteriology cases: Clostridium 15
Bacteriology cases: Mycobacteria 16
Bacteriology cases: Enterobacteriaceae 17
Bacteriology cases: Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Hemophilus, 19
Bordettela, Yersinia, Mycoplasma, rickettsia &
Chlamydia
Bacteriology cases: Spirochetes 20
Virology cases 21
Mycology cases 22
Standards of Infection Control measures for Hospital 24
Acquired Infections
Section III: Microbiology skill lab (infection control skills) 26
9
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: MICROSCOPY
Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should acquire the following knowledge:
1- Types of microscopes.
2- Structure of ordinary light microscope.
3- Precautions for the use and care of microscopes.
4- Magnification power of the microscope.
5- Uses & principle of Dark ground microscope.
6- Uses & principle of Phase contrast microscope.
7- Uses & principle of Fluorescence microscope.
8- Uses, advantages, disadvantages& principle of Electron microscope.
Assessment questions
Complete the following sentences:
The magnification power of the ordinary light microscope is.
The resolution of electron microscope is .
The oil used during microscopic examination is ..................................
The microscope used for examination of refractile organisms is..
The microscope used for examination of viruses is..
Mark Supervisor
10
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Staining Methods
Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should acquire the following knowledge
and skills:
1- How to prepare a dried fixed film.
2- Types of stains.
3- Procedure and principle of Gram stain.
4- Procedure and principle of Ziehl-Neelsen stain.
5- The use and procedure of Hanging drop preparation.
Student activities:
Gram positive cocci Gram positive bacilli Gram negative cocci
Gram negative bacilli Hanging Drop
Assessment questions
Organisms which resist decolourization & retain the colour of the basic dye
are called:
a) Gram +ve. b) Gram -ve. c) Alcohol fast.
Mark
Supervisor
11
12
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Sterilization
Objectives:
By the end of this session, students should acquire the following knowledge:
1. Definition of sterilization and disinfection.
2. The physical methods of sterilization and their uses.
3. The chemical methods of sterilization and their uses.
4. The difference between disinfection and antisepsis.
Student activities:
Broth culture of an organism Broth culture of an organism
before applying a disinfectant after applying a disinfectant
Assessment questions
Define sterilization:
Define disinfection:
Metal instruments can be sterilized by the following methods except:
a. Boiling.
b. Autoclave.
c. Koch's steamer.
d. Formaldehyde vapour.
Mark Supervisor
13
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Culture Media
Objectives:
By the end of this section, students will acquire the following knowledge:
1. Importance of culture media.
2. Different types of culture media.
3. Methods of sterilization of different types of culture media.
4. Suitable media for culture of different groups of organisms and
characteristics of growth.
Student activities
Nutrient agar plate Nutrient agar slope Deep agar
Blood agar plate Lofflers serum slope
Chocolate agar plate
14
Dorsets egg slope Lowenstein- Jensen medium MacConkeys agar
CLED medium Litmus milk media Cooked meat media
Assessment questions
Match the following organisms with their respective culture media:
1. Neisseria gonorrhea a. Blood agar
2. Tubercle bacilli b. MacConkeys medium
3. Diphtheria bacilli c. Dorset egg medium
4. Salmonella d. Loffler serum
e. Chocolate agar
Mark Supervisor
15
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Collection of samples for bacteriological
examination
Objectives:
By the end of this session, the student should be able to know the following:
1- The general rules that should be applied during collection of samples for
laboratory diagnosis.
2- The appropriate samples required to diagnose a case of respiratory tract
infection.
3- How to transport a respiratory specimen to the lab after collection.
4- The proper samples needed to diagnose a case of intestinal infection.
5- The appropriate methods of collection and transport of urinary specimens.
6- How to collect a CSF sample from a case of meningitis.
7- The appropriate samples required for diagnosis of wound sepsis.
8- The blood culture technique for diagnosis of septicemia.
Assessment questions
What is the proper bacteriological sample to diagnose a meningococcal
carrier?
..
For each of the following gastrointestinal infections, mention the most
suitable sample for diagnosis:
a- Cholycystitis: ..
b- Food poisoning: .
c- Cholera chronic diarrhea:
Mark
Supervisor
16
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Laboratory Diagnosis of Infection
Objectives:
By the end of this session the student should be able to know and gain skills
about the following:
1- The value of direct microscopic examination of specimens.
2- The plating out technique for culture of specimens.
