Biomechanics 1

Biomechanics
Biomechanics 2

Biomechanics

Biomechanics uses the laws of physics and engineering

mechanics to describe the motions of various body
segments (kinematics) and understand the effects of forces
and moments acting on the body (kinetics).
Occupational Biomechanics is a sub-discipline within the
general field of biomechanics which studies the physical
interaction of workers with their tools, machines and
materials so as to enhance the workers performance while
minimizing the risk of musculoskeletal injury.
Biomechanics 3

Motivations
About 1/3 of U.S. workers perform tasks that require high
strength demands
Large variations in population capacity (strength)
Basis for understanding and preventing overexertion
injuries
Provides technology to evaluate task factors and
simulate design alternatives
Wide application potential
Orthopaedics
Rehabilitation
Sports science
Vehicles
Biomechanics 4

X
Sample Application of Biomechanics

From: Takei, Y (1998) Three-dimensional analysis of handspring with full

turn vault. J Appl Biomech, 14:190-210
Biomechanics 5

Guiding Principle

maintain: D < C
D: task Demands (forces and moments)
C: human Capability (strength, tissue tolerance)
both values are highly variable and difficult to
measure and predict
"strength" = not one thing!; here, typically use max.
joint moment (and is a function of posture, time,
etc.)
Biomechanics 6

Biomechanical Models

Two-Dimensional Two-Dimensional
Static Dynamic

Three-Dimensional Three-Dimensional
Static Dynamic
Biomechanics 7

Static Equilibrium
Conditions for an object to remain at rest or continue travelling at a constant
velocity (note, the equations below also hold for dynamic equilibrium).
All motions of a rigid body can be separated into translational motions and
rotational motions.
Translational equilibrium (a = 0):

Forces = 0
Rotational equilibrium ( = 0):

Moments = 0
Biomechanics 8

Free Body Diagrams

Free-body diagrams are schematic representations of
a system, identifying all forces and all moments acting
on the components of the system.
Here, we will differentiate between external and internal
forces and moments (see below)

Anything can be chosen as the free body!

Examples: whole body, arm, hand,

Choose wisely, and solving biomechanics problems

becomes much easier.
Biomechanics 9

Simple Statics Examples

? 100 lbs

10 ft 10 ft

5 5

F=? 100 lbs

Biomechanics 10

Simple Statics Example

? 100 lbs

5 ft 15 ft

F=?

10 lbs

5 cm 25 cm
Biomechanics 11

Computing Moments
Moments are calculated using the cross-product of:
Moment Arm Force
For 2-D situations, can simply use magnitudes:
M = (r) (F)
where F is the force, and r is the perpendicular moment arm from the
center-of-rotation to the point of F application.
More generally, the moment vector is determined from the cross product
of two vectors:

M = r F (: cross product)
r = origin -> Force (origin: center-of-rotation, or the
point where you are calculating M)
Biomechanics 12

Sign Conventions for Calculations

A standard X-Y-Z
+Z: up
coordinate system
(there are several):
Positive x to the right +Y: forward
Positive y forward
Positive z up
+X: right
Counter-clockwise z-
moments are positive,
clockwise z-moments
are negative.
Use the 'right-hand +X Moment -X Moment
rule'
Biomechanics 13

Conventions for Moments and Forces

Resultant or External
what the world does to the body
gravity
inertia
contact loading (e.g. with ground)

Reactive or Internal
what the body does in response
muscle activation
ligament stretch
joint contact forces

In equilibrium: Resultant + Reactive = 0

F = 0 M = 0
Reactive = - Resultant (Or, internal = -external)
Biomechanics 14

Conventions for 2-D Static Analyses

External Forces and Moments +Y

F, M

Internal Forces and Moments

+X
F, M

Equilibrium:
+Z
F = 0 F + F = 0 F = -F (Translational Equilibrium)

M = 0 M + M = 0 M = -M (Rotational Equilibrium)
Biomechanics 15

X
2-D Model of the Elbow:

17.0 cm
10 N

35.0 cm

180 N
From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics. Fig 6.2
Biomechanics 16

X
2-D Model of the Elbow

From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational

Biomechanics. Fig 6.7
Biomechanics 17

Biomechanics Example 1

ELBOW
FB? COM HAND

5 cm 10 N
180 N
17.0 cm 35.0 cm
Unknown values:
Biceps and external elbow force (FB and FE), and any joint contact force
between upper and lower arms (FJT, an internal force)
External elbow moment (ME), and internal ME
Lower arm selected as free body
Isolates elbow forces and moments
Results in a single unknown (see below)
Biomechanics 18

