Digital Electronics

Digital Electronics
A Practical Approach with VHDL
William Kleitz
Ninth Edition

Kleitz
Ninth Edition
ISBN 978-1-29202-561-2

9 781292 025612
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 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS AND CIRCUITS

2 Twos-Complement Representation
The most widely used method of representing binary numbers and performing arith-
metic in computer systems is by using the twos-complement method. With this
method, both positive and negative numbers can be represented using the same format,
and binary subtraction is greatly simplified.
All along we have seen representing binary numbers in groups of eight for a
reason. Most computer systems are based on 8- or 16-bit numbers. In an 8-bit system,
the total number of different combinations of bits is 256 (28); in a 16-bit system, the
number is 65,536 (216).
To be able to represent both positive and negative numbers, the twos-complement
format uses the most significant bit (MSB) of the 8- or 16-bit number to signify
whether the number is positive or negative. The MSB is therefore called the sign bit
and is defined as 0 for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers. Signed twos-
complement numbers are shown in Figure 4.

D7D6 D5 D4D3D2 D1D0

Sign bit
(a)

D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D 9 D 8 D 7 D 6 D 5 D 4 D 3 D 2 D 1 D 0

Sign bit
(b)

Figure 4 Twos-complement numbers: (a) 8-bit number; (b) 16-bit number.

The range of positive numbers in an 8-bit system is 0000 0000 to 0111 1111 (0
to 127). The range of negative numbers is 1111 1111 to 1000 0000 (-1 to -128). In
general, the maximum positive number is equal to 2N - 1 - 1, and the maximum nega-
tive number is -(2N - 1), where N is the number of bits in the number, including the
sign bit (e.g., for an 8-bit positive number, 28 - 1 - 1 = 127).
A table of twos-complement numbers can be developed by starting with some
positive number and continuously subtracting 1. Table 3 shows the signed twos-com-
plement numbers from +7 to -8.
Converting a decimal number to twos complement, and vice versa, is simple
and can be done easily using logic gates, as we will see later in this chapter. For now,
lets deal with 8-bit numbers; however, the procedure for 16-bit numbers is exactly
the same.

Steps for Decimal-to-Twos-Complement Conversion

1. If the decimal number is positive, the twos-complement number is the true
binary equivalent of the decimal number (e.g., +18 = 0001 0010). Team
2. If the decimal number is negative, the twos-complement number is found by Discussion
(a) Complementing each bit of the true binary equivalent of the decimal Try to represent the number
number (this is called the ones complement). 16010 in twos-complement
(b) Adding 1 to the ones-complement number to get the magnitude bits. for an 8-bit system. Why
(The sign bit will always end up being 1.) doesnt it work?

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TABLE 3 Signed Twos-Complement

Numbers 7 Through 8

Decimal Twos Complement

7 0000 0111
6 0000 0110
5 0000 0101
4 0000 0100
3 0000 0011
2 0000 0010
1 0000 0001
0 0000 0000
1 1111 1111
2 1111 1110
3 1111 1101
4 1111 1100
5 1111 1011
6 1111 1010
7 1111 1001
8 1111 1000

Steps for Twos-Complement-to-Decimal Conversion

1. If the twos-complement number is positive (sign bit = 0), do a regular
binary-to-decimal conversion.
2. If the twos-complement number is negative (sign bit = 1), the decimal sign
will be , and the decimal number is found by
(a) Complementing the entire twos-complement number, bit by bit.
(b) Adding 1 to arrive at the true binary equivalent.
(c) Doing a regular binary-to-decimal conversion to get the decimal numeric
value.
The following examples illustrate the conversion process.

EXAMPLE 5
Common
Misconception
Convert +3510 to twos complement.
As soon as some students
see the phrase convert to
Solution:
twos complement, they go True binary = 0010 0011
ahead with the procedure
for negative numbers
Twos complement = 0010 0011 Answer
whether the original
number is positive or
negative.
EXAMPLE 6

Convert -3510 to twos complement.

Solution:
True binary = 0010 0011
Ones complement = 1101 1100
Add 1 = +1
Twos complement = 1101 1101 Answer

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 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS AND CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE 7

Convert 1101 1101 twos complement back to decimal.

Solution: The sign bit is 1, so the decimal result will be negative.
Twos complement = 1101 1101
Complement = 0010 0010
Add 1 = +1
True binary = 0010 0011
Decimal complement = - 35 Answer

EXAMPLE 8

Convert -9810 to twos complement.