3- The various methods for anaerobiosis.
4- The schematic identification of bacteria isolated from clinical specimens.
5- How to describe the colonial characters of isolated bacteria.
6- The scheme for description of microorganisms under a microscope.
7- The principles of some biochemical tests used for identification of isolated
bacteria.
8- The value of animal inoculation in the identification of an unknown
organism.
9- The different methods of bacterial typing.
Student activities:
Plating out technique Antibiotic sensitivity
plate
Assessment questions
What is the value of direct microscopic examination of specimens?
.......................................................................................................................
Mark Supervisor
17
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ...
Title: Serological Tests
Objectives:
At the end of this session, the student should know:
1- Nature of antigen-antibody reactions.
2- Specificity and cross reactivity.
3- Factors affecting measurement of antigen-antibody reactions.
4- Types of serological tests (agglutination, precipitation, complement
fixation).
5- The principle of each test.
6- Applications of serological tests.
7- Commonly used serological tests e.g. blood typing.
Student activities
A. The students should perform the following tests:
1- Blood grouping of various blood samples.
2- Latex agglutination tests: ASO and CRP
B. The students will observe the demonstrated Widal tube agglutination
tests and interpret the positive results.
C. The students will observe the demonstrated Wasserman test and
interpret its results.
Widal test
Slide agglutination Widal test
Salmonella typhi
Salmonella paratyphi A
18
Double immunodiffusion Immunofluorescence slide
Single immunodiffusion
Microtitration plate
Assessment questions
Mark the correct answer ( )
Direct coomb`s test is used for the diagnosis of
Hemolytic disease of the newborn Pregnancy Rh typing
Elek`s test used to detect the toxigenic Diphtheria bacilli is an
example of
Agglutination test Complement fixation test Precipitation test
Mark Supervisor
19
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Staphylococcal infections
Objectives:
By the end of this session, the student should gain the following knowledge:
1- The different species of staphylococci.
2- The different diseases caused by Staph.aureus.
3- The appropriate samples to diagnose each of the staphylococcal diseases.
4- The morphological characters of staphylococci.
5- The cultural characters of staphylococci.
6- The principle of each of the biochemical tests used to identify
Staph.aureus as well as the methods and interpretation of these tests.
7- How to differentiate the species of staphylococci.
8- How to diagnose staphylococcal food poisoning.
9- Phage typing of Staph.aureus.
Student activities:
Gram stained film of
Coagulase Test
Staphylococci in culture
B- haemolyticColonies of Catalase Test
Staph.aureus on blood
agar
20
Phage typing
Assessment questions
Staph.aureus shows the following type of arrangement:
a-Clusters. b- Chains.
c-Chinese letter. d- Pairs.
Which of the following media is selective for the isolation of Staph.aureus?
a- Nutrient agar
b- Blood agar
c- Mannitol salt agar
d- DNAase agar
List the cultural characters of Staphylococcal isolates
1- .
2- ..
3- .
4- .
Mark Supervisor
21
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Streptococci
Objectives:
By the end of this session the student should be able to:
1. Identify Streptococci.
2. Know the basis of classification, grouping and typing of Streptococci.
3. Diseases caused by and remote complications of streptococcal infections.
4. Samples collected to diagnose each of streptococcal infections.
5. How samples are processed until an accurate diagnosis is obtained.
Student activities:
Gram stained film of Strept.
Gram stained film of - Haemolytic Colonies of
pneumoniae in sputum
Strept. pyogenes in Strept. pneumoniae
sputum
-Haemolytic Colonies of Optochin sensitivity Test Bile solubility Test
Strept. pyogenes
Assessment questions
List some specific tests that help in the diagnosis of scarlet fever
a. b.
c d.
Supervisor
Mark
22
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Neisseria
Objectives:
By the end of this session the student should be able to:
6. Identify Neisseria
7. Know the basis of classification and typing of Neisseria
8. Diseases caused Neisseria infections.
9. Samples collected to diagnose each disease.
5- How samples are processed until an accurate diagnosis is obtained.