General Approach

1. Establish coordinate system (sign convention)

2. Draw Free Body Diagram, including known and
unknown forces/moments
3. Solve for external moment(s) at joint
4. Determine net internal moment(s), and solve for
unknown internal force(s)
5. Solve for external force(s) at joint [can also be
done earlier]
6. Determine net internal force(s), and solve for
remaining unknown internal force(s)
Biomechanics 19

Example 1: Solution
FJT=?? +Y
FBD: FB=??
+X
E H
+Z
ME=?? WLA=mLAg FH=mHg=
=10N 180N
_ _
ME = 0 = ME + ME -> ME = -ME
External moment
is due to external ME = MLA + MH = (WLA x maLA) + (FH x maH)
forces
ME = (-10 x 0.17) + (-180 x 0.35) = -1.7 - 63

_ ME = -64.7_ Nm (or 64.7 Nm CW)

ME = -ME -> ME = 64.7
Internal moment _ =0
is due to internal ME = (FJT x maJT) + (FB x maB) = FB x 0.05
forces
FB = 1294 N (up)
Biomechanics 20

Example 1: Solution
_ _
FE = 0 = FE + FE -> FE = -FE
FE = WLA + FH = -10 + (-180)

_ FE = -190 _ N (or 190 N down)

FE = - FE -> FE = 190
_
FE = FJT + FB
FJT = 190 - 1294 = -1104 N (down)

Thus, an 18 kg mass (~40#) requires 1300N (~290#)

of muscle force and causes 1100N (250#) of joint
contact force.

Tips: 1 kg = 2.2 lb-mass; 4.45N = 1 lb-force

Biomechanics 21

Biomechanics Example 2

Hand
40
FB
100 N
Elbow pull or push??
30
WLA

2D, non-perpendicular
Biomechanics 22

Vector Decomposition
Any vector can be expressed as the sum of vectors along dimensions of an
orthogonal coordinate system.
Using the coordinate system we defined previously, we can separate any two-
dimensional vector into x-axis and y-axis components.

F
F * sin()

F * cos()
A moment resulting from a force acting about any axis is the sum of the
moments of its components.
Equilibrium equations hold for any (and all) axes!
Biomechanics 23

Example 2: Solution the Hard Way

+Y

H
FBD: 40o +X
+Z
FB=??
FJT=?? FH=100N

30o
E WLA=10N
maLA
ME=??

ME = MLA + MH = (WLA x maLA) + (FH x maH) = ?

What are the appropriate ma's?
Moment arm is always perpendicular from COR to force
maLA = 0.17 (cos 30) = 0.147m
MLA = -1.472Nm (vs. -1.7 earlier)
Biomechanics 24

Example 2: Hard Solution

40o
FHX=100cos40
FH components:
FH=100N

FHY=-100sin40

MH = MHX + MHY = (FHX x maHX) + (FHY x maHY) =

(100cos40)(0.35sin30) + (-100sin40)(0.35cos30)
-19.483 - 13.406 (Why negative??)

ME = MLA + MH = -1.472 - 19.483 - 13.406 = -34.36Nm

...FB = 793.6N
Note: this is the hard way since Moment signs must be determined (or
use the cross product as shown later: MZ = rXFY - rYFX)
Biomechanics 25

Example 2: Hard Solution

_ _
FE = 0 = FE + FE -> FE = -FE Convention
i: X
FE = WLA + FH = WLA + FHX + FHY j: Y
k: Z
FE = -10j + 100cos40i - 100sin40j
F = 76.6i - 74.3j N (or 106.7 N )
_ E _
FE = - FE -> FE = - 76.6i + 74.3j
_
FE = FJT + FB
FJT = -76.6i - 719.3j N (or 723.4 N )

length (a) = ||a|| = (ai2 + aj2 + ak2)

Biomechanics 26

Example 2: Solution the EASY WAY

General formula for moment vector:

M = r x F (all terms are vectors)
Recall: r points from COR to F application
Example 2: (moment due to FH)
rH = 0.35cos30i + 0.35sin30j + 0k (m)
rH = (0.3031, 0.175, 0)
FH = 100cos40i + 100sin40j + 0k (N) H
FH = (76.6, -64.3, 0)
ME = rH x FH
E rH FH
ME = (MEi, MEj, MEk)