Solution:
True binary = 0110 0010
Ones complement = 1001 1101
Add 1 = +1
Twos complement = 1001 1110 Answer

EXAMPLE 9

Convert 1011 0010 twos complement to decimal.

Solution: The sign bit is 1, so the decimal result will be negative.
Twos complement = 1011 0010
Complement = 0100 1101
Add 1 = +1
True binary = 0100 1110
Decimal complement = -78 Answer

Review Questions
4. Which bit in an 8-bit twos-complement number is used as the sign bit?
5. Are the following twos-complement numbers positive or negative?
(a) 1010 0011
(b) 0010 1101
(c) 1000 0000

3 Twos-Complement Arithmetic
All four of the basic arithmetic functions involving positive and negative numbers can
be dealt with very simply using twos-complement arithmetic. Subtraction is done by

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adding the two twos-complement numbers. Thus, the same digital circuitry can be
used for additions and subtractions, and there is no need always to subtract the smaller
number from the larger number. We must be careful, however, not to exceed the
maximum range of the twos-complement number: +127 to -128 for 8-bit systems,
and +32,767 to -32,768 for 16-bit systems (+2N - 1 - 1 to -2N - 1).
When adding numbers in the twos-complement form, simply perform a regular
binary addition to get the result. When subtracting numbers in the twos-complement
form, convert the number being subtracted to a negative twos-complement number
and perform a regular binary addition [e.g., 5 - 3 = 5 + (-3)]. The result will be a
twos-complement number, and if the result is negative, the sign bit will be 1.
Work through the following examples to familiarize yourself with the addition
and subtraction procedure.

EXAMPLE 10

Add 19 + 27 using 8-bit twos-complement arithmetic.

Solution:
19 = 0001 0011
27 = 0001 1011
Sum = 0010 1110 = 4610

EXAMPLE 11

Perform the following subtractions using 8-bit twos-complement arithmetic.

(a) 18 - 7;
(b) 21 - 13;
(c) 118 - 54;
(d) 59 - 96.
Solution:
(a) 18 - 7 is the same as 18 + (-7), so just add 18 to negative 7.
+18 = 0001 0010
- 7 = 1111 1001
Sum = 0000 1011 = 1110
Note: The carry-out of the MSB is ignored. (It will always occur for posi-
tive sums.) The 8-bit answer is 0000 1011.
(b) +21 = 0001 0101
-13 = 1111 0011
Sum = 0000 1000 = 810
(c) +118 = 0111 0110
-54 = 1100 1010
Sum = 0100 0000 = 6410
(d) +59 = 0011 1011
-96 = 1010 0000
Sum = 1101 1011 = - 3710

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 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS AND CIRCUITS

Review Questions
6. Which of the following decimal numbers cannot be converted to 8-bit
twos-complement notation?
(a) 89
(b) 135
(c) -107
(d) -144
7. The procedure for subtracting numbers in twos-complement notation is
exactly the same as for adding numbers. True or false?
8. When subtracting a smaller number from a larger number in twos com-
plement, there will always be a carry-out of the MSB, which will be
ignored. True or false?

4 Hexadecimal Arithmetic*
Hexadecimal representation is a method of representing groups of 4 bits as a single
digit. Hexadecimal notation has been widely adopted by manufacturers of computers
and microprocessors because it simplifies the documentation and use of their equip-
ment. Eight- and 16-bit computer system data, program instructions, and addresses use
hexadecimal to make them easier to interpret and work with than their binary equiva-
lents.

Hexadecimal Addition
Remember, hexadecimal is a base 16 numbering system, meaning that it has 16 differ-
ent digits (as shown in Table 4). Adding 3 + 6 in hex equals 9, and 5 + 7 equals C.
But, adding 9 + 8 in hex equals a sum greater than F, which will create a carry. The
sum of 9 + 8 is 1710, which is 1 larger than 16, making the answer 1116.

TABLE 4 Hexadecimal Digits with Their

Equivalent Binary and Decimal Values

Hexadecimal Binary Decimal

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15

*
Most scientific calculators perform number base conversions and arithmetic. This allows you to enter binary, octal, decimal, or
hexadecimal numbers and perform any of the arithmetic operations. In this chapter we will learn the step-by-step procedures for
performing these operations by hand, but as the numbers get more complex it is best to use your calculator for these functions.

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