Student activities:
The student should be able to:
1. Examine Gram-stained film from samples possibly containing Neisseria.
2. Perform and read the related biochemical activities and reactions.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae Sugar fermentation by Sugar fermentation by
in urethral discharge Neisseria meningitidis Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Gram-stain
Assessment questions
Mention one method for rapid diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis other
than the direct smear
Mark
Supervisor
23
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Bacillus and Corynebacterium group
Objectives:
At the end of this session, the student should know and gain the following
skills:
1. The ability to identify Bacillus anthracis.
2. The ability to differentiate between Bacillus anthracis and other bacillus
species
3. The ability to make laboratory diagnosis of Diphtheria cases or carriers.
Student activities:
Beta haemolytic colonies Colonies of Anthracoids Gelatin liquefaction test
of Bacillus cereus on blood agar plate
Gram stained film of Gram stained film of C.
Bacillus anthracis Elek immunoprecipitation
diphtheriae in culture
test
Assessment questions
Mc Fadyean stain is used to demonstrate ................................
Mark Supervisor
24
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Genus Clostridium
Objectives:
By the end of this session, the student should gain the following knowledge:
10- The important members of genus Clostridium.
11- The different diseases caused by Clostridium.
12- The appropriate samples to diagnose each of the Clostridium diseases
13- The morphological characters of Clostridium.
14- The cultural characters of Clostridium.
15- The principle of each of the biochemical tests used to identify C.
perfringens as well as the methods and interpretation of these tests.
16- How to diagnose Tetanus.
17- How to diagnose Gas gangerene.
18- How to diagnose botulism.
10- Methods of detection of toxins produced by Clostridium species.
Student activities:
Gram stained film of Acidic litmus milk
Clostridium tetani
Assessment questions
Clostridial toxins can be detected by:
1- 2- .
3- .
Mark Supervisor
25
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Mycobacteria
Objectives:
By the end of this session, the student should gain the following knowledge
and skills:
1. The diseases caused by the genus Mycobacteria.
1. The diagnosis of infections caused by Mycobacteria.
2. The stains used for diagnosis of M. tuberculosis.
3. Identification of acid fast bacilli.
4. The media used for isolation of M. tuberculosis.
5. Skin testing for TB.
Student activities:
Colonies of M. tuberculosis on LJ
Sputum smear stained by ZN stain Lowenstein Jensen media
media
showing Acid fast bacilli
Assessment questions
Mention the principle of tuberculin test
.
Describe the CSF picture of TB meningitis
Mark Supervisor
26
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: ENTEROBACTERIACEAE
Objectives:
By the end of this section, students should acquire the following knowledge
and skills:
1. Examination of Gram stained smear of Gram-negative bacilli from
culture.
2. Basis of classification and special features of different members of
Enterobacteriaceae family.
3. Laboratory diagnosis of diseases caused by different members of
Enterobacteriaceae family.
4. Principle, procedure and interpretation of Widal test.
Student activities:
Gram stained film of L.F. Colonies of E. coli Mucoid colonies of
E. coli Klebsiella
B.R. of E.coli B.R. of Klebsiella B.R. of Citrobacter
27
B.R. of Salmonella B.R. of Salmonella B.R. of Shigella
typhi paratyphi dysinteriae
B.R. of Shigella B.R. of Shigella sonii Oxidase test
flexneri
Urease test
Assessment questions
True (T) or False (F)
1. Some strains of E.coli are capsulated ( )
( )
2. Citrobacter is indole positive.
Mark Supervisor
28
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Hemophilus,
Bordettela, Yersinia, Mycoplasma, rickettsia
& chlamydia
Objectives:
At the end of this session, students will able to learn and gain the following
skills:
1- Learn the main diseases caused by these organisms
2- Mode of transmission of these organisms
3-The difference between these organisms in their growth conditions and
biochemical reactions.
Student activities:
Colonies of H. influenza on Satellism Exopigment of
Chocolate agar pseudomonas
Assessment questions
Choose the single best answer:
Urea breath test is diagnostic to:
a. V cholera
b. Campylobacter
c. Helicobacter
d. Spirochetes
Haemophilus influenza type b can be detected in the
cerebrospinal fluid by Quelling reaction or latex agglutination.
True False
Mark Supervisor
29
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Spirochetes
Objectives:
By the end of this session the student should be able to know and gain skills
about the following:
10- The special characters of spirochetes family.
11- The pathogenic species in spirochetes.
12- The disease caused by Terponema pallidum.
13- Methods of diagnosis of syphilis.
14- Methods of diagnosis of relapsing fever.
15- The pathogenesis of leptospirosis.
Student activities: Wasserman test
Strong positive Moderate positive Weak positive
Negative test Antigen Antibody
anticomplementry
anticomplementry
Assessment questions
What are the samples for diagnosis of leptospirosis?
