Law of Canada

The Canadian legal system has its foundation in the En-

glish common law system with some inuence from Scots
Law, inherited from being a former colony of the United
Kingdom and later a Commonwealth Realm member of
the Commonwealth of Nations. The legal system is bi-
jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public (includes
criminal) and private law are separated and exercised ex-
clusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively.
Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of
private law (as this domain falls within the exclusive juris-
diction of the provinces). Both legal systems are subject
to the Constitution of Canada. Criminal prosecutions are
conducted in the style of the British common law, as this
jurisdiction falls exclusively to the federal government.
The federal government also has jurisdiction over cer-
tain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by
Parliament, as well as all matters and disputes between
provinces. These generally include interprovincial trans-
port (rail, air and marine transport) as well as interprovin-
cial trade and commerce (which generally concerns en-
ergy, the environment, agriculture).

1 Constitution of Canada
See also: Constitution of Canada
Canadas constitution is its supreme law, and any law
passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial govern- Cover of the Constitution Act, 1867
ment that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid.[1]
The Constitution Act, 1982 stipulates that Canadas con-
stitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and or- 1981s Reference re a Resolution to amend the Constitu-
ders referred to in a schedule to that act (the most notable tion, the Court provided three factors necessary for the
of which is the Constitution Act, 1867), and any amend- existence of a constitutional convention: a practice or
ment to any of those acts.[2] However, the Supreme Court agreement developed by political actors, a recognition
of Canada has found that this list is not intended to be that they are bound to follow that practice or agreement,
exhaustive, and in 1998s Reference re Secession of Que- and a purpose for that practice or agreement. It also found
bec identied four supporting principles and rules that that, while these conventions are not law and are there-
are included as unwritten elements of the constitution: fore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize
federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of conventions in their ruling.[6]
law, and respect for minorities.[3] While these principlesThe Constitution Act, 1867 assigns powers to the provin-
are an enforceable part of Canadas constitution, Cana- cial and federal governments. Matters under federal
dian courts have not used them to override the written text
jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce,
of the constitution, instead conning their role to lling
banking, and immigration.[7] The federal government
gaps.[4] also has the residual power to make laws necessary for
Because the Constitution Act, 1867 provides that Canadas "peace, order and good government".[8] Mat-
Canadas constitution is similar in Principle to that of ters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, mu-
the United Kingdom",[5] which is considered to be an nicipalities, education (except education on First Nation
uncodied constitution, the Supreme Court has also rec- reserves), and property and civil rights.[7][9] The Consti-
ognized the existence of constitutional conventions. In tution Act, 1867 also provides that, while provinces es-

