What is “Data”?

ANSI definition:
Data

A representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a



formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation,

or processing by humans or by automatic means.
Any representation such as characters or analog quantities to


which meaning is or might be assigned. Generally, we perform

operations on data or data items to supply some information
about an entity.
Volatile vs. persistent data
Our concern is primarily with persistent data

1-1

Early Data Management -

Ancient History
Data are not stored on disk


Programmer defines both logical data structure and physical



structure (storage structure, access methods, I/O modes, etc)

One data set per program. High data redundancy.


PROGRAM 1
DATA SET 1
Data
Management

PROGRAM 2
DATA SET 2
Data
Management

PROGRAM 3
DATA SET 3
Data
Management
1-2
 Problems

There is no persistence.


All data is transient and disappears when the program



terminates.
Random access memory (RAM) is expensive and


limited
All data may not fit available memory


Programmer productivity low



The programmer has to do a lot of tedious work.



1-3

File Processing -
Recent (and Current) History
Data are stored in files with interface between programs and


files.
Various access methods exist (e.g., sequential, indexed, random)


One file corresponds to one or several programs.



PROGRAM 1
Data
Redundant Data

Management FILE 1
PROGRAM 2 File
Data System
Management
Services
PROGRAM 3 FILE 2
Data
Management

1-4
 File System Functions
Mapping between logical files and physical files


Logical files: a file viewed by users and programs.

Data may be viewed as a collection of bytes or as a collection

of records (collection of bytes with a particular structure)

Programs manipulate logical files

Physical files: a file as it actually exists on a storage

device.

Data usually viewed as a collection of bytes located at a

physical address on the device

Operating systems manipulate physical files.

A set of services and an interface (usually called


application independent interface – API)

1-5

Problems With File Systems

Data are highly redundant



sharing limited and at the file level

Data is unstructured


“flat” files

High maintenance costs



data dependence; accessing data is difficult

ensuring data consistency and controlling access to data

Sharing granularity is very coarse



Difficulties in developing new applications



1-6
 Database Approach

PROGRAM 1

DBMS
Query Processor
Integrated
PROGRAM 1
Transaction Mgr Database
…

PROGRAM 2

1-7

What is a Database?

A database is an integrated and structured



collection of stored operational data used (shared)

by application systems of an enterprise

Manufacturing Product data

University Student data, courses
Hospital Patient data, facilities
Bank Account data

1-8
 What is a Database?

A database (DB) is a structured collection of data



about the entities that exist in the environment that

is being modeled.
The structure of the database is determined by the


abstract data model that is used.

A database management system (DBMS) is the


generalized tool that facilitates the management of

and access to the database.

1-9

Data Model
Formalism that defines what the structure of the


data are
within a file

between files

File systems can at best specify data organization



within one file

Alternatives for business data


Hierarchical; network

Relational

Object-oriented

This structure is usually called the schema



A schema can have many instances

1-10
 Example Relation Instances
EMP WORKS
ENO ENAME TITLE ENO PNO RESP DUR
E1 J. Doe Elect. Eng. E1 P1 Manager 12
E2 M. Smith Syst. Anal. E2 P1 Analyst 24
E3 A. Lee Mech. Eng. E2 P2 Analyst 6
E4 J. Miller Programmer E3 P3 Consultant 10
E5 B. Casey Syst. Anal. E3 P4 Engineer 48
E6 L. Chu Elect. Eng. E4 P2 Programmer 18
E7 R. Davis Mech. Eng. E5 P2 Manager 24
E8 J. Jones Syst. Anal. E6 P4 Manager 48
E7 P3 Engineer 36
E7 P5 Engineer 23
E8 P3 Manager 40

PROJ

PNO PNAME BUDGET

P1 Instrumentation 150000
P2 Database Develop. 135000
P3 CAD/CAM 250000
P4 Maintenance 310000
P5 CAD/CAM 500000

1-11

Why Database Technology

Data constitute an organizational asset Integrated



control
Reduction of redundancy


Avoidance of inconsistency


Sharability


Standards


Improved security


Data integrity


Programmer productivity Data Independence



1-12
 Why Database Technology
Programmer productivity


High data independence



Total System Cost

New system
development

Maintenance
Time

1-13

Data Independence

Invisibility (transparency) of the details of



conceptual organization, storage structure and

access strategy to the users
Logical


transparency of the conceptual organization



transparency of logical access strategy

Physical


transparency of the physical storage organization



transparency of physical access paths

1-14
 ANSI/SPARC Architecture
ASSIGNMENT(ENO,PNO,ENAME,PNAME)
Users

External External External External

Schema view view view

Conceptual EMP(ENO: string, ENAME: string, TITLE: string)

Conceptual
PROJ(PNO: string, PNAME: string, BUDGET: integer)
Schema view
WORKS(ENO: string, PNO: string, RESP: string,
DUR: integer)

Internal Internal Store all the relations as unsorted files.

view
Schema Build indexes on EMP(ENO), PROJ(PNO) and
DBMS WORKS(ENO,PNO).

