Open Channel Flow - General

Hydromechanics VVR090

Open Channel Flow

Open channel: a conduit for flow which has a free surface

Free surface: interface between two fluids of different density

Characteristics of open channel flow:

pressure constant along water surface

gravity drives the motion
pressure is approximately hydrostatic
flow is turbulent and unaffected by surface tension

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 Water Supply

Aqueduct, Pont du Gard, France

Water Power

Cross-section of
power plant

ITAIPU power plant

2
Zola dam, Aix-en-Provence

Spillway,
ITAIPU dam

Transportation

Panama Canal

3
Flow Control and Measurement

Flow Phenomena

Tidal bore, Hangzou, China

4
 Flooding

Yellow River, China

The History of Open Channel Flow

Main periods of development:

ancient times (river cultures)

roman times (aqueducts)
renaissance (first theory)
17th century (experimental techniques + theory)
18th century (rise of hydrodynamics)
19th century (split between hydraulics and hydrodynamics)
20th century (boundary layer theory)

5
 Ancient Times

Centers of early civilization around the large rivers

The Nile River

The Nile Delta

The nilometer on the

Island of Rhoda

6
 Indus civilization

Public bath

Drainage pipe

Yellow River

Levee construction

Sediment-laden
river water

7
 Roman aqueducts

Aqua Claudia

Construction of
an aqueduct

Characteristics of Aqueducts

8
 Reservoar
Top of aqueduct

A Roman
fountain
Frontinus (40-103 A.D.)
Vitruvius (55 B.C. 14 A.D.)

Renaissance

Leonardo da
Vinci (1452-1519)

When you put together the science of

Water flow the motion of water, remember to
include in each proposition its
application and use, in order that these
sciences may not be useless.

9
Experimental Techniques (17th century)

Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)

Evangelista Torricelli
(1608-1647) barometer

Rapid developments in mathematics

Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662)

Gottfried Leibniz
Isaac Newton
(1646-1716)
(1642-1727)

10
 The Rise of Hydrodynamics

Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782)

Experimental Hydraulics (18th Century)

Italy: Poleni, Venturi

France: Pitot, Chezy, Borda
England: Smeaton

Pitot tube on an
airplane wing

11
 19th Century Developments

Main efforts:
collect experimental data
formulate empirical relationships
derive general physical principles

Split into hydraulics and hydrodynamics

Hydraulics:
Germany: Hagen, Weisbach
France: Poiseuille, Darcy
England: Manning, Froude

Hydrodynamics:
France: Navier, Cauchy, Poisson, Boussinesq
England: Stokes, Reynolds
Germany: Helmholtz, Kirchoff

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 Navier-Stokes Equations

u u u u 1 p 2u 2u 2u
+u +v + w = +P+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z x x y z
v v v v 1 p 2v 2v 2v
+u +v +w = +Q+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z y x y z
w w w w 1 p 2w 2w 2w
+u +v +w = +R+ 2 + 2 + 2
t x y z z x y z

Increased gap between hydraulics and hydrodynamics

Bridged by the introduction of boundary layer theory

by Ludwig Prandtl, the father of modern fluid
mechanics.

Ludwig Prandtl
(1875-1953)

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 Flow Classification I

steady unsteady
uniform non-uniform
varied flow (= non-uniform):
gradually varied rapidly varied

Flow Classification II

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 Flow Classification III

Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow

Characterized by Reynolds number:

UL
Re =

L taken to be the hydraulic radius R=A/P

Re < 500 laminar

500 < Re < 12,500 transitional
12,500 < Re turbulent

Flow Classification IV

homogeneous stratified flow

depends on the density variation
subcritical supercritical flow
characterized by the Froude number

U
Fr =
gL
L taken to be the hydraulic depth D=A/T

Fr < 1 subcritical flow

Fr = 1 critical flow
Fr > 1 supercritical flow

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 Gravity Wave I

Celerity of gravity wave:

c = gL

(denominator in Froude number)

Movement of impermeable plate

Gravity Wave II

Continuity equation:

cy = ( y + y )( c u )

(coordinate system moving with velocity c)

Simplifying:

u
c= y
y

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 Gravity Wave III

Momentum equation:

y ( y + y ) = cy ( ( c u ) c )
1 2 1 2

2 2

Simplifying:

u g
=
y c

c = gy

Gravity Wave IV

Interpretation:

1. Subcritical flow (Fr < 1): Velocity of flow is less

than the celerity of a gravity wave. Gravity wave
can propagate upstream. Upstream areas in
hydraulic communication with downstream
areas.
2. Supercritical flow (Fr > 1): Velocity of flow is
greater than the celerity of a gravity wave.
Gravity wave cannot propagate upstream.
Upstream areas not in hydraulic communication
with downstream areas.