1
2 3 LEGAL TRADITIONS

3 Legal traditions

3.1 Common law

All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding
Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition.[18]
Equally, courts have power under the provincial
Judicature Acts to apply equity.
As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres
to the doctrine of stare decisis.[19] Lower courts must
follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are
bound. For instance, all Ontario lower courts are bound
Copies of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms by the decisions of the Ontario Court of Appeal and,
all British Columbia lower courts are bound by the de-
cisions of the British Columbia Court of Appeal. How-
ever, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British
tablish their own superior courts, the federal government Columbia court and no British Columbia court is bound
appoints their judges.[10] It also gives the federal Parlia- by decisions of any Ontario court. Nonetheless, decisions
ment the right to establish a court system responsible for made by a provinces highest court (provincial Courts of
federal law and a general court of appeal to hear appeals Appeal) are often considered as persuasive even though
of decisions of both federal and provincial courts.[11] This they are not binding on other provinces.[20]
last power resulted in the federal Parliaments creation of
the Supreme Court of Canada, which is, despite its role as Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority [21]
to bind
supreme arbiter of all Canadian law, a creation of simple, all courts in the country with a single ruling. The bus-
rather than constitutional, statute.[12] ier courts, such as the Court of Appeal for Ontario, for
example, are often looked to for guidance on many local
The Constitution Act, 1982 created a mechanism by matters of law outside the province, especially in matters
which Canadas constitution could be amended by joint such as evidence and criminal law.
action of federal and provincial governments; prior to
1982, it could be amended only by the Parliament of the When there is little or no existing Canadian decision on a
United Kingdom.[13] It also created the Charter of Rights particular legal issue and it becomes necessary to look to
and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may a non-Canadian legal authority for reference, decisions[22] of
not be contravened by any provincial or federal law. [14] English courts and American courts are often utilized.
In light of the long-standing history between English law
and Canadian law, the English Court of Appeal and the
House of Lords are often cited as and considered per-
suasive authority, and are often followed.[22] If the legal
2 Legislation question at issue relates to matters of constitutional or pri-
vacy law, however, decisions of United States courts are
more likely to be utilized by Canadian lawyers because
Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provin- there is a much greater body of jurisprudence in U.S. law
cial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. than English law in these areas.
Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 enumer- Decisions from Commonwealth nations, aside from Eng-
ate the subject matters upon which either level of gov-
land, are also often treated as persuasive sources of law
ernment (federal and provincial) may legitimately enact in Canada.
legislation.
A major dierence between U.S. and Canadian common
Laws passed by the federal government are initially an- law is that Canada does not follow the doctrine of Erie
nounced in the Canada Gazette, a regularly published Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938), and this is so taken
newspaper for new statutes and regulations.[15][16] Federal for granted that the Supreme Court of Canada has never
bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published needed to actually rule upon the question.[23] In other
in the Annual Statutes of Canada. From time to time, the words, there is no distinction in Canada between federal
federal government will consolidate its current laws into a and provincial common law, and the Supreme Court can
single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes and does dictate common law directly to the provinces
of Canada.[17] The most recent federal consolidation was on all matters traditionally encompassed by common law
in 1985. (to the extent not superseded by legislation).[23] From the
Laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. American perspective, Canadian federalism is thus rela-
The Acts are announced in a provincial gazette, published tively incomplete, since Canada continues to operate as
annually and consolidated from time to time. a unitary state with respect to common law (and is truly
4.3 Human rights in Canada 3

federal only as to statutory law).[23] Canadian administrative law is the body of law that ad-
Due to Canadas historical connection with the United dresses the actions and[28] operations of governments and
Kingdom, decisions of the House of Lords before 1867 governmental agencies.
are technically still binding on Canada unless they have
been overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada, and
Canada is still bound by the decisions of the Privy Coun-
4.3 Human rights in Canada
cil before the abolishment of appeals to that entity in
Main article: Human rights in Canada
1949.[24] In practice, however, no court in Canada has
declared itself bound by any English court decision for
decades, and it is highly unlikely that any Canadian court There are currently four key mechanisms in Canada to
will do so in the future.[24] protect human rights: the Canadian Charter of Rights
and Freedoms, the Canadian Human Rights Act, the
Criminal oences are found only within the Criminal
Canadian Human Rights Commission, and provincial hu-
Code and other federal statutes; an exception is that con-
man rights laws and legislation.[29]
tempt of court is the only remaining common law oence
in Canada.[25]
4.4 Contract law
3.2 Civil law
Main article: Canadian contract law
Main article: Law in Quebec
Individual provinces have codied some principles of
contract law in a Sale of Goods Act, which was mod-
For historical reasons, Quebec has a hybrid legal system.
eled on early English versions. Outside of Quebec, most
Private law follows the civil law tradition, originally ex-
contract law is still common law, based on the rulings of
pressed in the Coutume de Paris as it applied in what was
judges in contract litigation over the years. Quebec, be-
then New France.[26] Today, the jus commune of Quebec
ing a civil law jurisdiction, does not have contract law,
is codied in the Civil Code of Quebec. As for public
but rather has its own law of obligations.[30]
law, it was made that of the conquering British nation af-
ter the fall of New France in 1760, that is the common
law. It is important to note that the distinction between
civil law and common law is not based on the division of
4.5 Constitutional law
powers set out in the Constitution Act, 1867. Therefore,
Main article: Canadian constitutional law
legislation enacted by the provincial legislature in mat-
ters of public law, such as the Code of Penal Procedure,
should be interpreted following the common law tradi- Constitutional law is the area of Canadian law relat-
tion. Likewise, legislation enacted by the federal Parlia- ing to the interpretation and application of the Consti-
ment in matters of private law, such as the Divorce Act, tution of Canada by the Courts.[31] This is represented in
is to be interpreted following the civil law tradition and the Constitution Act, 1867, Constitution Act, 1982 and
in harmony with the Civil Code of Quebec. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