Cross product obtained from determinant

Biomechanics 27

Vector Cross Product

(the moment due to FH)
M i M M j k
Mi = rjFk - rkFj

M = r F = ri r rj k
Mj = -(riFk - rkFi)
Fi F F j k

Mk = riFj - rjFi
M Hi M Hj M
Hk

M H = .3031 .175 0
76.6 64.28 0

M Hk = r F r F
i j j i = 19.48 13.41 = 32.88Nm

Note: MHi and MHj = 0

Biomechanics 28

More examples!
Biomechanics 29

2-D Analysis Using Joint Coordinates

Given:
H
Elbow (X,Y) = (0,0) m
Hand (X,Y) = (0.26, 0.5) m
FH = 10 N acting down
mLA = 1 kg E
COMLA = midpoint of lower arm
Solution:
ME = r x F (moment due to FH)
r = (0.26 - 0, 0.5 - 0) = (0.26, 0.5) m
F = (0, -10, 0) N
ME = r x F (moment due to WLA)
r = [(0.26 - 0)/2, (0.5 - 0)/2) = (0.13, 0.25) m
F = (0, -9.8, 0) N
Alternatively, use X and Y components
ME = (maH)(FH) + (maCOM)(WLA)
ME = (0.26)(-10) + (0.26/2)(-9.8) = -3.87 Nm
Biomechanics 30

Assumptions Made in 2-D Static Analysis

Links are rigid
Joints are frictionless
No motion
No out-of-plane forces (Flatland)
Known anthropometry (segment sizes and weights)
Known forces and directions
Known postures
1 muscle
Known muscle geometry
No muscle antagonism (e.g. triceps)
Others

Which are necessary assumptions??

Which are reasonable assumptions??
What errors are involved??
Biomechanics 31

3-D Biomechanical Models

These models are difficult to build due to the increased complexity
of calculations and difficulties posed by muscle geometry.
Additional problems introduced by indeterminacy:
there are fewer equations (of equilibrium) than unknowns (muscle
forces)
To overcome the indeterminacy problem, two main solutions have
been proposed:
EMG Methods
Optimization Methods
While 3-D models are difficult to construct and validate, 3-D
components of lifting, especially lateral bending and twisting, may
be responsible for increased risk of injury.
Biomechanics 32

3-D Biomechanical Models

Z
Three-dimensional static models
consider the forces and moments
in 3-D as compared to 2-D. (12,25,10)
x: right; y: front; z: up
Hand is in front, above, and to X
the right of the shoulder
H = (12, 25, 10) cm
F = (0, 0, -100) N
Y

From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational

Biomechanics. Fig 6.13
Biomechanics 33

Biomechanics Example 3

3D static moments at shoulder

Sum moments from FH, WLA, and WUA

Moment due to hand force:

Using cross-product method (M = r x F)

Using r and F vectors

MS due to FH = (-25, 12, 0) Nm (verify!)

Biomechanics 34

Multiple Link Models

For multiple link models, moments can be calculated

considering successive links starting at one end of the
body and working through each link in order.

Mj = Mj-1 + (MACOMxW) + (MAxFj-1)

Where:
Mj = External moment at joint j
MACOM = Moment arm for the link center-of-mass
W = Weight of the link
MA = Moment arm between joints j and j-1
Fj-1 = External force at the previous joint
Biomechanics 35

Biomechanics Example 4

Lower Arm: Link .35 m; COM .20

Upper Arm: Link .25 m; COM .12
10 kg mass in the hand => 100N

shoulder elbow hand

18 N 15 N 100 N
Biomechanics 36

Biomechanics Example 4: Method 1

E H
ME = (-15)(0.2) + (-100)(0.35) = -38Nm
FE = -115N
15N 100N

S E WUA FE ME
MS = (-18)(0.12) + (-115)(0.25) - 38 =
ME
-2.16 - 28.75 - 38 = -68.91Nm
18N FE
FS = -18 - 115N = -133N
Biomechanics 37

Biomechanics Example 4: Method 2

S E H

18N 15N 100N

MS = (-18)(0.12) + (-15)(0.45) + (-100)(0.6) =

-2.16 - 6.75 - 60 = -68.91Nm
FS = -18 -15 -100 = -133N (same as before)
Biomechanics 38

X
Multiple Link Models

From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational

Biomechanics. Fig 6.10
Biomechanics 39

X
Multiple Link Models
From Chaffin, DB et al (1999) Occupational
Biomechanics, Fig 6.11

Internal or External forces and moments?

Biomechanics 40

Dynamic Analysis
TOTAL Motion = LINEAR + ROTATIONAL (disp, vel, and acc)

A A A

= +
B B B

Plane motion Translation Rotation

(with A) (about A)

Linear
TOTAL F or M = STATIC + DYNAMIC
Rotational
Biomechanics 41

Dynamics: Linear
Example: an object in the hand is accelerated
F = -ma
H

H
r
COM
a
r E
E

ME

F = ma (vectors) ME = r x F
F = ma: internal (reactive) force ME = r x m(-a)
F = m(-a) external (resultant) force ME = -m(r x a)
Note: complete analysis would also include aCOM
Biomechanics 42

Dynamic: Examples
An object with mass = 1 kg is held in one hand
Static Analysis -> ME = -3 Nm
The object is accelerated upwards at 10 m/s2
What is the new dynamic force and the total ME?
Dynamic External F = m(-a) = 1(-10) = -10 N
Total ME = static + dynamic = -3 + (0.3)(-10) = -6 Nm
What happens to MHIP if the box is accelerated to the right?
+Y

S +X a
+Z
H

E
0.3m
Biomechanics 43

Dynamics: Rotational
H
Radial (centrifugal):
r r2 FC = mr2

E (r x ) Tangential:
. FT = m(r x )
=
..
= 0!!