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 Channel Types

Natural channels: developed by natural processes

(e.g., creeks, small and large rivers, estuaries)

Artificial channels: channels developed by human

efforts (e.g., navigation channels, power and irrigation
channels, drainage ditches)

Easier to treat artificial channels.

Artificial Channels

1. Prismatic (constant shape and bottom slope)

2. Canal (long channel of mild slope)
3. Flume (channel built above ground)
4. Chute and drop (channel with a steep slope)
5. Culvert (pipe flowing only partially full)

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 Definition of Channel and Flow Properties I

Depth of flow (y): vertical distance from channel section to

water surface

d
y=
cos

(d = depth of flow measured perpendicular to the channel

bottom; q = slope angle of channel bottom)

Small slopes:

yd

Definition of Channel and Flow Properties II

Stage: elevation of the water surface relative to a datum

Top width (T): width of channel section at water surface

Flow area (A): cross-sectional area of the flow taken

perpendicular to the flow direction

Wetted perimeter (P): length of the line which is the interface

between the fluid and the channel boundary

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 Definition of Channel and Flow Properties III

Hydraulic radius (R): ratio of flow area to wetted perimeter

A
R=
P

Hydraulic depth (D): ratio of flow area to top width

A
D=
T

For irregular channels: integrate and use

representative values for above-discussed
quantities

Definition of Channel and Flow Properties IV

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 Governing Equations

Flow is turbulent in situation of practical importance

(Re > 12,500) => Laminar flow is not discussed.
Description of turbulent flow:

u = u + u
v = v + v
w = w + w

Average in time: Average in space:

1
T
1
A A
u= udA
T 0
uT = udt

Statistical Quantities

Root-mean-square (rms) value of velocity fluctuation:

1/2
1 T
rms(u ') = (u ') dt
2

T 0

Average kinetic energy (KE) of the turbulence per unit mass:

KE 1 2
( 2
= (u ') + (v ') + (w ')
mass 2
2
)
Reynolds stresses:
T
1
u ' v ' = u ' v ' dt
T 0

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 Energy Equation

Bernoulli equation (along a streamline):

u A2
H = z A + d A cos +
2g

Small values of q:

u2
H = z+ y+
2g

Fundamental Equations

Conservation of mass:

Q = uA

Conservation of momentum:

F = Q(u 2 u1 )

Conservation of energy:

u2
H = z+ y+
2g

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 Correction of Momentum Flux

True transfer of momentum:

u dA
2

Average transfer:

Qu

Momentum correction coefficient:

u dA u dA
2 2

= A
= A
Qu u 2 A

Correction of Energy Flux

True transfer of energy:

1
2 u dA
3

Average transfer:
1
Qu 2
2

Energy correction coefficient:

u dA u dA
3 2

= A
= A
Qu 2
u 3 A

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 Properties of a and b

equal to unity for uniform flow (otherwise greater than 1)

a is more sensititve to velocity variations than b
a and b used only for complex cross-sectional shapes
(e.g., compound sections)

Boundary Layers

Consider flat surface: boundary layer depends on U, r, m,

and x. Laminar boundary layer thickness (Blasius):

5x u
= at = 0.99
Re x U

Transition to turbulent boundary layer:

500,000 < Re x < 1,000,000

Turbulent boundary layer thickness:

0.37 x u
= at = 0.99
Re0.2
x U

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 Observations Regarding Boundary Layers I

The following relationships exist:

x , , ,U
x , , ,U

Boundary layers can grow within boundary layers (e.g.,

change in channel shape or roughness)

Observations Regarding Boundary Layers II

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 Observations Regarding Boundary Layers III

Boundary layers classified as hydraulically smooth or rough.

Hydraulically smooth: laminar sublayer cover the roughness
elements
Hydraulically rough: roughness elements project through
the laminar sublayer

ks u*
0 5 smooth

ku
5 s * 70 transition

ku
70 s * rough

Resistance Estimate

Chezy equation:

u = C RS

u* = gRS

ks u g
0 5 smooth
C
ksu g
5 70 transition
C
ksu g
70 rough
C

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