4.6 Copyright law

4 Areas of law
Main article: Canadian copyright law
4.1 Aboriginal law
Copyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable
Main article: Canadian aboriginal law
rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of
Canada.[32]
Aboriginal law is based on a variety of sources. Section
91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal
parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related 4.7 Criminal law
to Aboriginals.[27]
Main article: Criminal law of Canada
Criminal law in Canada falls under the exclusive legisla-
4.2 Administrative law tive jurisdiction of the federal government. The power to
enact criminal law is derived from section 91(27) of the
Main article: Canadian administrative law Constitution Act, 1867.[33] Most criminal laws have been
codied in the Criminal Code, as well as the Controlled
4 4 AREAS OF LAW

of law related to the admission of foreign nationals into

Canada, their rights and responsibilities once admitted,
and the conditions of their removal.[38] The primary law
on these matters is in the Immigration and Refugee Pro-
tection Act

4.11 Inheritance law

Main article: Inheritance law in Canada

Canadian Criminal Cases collection Inheritance law in Canada is constitutionally a provincial

matter. Therefore, the laws governing inheritance in
Drugs and Substances Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, and Canada are legislated by each individual province.
several other peripheral Acts.
The provinces are responsible for the administration of
justice, including criminal trials within their respec-
tive provinces, despite their inability to enact crimi-
4.12 Insolvency law of Canada
nal laws.[34] Provinces do have the power to promul-
gate quasi-criminal or regulatory oences in a variety of Main article: Insolvency law of Canada
administrative and other areas, and every province has
done so with myriad rules and regulations across a broad The Parliament of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction to
spectrum.[35] regulate matters relating to bankruptcy and insolvency,
by virtue of s.91 of the Constitution Act, 1867. It has
passed some statutes as a result, i.e., The Bankruptcy
4.8 Evidence law and Insolvency Act (BIA) and the The Winding-Up
and Restructuring Act (which essentially applies only to
Further information: Canada Evidence Act nancial institutions under federal jurisdiction). In ap-
plying these statutes, provincial law has important con-
Canada Evidence Act is an Act of the Parliament of sequences. Section 67(1)(b) of the BIA provides that
Canada, rst passed in 1893, that regulates the rules of any property that as against the bankrupt is exempt from
evidence in court proceedings under federal law.[36] Each execution or seizure under any laws applicable in the
province also has its own evidence statute, governing the province within which the property is situated and within
law of evidence in civil proceedings in the province. which the bankrupt resides is not divisible among their
creditors.[39] Provincial legislation under the property and
civil rights power of the Constitution Act, 1867 regulates
4.9 Family law the resolution of nancial diculties that occur before
the onset of insolvency.
Main article: Canadian family law

Family law in Canada concerns the body of Cana-

dian law dealing with family relationship, marriage, and 4.13 Labour and employment law
divorce.[37] The federal government has exclusive ju-
risdiction over the substance of marriage and divorce. Main article: Canadian labour and employment law
Provinces have exclusive jurisdiction over the procedures
surrounding marriage. Provinces also have laws dealing Canadian labour law is that body of law which regulates
with marital property and with family maintenance (in- the rights, restrictions obligations of trade unions, work-
cluding spousal support). ers and employers in Canada. Canadian employment law
is that body of law which regulates the rights, restric-
tions obligations of non-unioned workers and employers
4.10 Immigration and refugee law in Canada.[40] Most labour regulation in Canada is con-
ducted at the provincial level by government agencies and
Main article: Canadian immigration and refugee law boards. However, certain industries under federal regu-
lation are subject solely to federal labour legislation and
Canadian immigration and refugee law' concerns the area standards.
 5