ME = (r x FC) + (r x FT)
Rotation of a mass about an axis causes two additional forces:
directed radially and proportional to 2; directed tangentially and
proportional to (r x ).
Both new forces occur because of accelerations induced by rotation.
Note: both and are in radians.
Biomechanics 44

Dynamics: Rotational Inertia

F = ma
M = I; Ext. Moment = I(-)

Parallel-Axis Theorem:
A com
r
= + mr2

Inertia of a body during rotation about an axis A is equivalent to the

inertia during rotation about COM + inertia of a point mass m
rotating at a distance r from the axis.
IA = I0 + mr2
Note: I0 = ICM = mK2 = mC2L2 (Eqn. 3.9; Table 3.13)
Biomechanics 45

Dynamics: In Summary

Rotation

F = FSTATIC + FLINEAR ACC + FC + FT

Dynamic

Rotation

M = MSTATIC + MLINEAR ACC + MFT + MI

Dynamic
Biomechanics 46

Dynamic Exertions
Can result in large peak forces and moments, especially during
movement initiation and termination
Static analysis may substantially over or underestimate true loads
(~20-40% underestimation of peak moments during normal lifting)

Force
or
Moment
MLow-Back(Total)

MLow-Back(STAT)

Box Weight

FH

Time (s)
Biomechanics 47

From Biomechanics to Task Evaluation

Biomechanical analysis yields external moments at selected
joints
Compare external moments with joint strength (maximum internal
moment)
Typically use static data, since dynamic strength data are limited
Use appropriate strength data (i.e. same posture)
Two Options:
Compare moments with an individuals joint strength
Compare moments with population distributions to obtain percentiles
(more common)
Multi-joint systems & multi-axis loads:
Determine the weakest link, or where the highest (relative) loads
exist
Biomechanics 48

Computing Strength Percentiles

Percent of population with sufficient joint strength
Moment demands imposed by task (M)
Mean population strength (S)
Variability of population strength (V)

Assuming a normal distribution

z = (M - S) / V
z = (X - )/
from stats table z => %-ile
Biomechanics 49

Use of z-score
z-score reflects cumulative probability P (X Xi);
normalized based on mean and std. dev.
From table of cumulative probabilities of the normal
distribution (z-table), the percentile corresponding to the
z-score can be found
If ME = 15.4 Nm, what % of the population has sufficient
strength to perform the task (at least for a short time)?
= 40 Nm; = 15 Nm (from strength table)
z = (15.4 - 40)/15 = -1.64 (std dev below the mean)
From table, the area A corresponding to z = -1.64 is 0.95
Thus, 95% of the population has strength 15.4 Nm
Note: Both M and S vary considerably with posture and task conditions
Biomechanics 50

Strength vs. Moments

In these calculations, particularly in 3-dimensions, it is
critical to keep track of and differentiate internal vs.
external forces and moments
Approach
External Moment is what you typically calculate: the task demands
Internal Moment is what you look up or measure on an individual:
the task-specific capacity
When making the comparison, ensure that the same physical
function is addressed
Example: if the task demands cause the elbow to extend, then the
relevant strength measure is elbow flexion (to maintain equilibrium)
When using the z-score, only magnitudes are relevant (the signs are
used in the prior step to determine the function)
Biomechanics 51

Task Evaluation
D (moments) < C (strength)
Are the demands excessive?
Is the percentage capable too small?
What is an appropriate percentage? [95% or 99% capable
commonly used]
Strategies to Improve the Task:
Decrease D
Forces: masses, accelerations (increase or decrease, depending on the
specific task)
Moment arms: distances, postures, work layout
Increase C
Design task to avoid loading of relatively weak joints
Maximize joint strength (typically in middle of ROM)
Use only strong workers
Biomechanics 52

SUMMARY
Biomechanics is the application of engineering mechanics to biological
systems. Biomechanics has wide application in ergonomic evaluation
and design of jobs and tasks.

Biomechanical analyses can range from simple (2-D static) to highly

complex (3-D dynamic).

Dynamic biomechanical models are used to understand the effects of

movement on body structures. Dynamic models must consider the
effects of additional linear and angular terms.

Results of biomechanical analyses can be used to match the demands

of tasks (external moments) with the strength capabilities of human
workers (strength moments).