The document discusses tensile testing and stress-strain diagrams. It provides details on:
1) The purpose of tensile testing is to determine a material's strength and create a stress-strain diagram by slowly pulling a test sample while measuring strain and stress.
2) Universal testing machines are used to apply tensile, compressive, or bending forces. They consist of components like actuators, grips, and extensometers.
3) Stress-strain diagrams show the stages of proportionality, yielding, strain hardening, and necking that occur for materials like mild steel under tensile forces.
The document discusses tensile testing and stress-strain diagrams. It provides details on:
1) The purpose of tensile testing is to determine a material's strength and create a stress-strain diagram by slowly pulling a test sample while measuring strain and stress.
2) Universal testing machines are used to apply tensile, compressive, or bending forces. They consist of components like actuators, grips, and extensometers.
3) Stress-strain diagrams show the stages of proportionality, yielding, strain hardening, and necking that occur for materials like mild steel under tensile forces.
The document discusses tensile testing and stress-strain diagrams. It provides details on:
1) The purpose of tensile testing is to determine a material's strength and create a stress-strain diagram by slowly pulling a test sample while measuring strain and stress.
2) Universal testing machines are used to apply tensile, compressive, or bending forces. They consist of components like actuators, grips, and extensometers.
3) Stress-strain diagrams show the stages of proportionality, yielding, strain hardening, and necking that occur for materials like mild steel under tensile forces.
The document discusses tensile testing and stress-strain diagrams. It provides details on:
1) The purpose of tensile testing is to determine a material's strength and create a stress-strain diagram by slowly pulling a test sample while measuring strain and stress.
2) Universal testing machines are used to apply tensile, compressive, or bending forces. They consist of components like actuators, grips, and extensometers.
3) Stress-strain diagrams show the stages of proportionality, yielding, strain hardening, and necking that occur for materials like mild steel under tensile forces.
Hard steel: conventional proportional limit, conventional yield limit
Other structural materials
Schematizations of tensile test diagram
Tensile test purpose The primary use of the testing machine is to create the stress-strain diagram. Tensile test determines the strength of the material subjected to a simple stretching operation. Typically, standard dimension test samples are pulled slowly (static loading) and at uniform rate in a testing machine while the strain ( the elongation of the sample) is defined as: Engineering Strain = = (change in length)/(original length) = /L 0
and the stress ( the applied force divided by the original cross-sectional area) is defined as: Engineering Stress = = (applied force)/(original area) =P/A 0
The aim of the test is to assess some mechanical characteristics of testing
material: its elasticity, ductility, resilience and toughness.
There are two kinds of typical diagrams:
with distinct yielding limit without distinct yielding limit
The diagram with distinct yielding limit. In red marked engineering stresses, in blue true stresses
The diagram without distinct yielding limit. Some conventions should be used instead Universal testing machines There are many types of testing machines. The most common are universal testing machines, which test materials in tension, compression or bending.
There are two classes of testing machines, electromechanical and hydraulic.
The electromechanical machine uses an electric motor, gear reduction system
and one, two or four screws to move the crosshead up or down. A range of crosshead speeds can be achieved by changing the speed of the motor through the software control. A microprocessor based closed-loop servo system can be implemented to accurately control the speed of the crosshead.
The main components of the universal testing machine are:
actuator,
attachment kit and
measuring and safety devices
Universal testing machine UTS-100K
frame
engine
gear
screws
crosshead
grips (gripping jaws)
extensometer
specimen
hardware and software control
Universal testing machine UTS 100K
Self-locking jaws, tested sample and extensometer
Tensile specimens
cylindrical proportional with the knobs (heads) smooth or threaded
flat (paddle or strip)
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel
Stress-strain diagram
Linear proportionality and elasticity limit
Loading, unloading, reloading: Hookes law
Yielding plateau
Elastic and plastic deformations of the specimen
Plasticity: sliding and twinning, dislocations movement
Sliding lines (Lders lines like spiders mesh), twinning of crystals and dislocations movement Ultimate tensile strength, necking onset and fracture
Difference between engineering (blue line) and true stress (red line)
Three stages of the necking
Types of break and fracture
In the cross-section of broken specimen there are three distinct zones:
fibrous zone radial zone and sheared edge
The fracture type can be brittle, fissile or ductile (due to shear)
Comparison of break
steel neck down break
aluminum cast iron
45 straight degree break break The state of stress analysis
Schematizations For practical use the stress-strain diagram is used in some schematic form, depending on main phenomenon of the structural material.