4.14 Patent law Outline of Canada's Court System

Supreme Court of Canada

Main article: Canadian patent law
Court Martial Provincial Court Federal Court
Appeal Court of Appeal of Appeal

Canadian patent law is the legal system regulating the Provincial / Territorial Federal Court Tax Court
Superior Courts Trial Division of Canada
granting of patents for inventions within Canada, and the
enforcement of these rights in Canada.[41] Military Courts Provincial Courts

Provincial Administrative Federal Administrative

Tribunals Tribunals

4.15 Procedural law

The functioning of the Courts is regulated by the laws of Canadian court system (Source Canadian Department of Justice)
civil procedure which are codied in each provinces civil
procedures rules.
The Supreme Court of Canada (French: Cour suprme
du Canada) is the highest court of Canada and is the nal
4.16 Property law court of appeal in the Canadian justice system. Parlia-
ment created it by Act of Parliament in 1875, as a gen-
Main article: Canadian property law eral court of appeal for Canada.[46] Prior to 1949, cases
could be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council in the United Kingdom, and some cases bypassed
Property law in Canada is the body of law concerning the Supreme Court of Canada entirely.[46]
the rights of individuals over land, objects, and expression
within Canada. It encompasses personal property, real Other than the Supreme Court, the Canadian court sys-
[47]
property, and intellectual property. [42] tem is divided into two classes of courts: superior
courts of general jurisdiction, and courts of limited ju-
risdiction, sometimes referred to as inferior courts. The
4.17 Tort law superior courts, created and maintained by the provinces,
are divided into superior courts of original jurisdiction
Main article: Tort law in Canada and superior courts of appeal. These courts are some-
times also referred to as Section 96 courts, in refer-
ence to s. 96 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which grants
Tort law in Canada concerns the treatment of the law of the federal government the power to appoint the judges
torts within the Canadian jurisdiction excluding Quebec, of these courts.[10] As courts of general jurisdiction, the
which is covered by the law of obligations. [43] provincial superior courts of original jurisdiction have ju-
risdiction over all matters, under both federal and provin-
cial law, unless the matter has been assigned to some other
4.18 Trade-mark law
court or administrative agency by a statute passed by the
appropriate legislative body. The superior courts of orig-
Main article: Canadian trade-mark law
inal jurisdiction have an extensive civil jurisdiction, un-
der both federal and provincial laws. Under the Criminal
Canadas trademark law provides protection for distinc- Code, a federal statute, they have jurisdiction over the
tive marks, certication marks, distinguishing guises, and most serious criminal oences, such as murder.[48] They
proposed marks against those who appropriate the good- also hear appeals from the Provincial Courts in criminal
will of the mark or create confusion between dierent matters and some civil matters. A further appeal normally
vendors goods or services.[44] lies to superior court of appeal, the highest court in each
province.[49]
The provinces also can establish courts of limited ju-
5 Judicial system risdiction, whose jurisdiction is limited solely to what
is included in the statutory grant of jurisdiction. These
See also: Court system of Canada courts are often called Provincial Courts, even though
Under the Constitution Act, 1867, the federal Parlia- the superior courts established by the provinces are also
ment and the provincial legislatures both have the con- provincial courts. The Provincial Courts have an exten-
stitutional authority to create courts: Parliament under s. sive criminal jurisdiction under the Criminal Code, a fed-
101, and the Provinces under s. 92(14).[45] However, the eral statute, and also typically have a limited civil ju-
federal power to create courts is much more limited than risdiction in matters under provincial jurisdiction, such
the provincial power. The provincial courts have a much as small claims and some family matters. The judges
more extensive jurisdiction, including the constitutionally of the Provincial Courts are appointed by the provincial
entrenched power to determine constitutional issues. governments.[50]
6 7 REFERENCES