1. ..
2. ..
Supervisor
Mark
30
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Virology cases
Objectives:
At the end of this session, the student should know:
1- How can viruses be detected in clinical specimens.
2- Tests used for detection of antiviral antibodies.
3- Methods of cultivation and identification of viruses.
4- Methods of quantification of viruses.
Student activities:
1- The student should know the instruments demonstrated.
2- The student should try to search on the web and find the following
a. Pictures of the cytopathic effects of some viruses.
b. The electron microscopic picture of some viruses.
Tissue culture Tissue culture CPE of CMV
plate flask with medium
Assessment questions
Viral antigens can be detected by:
a. ELISA
b. Complement fixation test.
c. Immunofluorescence.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
Mark Supervisor
31
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Mycology cases
Objectives
By the end of this session, the student should gain the following
knowledge
1. Types of mycosis and proper sample taken in each type
2. Value and methods of direct examination of samples
3. Different media used for isolation of fungi
4. Identification of fungal growth on culture eg C. albicans
Student activities:
Candida by gram stain Candida by LPCB stain Septated hyphae by LPCB
Non septated hyphae Aspergillus niger Aspergillus fumigatus
by LPCB head by LPCB head by LPCB
Aspergillus niger black Candida white creamy Candida white creamy
hairy colonies on SDA colonies on SDA colonies on SDA
32
Slide culture Sporangiospores by Germ tube test of
LPCB C. albicans LPCB
Assessment questions
1. Value of KOH (10-30 %) in direct examination of fungi sample
a. Inhibit saprophytic fungi
b. Inhibit bacteria flora
c. Keratolytic
d. All of above
e. Non of above
2. Complete undisrupted morphology of fungi is seen in
a. SDA
b. Wood light
c. EM
d. Slide culture or microculture
e. All of above
3. Stains used for fungal diagnosis are
a. Stained with lactophenol cotton blue
b. Histopathology by PAS & silver stain
c. Geimsa stain (histoplasma)
d. India ink (-ve stain) for Cryptococcus capsule
e. All of above
4. Media used for culture of fungi are
a. Blood agar
b. SDA
c. Dermatophyte test media
d. Potato carrot bile salt media
e. All of above
Mark Supervisor
33
Section no: .. Tutor.
Date: ..
Title: Standard Infection Control measures for
Hospital Acquired Infections
Objectives:
At the end of this section the students should know the following:
1. The importance of hand washing.
2. The proper hand washing technique and indications.
3. Safe Use and Disposal of Sharps.
4. Decontamination of Equipment.
5. Dealing with Blood and other Body Fluids.
6. Safe Disposal of Waste.
7. Proper use of Personal Protective Equipment: (Eye / Face
Protection, Mask,Aprons,Gloves).
Student activities
Practice hand washing technique:
34
Practice:
Action in the event of a sharps injury or contamination with
blood:
Encourage bleeding, squeeze the injury, do not suck.
Wash the skin thoroughly with soap and water, do not scrub.
Libral use of antiseptic solution.
Irrigate contaminated mucous membranes eg mouth and eyes
with large quantities of tap water.
Cover the injury with waterproof dressing and seek medical
advice without delay.
Assessement questions
The most important for controlling nosocomial infections is:
a) Safe use of sharps
b) Hand hygiene
c) Sterilization of equipment
d) a+c
e) None of the above
The concentration of alcohol needed to be effective for hand hygiene is
40%
True False
Burning or incinerating is one way to destroy needle disposable boxes.
True False
Mark Supervisor
35
Skill lab
Introduction:
Students should be introduced to the principles and practice of
infection control in three settings-hospital, clinic, and the community,
through a series of skills. The emphasis would be on the development
of systematic approach to infection control practice.
Objectives:
Improve infection control practice and heighten awareness of risks
associated with poor IC practice in health care setting, laboratory and
community.
Structure:
The practical course is structured into a number of learning activities
which are supported by graphics, video, animations, a number of
challenges and a quiz.
Course layout and contents:
The practical course would be conducted during the academic year for
the third year students once/ week for 25 student/session. Course
contents are delivered in 3 hours/class.
SKILLS ALLOCATED:
1. Principles of hand hygiene.
2. Dressing and removal of PPE.
3. Needle stick injury protection.
4. Infectious waste disposal.
36