The main possibilities are:
Hookes material Levy-Mises material Prandtls material others (with strain or isotropic or anisotropic hardening) Interpretation of the state of stress
Material characteristics Tensile diagram different materials
Definitions
Elastic Limit (proportional limit): the highest magnitude of stress for which the stress and strain are proportional to each other.
Elastic modulus (Young's modulus): the ratio of stress to strain below the elastic limit.
Elongation: the strain at fracture expressed as a percentage; this is a measure of
the ductility of the material.
Modulus of resilience: the amount of energy (or work) stored per unit volume at the elastic limit.
Modulus of toughness: the amount of energy stored per unit volume at fracture of the material; this is a measure of the ductility of the material. Percent Area Reduction: reduction in area at fracture in necking region with respect to original cross-section area; this is a measure of the ductility of the material.
Strain (engineering): the unit deformation of the material under load. Strain is not normally measured. Deformation is typically measured using extensometers with strain subsequently computed by dividing the measured deformation by the original.
Strain hardening: portion of the stress-strain curve between the elastic limit and the ultimate stress.
Stress (engineering): load (force) per unit area; the normal (axial) stress is determined by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Stress-strain curve: an x-y plot of stress vs. strain through the entire range of loading of the specimen until specimen failure.
Ultimate stress: the maximum observed stress that the specimen will withstand.
Yield stress: the stress at which the material begins to yield; for mild steel there is a noticeable increase in deformation with little increase in load. For steel and most metals, a 0.2% offset is used to define the yield stress. A strain value of 0.002 is selected and a line parallel to the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is constructed. The intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve defines the value of the yield stress. Strain Gauge
Strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. The most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
Physical operation
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance
and its dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of applied stress may be inferred. A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the direction of the orientation of the parallel lines results in a multiplicatively larger strain measurement over the effective length of the conductor surfaces in the array of conductive linesand hence a multiplicatively larger change in resistancethan would be observed with a single straight-line conductive wire.
Gauge factor
The gauge factor GF is defined as:
/ GF =
Where: is the change in resistance caused by strain, is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and is strain.
For metallic foil gauges, the gauge factor is usually a little over 2. For a single active gauge and three dummy resistors, the output from the bridge is: . . = 4 where BV is the bridge excitation voltage.
Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 210 mm2 in size. With careful installation, the correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be measured.
Gauges in practice Visualization of the working concept behind the strain gauge on a beam under exaggerated bending. An excitation voltage is applied to input leads of the gauge network, and a voltage reading is taken from the output leads. Typical input voltages are 5 V or 12 V and typical output readings are in millivolts. Foil strain gauges are used in many situations. Different applications place different requirements on the gauge. In most cases the orientation of the strain gauge is significant. Gauges attached to a load cell would normally be expected to remain stable over a period of years, if not decades; while those used to measure response in a dynamic experiment may only need to remain attached to the object for a few days, be energized for less than an hour, and operate for less than a second. Strain gauges are attached to the substrate with a special glue. The type of glue depends on the required lifetime of the measurement system. For short term measurements (up to some weeks) cyanoacrylic glue is appropriate, for long lasting installation epoxy glue is required. Usually epoxy glue requires high temperature curing (at about 80-100C). The preparation of the surface where the strain gauge is to be glued is of the utmost importance. The surface must be smoothed (e.g. with very fine sand paper), deoiled with solvents, the solvent traces must then be removed and the strain gauge must be glued immediately after this to avoid oxidation or pollution of the prepared area. If these steps are not followed the strain gauge binding to the surface may be unreliable and unpredictable measurement errors may be generated. Strain gauge based technology is utilized commonly in the manufacture of pressure sensors. The gauges used in pressure sensors themselves are commonly made from silicon, polysilicon, metal film, thick film, and bonded foil.