There are also additional federal courts established by [15] Statutory Instrument Act
Parliament, which have a specialised jurisdiction in cer-
[16] Canada Gazette - About Us. Gazette.gc.ca. 2010-06-
tain areas of federal law. These courts are the Federal
09. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
Court of Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of
Canada, and the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada. [17] Legislation Revision and Consolidation Act
[18] Dennis Campbell; Susan Cotter (1998). Comparative Law
Yearbook. Kluwer Law International. p. 234. ISBN 978-
6 See also 90-411-0740-4.

At Her Majestys pleasure [19] Richard A. Mann (2013). Business Law and the Regula-
tion of Business. Cengage Learning. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-
Canadian Legal Information Institute (aka CanLII) 133-58757-6.

Human rights in Canada [20] Robert A. Battram (2010). Canada In Crisis...: An

Agenda to Unify the Nation. Traord Publishing. p. 26.
Legal systems of the world ISBN 978-1-4269-8062-6.

List of Acts of Parliament of Canada [21] Graeme R. Newman (30 October 2010). Crime and Pun-
ishment around the World: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO.
Statutes of Canada p. 77. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1.

The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples [22] Ian Bushnell (1992). Captive Court: A Study of the
Supreme Court of Canada. McGill-Queens Press -
MQUP. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7735-6301-8.

7 References [23] Hogg, Peter W. (2007). Constitutional Law of Canada

(5th ed.). Toronto: Carswell. pp. 89 811. ISBN
[1] Richard W. Bauman; Tsvi Kahana (2006). The Least Ex- 9780779813377.
amined Branch: The Role of Legislatures in the Constitu- [24] Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Ju-
tional State. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN dicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p.
978-1-139-46040-8. 389. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
[2] Craik 94 [25] A Compendium of Law and Judges
[3] Craik 96 [26] J. M. Smits (2012). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative
[4] Craik 98 Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-
78100-610-8.
[5] Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Ju-
[27] Christian Leuprecht; Peter H. Russell (2011). Essential
dicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p.
Readings in Canadian Constitutional Politics. University
216. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
of Toronto Press. p. 477. ISBN 978-1-4426-0368-4.
[6] Craik 105
[28] Robert Leckey (2008). Contextual Subjects: Family, State
[7] OECD (2007). Linking Regions and Central Governments and Relational Theory. University of Toronto Press. p.
Contracts for Regional Development: Contracts for Re- 143. ISBN 978-0-8020-9749-1.
gional Development. OECD Publishing. p. 173. ISBN
[29] Alan Price (2007). Human Resource Management in a
978-92-64-00875-5.
Business Context. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 391.
[8] Munroe Eagles; Larry Johnston (2008). Politics: An In- ISBN 978-1-84480-548-8.
troduction to Modern Democratic Government. University
[30] Simon N. M. Young (2009). Civil Forfeiture of Criminal
of Toronto Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-1-55111-858-1.
Property. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-
[9] Craik 125 84844-621-2.

[10] Patrick N. Malcolmson; Richard Myers (2009). The [31] Leuprecht/Russell, 2011. p. 451.
Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Gov-
[32] Lesley Ellen Harris (2001). Canadian Copyright Law.
ernment in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 149.
McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-07-560369-6.
ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
[33] Michelle G. Grossman; Julian V. Roberts (2011).
[11] Craik 127
Criminal Justice in Canada: A Reader. Cengage Learn-
[12] Craik 127128 ing. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-17-650228-7.