1-15

Database Functionality
Integrated schema


Users have uniform view of data



They see things only as relations (tables) in the



relational model
Declarative integrity and consistency enforcement


24000 ≤ Salary ≤ 250000



No employee can have a salary greater than his/her



manager.
User specifies and system enforces.


Individualized views


Restrictions to certain relations



Reorganization of relations for certain classes of users



1-16
 Database Functionality (cont’d)
Declarative access


Query language - SQL



Find the names of all electrical engineers.

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE TITLE = “Elect. Eng.”


Find the names of all employees who have worked on a project

as a manager for more than 12 months.
SELECT EMP.ENAME
FROM EMP,ASG
WHERE RESP = “Manager”
AND DUR > 12
AND EMP.ENO = ASG.ENO

System determined execution



Query processor & optimizer



1-17

Database Functionality (cont’d)

Transactions


Execute user requests as atomic units



May contain one query or multiple queries



Provide


Concurrency transparency
Multiple users may access the database, but they each see the


database as their own personal data

Concurrency control


Failure transparency
Even when system failure occurs, database consistency is not


violated
Logging and recovery


1-18
 Database Functionality (cont’d)

Transaction Properties


Atomicity


All-or-nothing property
Consistency


Each transaction is correct and does not violate database

consistency
Isolation


Concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other

Durability


Once the transaction completes its work (commits), its effects

are guaranteed to be reflected in the database regardless of
what may occur

1-19

Place in a Computer System

Application Programs
App. development tools
DBMS

Operating System (?)

Hardware

1-20
 Naïve users
System Structure
Casual users Application Database
programmers administrator

Application
Forms Front ends DML Interface CLI DDL

SQL Commands
DBMS Query Evaluation Engine

DDL

Recovery Manager
File & Access Methods Compiler
Transaction
&
Lock Buffer Manager
Manager
Disk Space Manager

Indexes System
Catalog
Data
files
1-21

Database Users
End user


Naïve or casual user



Accesses database either through forms or through application



front-ends
More sophisticated ones generate ad hoc queries using DML


Application programmer/developer


Designs and implements applications that access the database



(some may be used by end users)

Database administrator (DBA)


Defines and manages the conceptual schema



Defines application and user views



Monitors and tunes DBMS performance (defines/modifies internal



schema)
Loads and reformats the database


Responsible for security and reliability



1-22
 DBMS Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL)



Defines conceptual schema, external schema, and internal schema,

as well as mappings between them
Language used for each level may be different
The definitions and the generated information is stored in system
catalog
Data Manipulation Language (DML)


Can be
!

embedded query language in a host language

!

“stand-alone” query language

Can be
!

Procedural: specify where and how (navigational)

!

Declarative: specify what

1-23

Brief History of Databases

1960s:
"

Early 1960s: Charles Bachmann developed first DBMS at

#

Honeywell (IDS)
$

Network model where data relationships are represented as a

graph.
Late 1960s: First commercially successful DBMS
#

developed at IBM (IMS)

$

Hierarchical model where data relationships are represented as a

tree
$

Still in use today (SABRE reservations; Travelocity)

Late 1960s: Conference On DAta Systems Languages
#

(CODASYL) model defined. This is the network model,

but more standardized.
1-24
 Brief History of Databases

1970s:
%

1970: Ted Codd defined the relational data model at

&

IBM San Jose Laboratory (now IBM Almaden)

Two major projects start (both were operational in late
&

1970s)
'

INGRES at University of California, Berkeley

Became commercial INGRES, followed-up by POSTGRES
(

which was incorporated into Informix

'

System R at IBM San Jose Laboratory

Became DB2
(

1976: Peter Chen defined the Entity-Relationship (ER)

&

model
1-25

Brief History of Databases

1980s
%

Maturation of relational database technology

&

SQL standardization (mid-to-late 1980s) through ISO

&

The real growth period

&

1990s
%

Continued expansion of relational technology and

&

improvement of performance
Distribution becomes a reality
&

New data models: object-oriented, deductive

&

Late 1990s: incorporation of object-orientation in

&

relational DBMSs → Object-Relational DBMSs

New application areas: Data warehousing and OLAP,
&

Web and Internet, interest in text and multimedia 1-26