Variations in temperature
Variations in temperature will cause a multitude of effects. The object will change in size by thermal expansion, which will be detected as a strain by the gauge. Resistance of the gauge will change, and resistance of the connecting wires will change. Most strain gauges are made from a constantan alloy. Various constantan alloys and Karma alloys have been designed so that the temperature effects on the resistance of the strain gauge itself cancel out the resistance change of the gauge due to the thermal expansion of the object under test. Because different materials have different amounts of thermal expansion, self-temperature compensation (STC) requires selecting a particular alloy matched to the material of the object under test. Strain gauges that are not self-temperature-compensated (such as isoelastic alloy) can be temperature compensated by use of the dummy gauge technique. A dummy gauge (identical to the active strain gauge) is installed on an unstrained sample of the same material as the test specimen. The sample with the dummy gauge is placed in thermal contact with the test specimen, adjacent to the active gauge. The dummy gauge is wired into a Wheatstone bridge on an adjacent arm to the active gauge so that the temperature effects on the active and dummy gauges cancel each other. (Murphy's Law was originally coined in response to a set of gauges being incorrectly wired into a Wheatstone bridge) Temperature effects on the lead wires can be cancelled by using a "3-wire bridge" or a "4-wire ohm circuit" (also called a "4-wire Kelvin connection").
In any case it is a good engineering practice to keep the Wheatstone bridge voltage drive low enough to avoid the self heating of the strain gauge. The self heating of the strain gauge depends on its mechanical characteristic (large strain gauges are less prone to self heating). Low voltage drive levels of the bridge reduce the sensitivity of the overall system. . Types of Strain Gauges
>> Thin-film Strain Gauges
Thin-film strain gage is more advanced form of strain gauge as it doesnt necessitate adhesive bonding. A thin film strain gauge is constructed by first depositing an electrical insulation, usually a ceramic onto the stressed metal surface, and then depositing the strain gage onto this insulation layer. Techniques used to bond the materials molecularly are: Vacuum deposition Sputtering method
Advantages
1. Since the thin-film gage is molecularly bonded to the specimen, the installation is very stable and the resistance values experience less drift.
2. The stressed force detector can be a metallic diaphragm or beam with a
deposited layer of ceramic insulation.
>> Diffused Semiconductor Strain Gauges
A further improvement in strain gage technology was introduced with the advent of diffused semiconductor strain gages since they purge the need for bonding agents. Main features are listed below:
1. By eliminating bonding agents, errors due to creep and hysteresis also are eliminated.
2. The diffused semiconductor strain gage employs photolithography masking
techniques and solid-state diffusion of boron to molecularly bond the resistance elements.
3. Diffused semiconductors are frequently used as sensing elements in pressure
transducers. 4. Limitations include sensitivity to ambient temperature variations, which can be compensated by intelligent transmitter designs.
Advantages
Small size Inexpensive Accurate and repeatable Available wide pressure range Generate a strong output signal
>> Bonded Resistance Gauges
Following are the chief characteristics of bonded resistance strain gauges:
They are reasonably inexpensive. They can pull off overall accuracy of better than +/-0.10%. They are available in a short gauge length and have small physical size. These strain gauges are only moderately affected by temperature changes. They are extremely sensitive and have low mass. Bonded resistance strain gages can be employed to measure both static and dynamic strain. These types of strain gauges are appropriate for a wide variety of environmental conditions. They can measure strain in jet engine turbines operating at very high temperatures and in cryogenic fluid applications at temperatures as low as -452*F (-269*C).
>> Mechanical types
Used to determine the strain in concrete specimens and structures, rock strata etc. in remote areas and under adverse conditions using a single instrument. The strain gauge consists of an extensometer with an analogue dial gauge with a sensitivity of 0.001mm, calibration bar, 50 locating discs, tube of special adhesive and a carrying case.
Selection of a Proper Gauge
Three primary considerations in strain gauge selection are mentioned below:
1. Operating temperature
2. Nature of the strain to be detected
3. Stability requirements
In addition, choosing the right carrier material, grid alloy, adhesive, and protective coating plays an important role in the success of the application.