[13] Craik 131 [34] H. Stephen Harris (2001). Competition Laws Outside the
United States: Supplement. American Bar Association. p.
[14] Craik 119 2. ISBN 978-1-57073-881-4.
 7

[35] Kevin Heller; Markus Dubber (2010). The Handbook of 8 Further reading
Comparative Criminal Law. Stanford University Press. p.
99. ISBN 978-0-8047-7729-2. Jonathan L. Black-Branch; Canadian Education As-
[36] Canada; James Crankshaw (1910). The Criminal Code of sociation (1995). Making Sense of the Canadian
Canada and the Canada Evidence Act as Amended to Date. Charter of Rights and Freedoms: A Handbook for
Carswell Company. p. intro. Administrators and Teachers. Canadian Education
Association. ISBN 978-0-920315-78-1.
[37] Malcolm C. Kronby (2010). Canadian Family Law. John
Wiley and Sons. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-470-67647-9. John Borrows (2002). Recovering Canada: The
[38] John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Im- Resurgence of Indigenous Law. University of
migration. Infobase Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-1- Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8501-6.
4381-1012-7.
J. Brian Casey; Janet E. Mills (2005). Arbitration
[39] http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/b-3/page-23. Law Of Canada: Practice And Procedure. Juris Pub-
html#h-26 lishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-929446-68-1.
[40] http://www.labour.gc.ca/eng/resources/laws/index.shtml
Ian Greene (1989). The Charter of Rights. James
[41] Thomas F. Cotter (21 March 2013). Comparative Patent Lorimer & Company. ISBN 978-1-55028-185-9.
Remedies: A Legal and Economic Analysis. Oxford Uni-
versity Press. pp. 166167. ISBN 978-0-19-984065-6. Calvin S. Goldman and John D. Bodrug, Editors
(2009). Competition Law of Canada. Juris Publish-
[42] Stuart C. McCormack (1999). Intellectual Property Law ing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57823-096-9.
of Canada. Juris Publishing, Inc. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-
57823-070-9. Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the
[43] Jean Louis Baudouin; Allen M. Linden (2010). Tort Law
Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary
in Canada. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 978-90-411- Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
3373-1.
D. M. McRae (2008). The Canadian Yearbook of
[44] Borden Ladner Gervias LLP (2011). Trade-Mark Prac- International Law: Annuaire Canadien de Droit In-
tice in Canada. Borden Ladner Gervais LLP. p. 1. ISBN ternational. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-5826-7.
978-0-9730750-5-2.
Richard Moon (2008). Law and Religious Pluralism
[45] Augustus Henry Frazer Lefroy (2005). Canadas Federal in Canada. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-5853-3.
System: Being a Treatise on Canadian Constitutional Law
Under the British North America Act. The Lawbook Ex- Peter McCormick (2000). Supreme at Last: The
change. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58477-591-1. Evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada. James
[46] Ian Bushnell (1997). The Federal Court of Canada: A His- Lorimer & Company. ISBN 978-1-55028-692-2.
tory, 1875-1992. University of Toronto Press. pp. 234
Margaret Ann Wilkinson (2010). Genealogy and
237. ISBN 978-0-8020-4207-1.
the Law in Canada. Dundurn. ISBN 978-1-77070-
[47] Peter H. Russell (2007). Canadas Trial Courts: Two Tiers 585-2.
Or One?. University of Toronto Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-
0-8020-9323-3.
[48] Michel Proulx; David Layton (2001). Ethics and Cana- 9 External links
dian criminal law. Irwin Law. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-
55221-044-4. Canadian Criminal Law Information Site
[49] International Business Publications, USA (2008). Canada
Company Laws and Regulations Handbook. Int'l Business
Consolidated Statutes and Regulations of Canada.
Publications. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4330-6959-8. Canadas Justice System - Department of Justice
[50] Gerhard Robbers (2006). Encyclopedia of World Consti-
tutions. Infobase Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8160-
CanLII Canadian Legal Information Institute
6078-8. Legal Information

Citizens Arrest and Self-defence Act

7.1 Bibliography
Craik, Neil; Forcese, Craig; Bryden, Philip; Carver,
Peter; Haigh, Richard; Ratushny, Ed; Sullivan,
Ruth, eds. (2006). Public Law: Cases, materials,
and commentary. Toronto: Emond Montgomery
Publications Limited. ISBN 1-55239-185-X.
8 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text
Law of Canada Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Canada?oldid=727295996 Contributors: Vzbs34, Alex756, EdH, Ed-
milne, Maximus Rex, Warofdreams, Owen, RedWolf, Klanda, Bobblewik, Edcolins, ALargeElk, Madmagic, HistoryBA, Bornintheguz,
Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rumplefurskin, Al guy, Maclean25, Coolcaesar, NetBot, Zetawoof, Pearle, PaulHanson, Free Bear,
PullUpYourSocks, Kosher Fan, Je3000, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, RexNL, JonathanFreed, Bgwhite, Banaticus, RussBot, Pig-
man, CanadianCaesar, NawlinWiki, Blur4760~enwiki, Mais oui!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Rrius, Canthusus, Yamaguchi , Bluebot,
DoctorMud, TheFeds, Colonies Chris, Costaragas, Ahsan, pronounced Essen, Zymurgy, BrownHairedGirl, Rickington, Agent 86, Shoe-
ofdeath, KenWalker, Raysonho, Cahk, MBRZ48, NorthernThunder, Robin Hood 1212, NadirAli, Rjm656s, Epbr123, Wikid77, Head-
bomb, AntiVandalBot, Cubaz, Jj137, I am Nicko, Husond, Fetchcomms, Theunicyclegirl, VoABot II, Jazz2006, Zanibas, LindaWarheads,
MartinBot, J.delanoy, McSly, NewEnglandYankee, Ja 62, X!, G2bambino, Aicchalmers, Oshwah, Anonymous Dissident, BenedictX, Natg
19, Finngall, Meters, Steve Smith, Purgatory Fubar, Azazyel, Skinnypuppyl0ver, Fratrep, PipepBot, Foxj, Rdunford, Tmazhindu, Pixel-
Bot, Eeekster, Worth my salt, Bretonnia, Singularity42, NellieBly, Addbot, Roux, Tide rolls, MuZemike, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
Firefox767, 7h3 3L173, Miesianiacal, SassoBot, Crashdoom, 78.26, Moxy, FrescoBot, Ascrivens, BenzolBot, DivineAlpha, Notedgrant,
Jschnur, Mediatech492, Tim1357, Lotje, Mr Serjeant Buzfuz, Jerd10, Kerneltruth2, Iqubalasad, Sideways713, EmausBot, Dewritech,
Are You The Cow Of Pain?, Dcirovic, Martinallenthelawyer, Alpha Quadrant, Highvale, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-
shirt, AStannard, Lord Roem, Jaobar, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Brilubic, Cameronhurd, FoCuSandLeArN, Michaeljvdw, Lugia2453,
Frosty, DavidLeighEllis, Law clerks, Uoit-comm, GeneralizationsAreBad, Dafney56, Lambsbridge, PigeonOfTheNight, Call.mishra and
Anonymous: 173

10.2 Images
File:British_North_America_Act,_1867.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/British_North_America_
Act%2C_1867.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction
reference number nlc-14254 (AMICUS No. 9339091)
Original artist: Statute enacted by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Published by Hunter, Rose in Ottawa
File:Canada_Court_System.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Canada_Court_System.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, created in Inkscape Original artist: Icey
File:CanadianCriminalCases2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/CanadianCriminalCases2.jpg Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine
File:Every_Canadian_Needs_A_Copy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Every_Canadian_Needs_
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File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/
Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/26849/scales-of-justice Original
artist: johnny_automatic
File:Maple_Leaf_(from_roundel).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Maple_Leaf_%28from_
roundel%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Roundel_of_the_Royal_Canadian_Air_Force_(1946-1965).svg Original artist: Roundel_of_the_Royal_Canadian_Air_Force_(1946-
1965).svg: F l a n k e r
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
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File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

10.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0