Chap 10 Hvac
Chap 10 Hvac
Chap 10 Hvac
This chapter discusses heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment. A description of each
type of equipment, its general uses, operation, and common opportunities for energy conservation are
presented
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Cooling coils similar to that of the heating coils described above except that the coils cool the air
instead of heating. The cooling medium used is chilled-water, brine, or refrigerant in a direct expansion-type
coil. Direct expansion-type coils are used on small systems when a chilled water system is not economical.
Chilled water is used on all other systems when the air temperature required is above 50F. When the air
temperature required is less than 50F, a brine solution is used as the cooling medium because of its exposure
to subfreezing temperatures in the refrigeration machine.
10.1.1.3 Air Washers
A spray-type air washer consists of a chamber or casing containing a spray nozzle system, a tank for
collecting the spray water as it falls, and an eliminator section at the discharge end for removal of entrained
drops of water from the air. An air washer can be used either to humidify or dehumidify the treated air
depending upon the temperature of the spray water. Air washers will also clean the air to a small extent. Air
washer efficiency increases as the volume of spray water circulated increases. When spray water is used for
humidification purposes, it is recirculated with only sufficient makeup to satisfy evaporation losses. When
spray water is used for cooling, it is a mixture of recirculated water and chilled water. The amount of chilled
water is controlled to provide desired results.
The use of air washers in the comfort air conditioning field has been gradually replaced by the use of
cooling coils. Some industrial air conditioning systems, particularly in the textile industry, still use air
washers.
10.1.1.4 Air Cleaners
Air cleaners (filters) are used to reduce the dirt content of the air supplied to the conditioned space
and to keep equipment clean. The type of air cleaning equipment required depends upon the requirements of
the conditioned space, the amount of dirt to be removed from the air stream, and the size of the dirt particles
to be removed. The smaller the particles size to be removed, the harder and more expensive the air cleaning
procedure.
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Three operating characteristics distinguish the various types of air cleaners: efficiency, airflow Notes
resistance, and life or dust-holding capacity. Efficiency measures the ability of the air cleaner to remove
particulate matter from an air stream. The interpolation of air cleaner ratings for efficiency and holding
capacity is complicated by the fact that there are three types of tests, along with certain variations, employed
for testing filters. The operating conditions that exist are so varied that there is no individual test that will
adequately describe all filters. Air cleaners used in the comfort air conditioning field fall into three broad
categories: fibrous media, renewable media, and electronic. Various combinations of these types can be used.
Air cleaners for industrial applications fall into five basic types: gravity and momentum collectors, centrifugal
collectors, fabric collectors, electrostatic precipitators, and wet collectors.
The installation cost and the operating cost of an air cleaning system vary over a wide range.
Therefore, an economical installation is one in which the air cleaning unit(s) provides only the degree of
cleaning required to satisfy the actual space requirements and not those of an arbitrarily excessively clean
environment.
The pressure drop to which the air cleaning devices subject the air system varies from a low of 0.1
inch of water gauge (inches W.G.) to 10.0 inches W.G. in industrial air conditioning systems. In comfort air
conditioning, generally, the higher the air cleaner efficiency, the higher its pressure drop will be. Air
conditioning systems must compensate for the pressure drop through an increase in fan horsepower.
10.1.1.5 Humidifiers
Humidifiers are devices that add moisture to the air stream, thereby raising the relative humidity of
the conditioned space. In most comfort air conditioning systems and in many industrial air conditioning
systems, humidifying devices are commonly sparging steam or atomizing water directly into the air stream.
Since the advent of energy conservation, the standards for comfort air conditioning systems have
been reviewed and revised. One of the revisions eliminated the control of humidity as a comfort air
conditioning system standard, since controlling humidity requires additional energy consumption year-round.
In industrial air conditioning systems that employ humidity control, it is recommended that this need be
reviewed and be reduced to the lowest degree the process will permit.
10.1.1.6 Controls
Controls for an air conditioning system contain various control loops, which automatically control
selected functions of the air conditioning system operation. The control system can be very simple or very
complex depending upon the size and complexity of the air conditioning system, the extent of operation, and
the degree of sophistication desired.
Control systems can control temperatures, humidity, duct pressure, airflow, sound alarms, and
provide data to remote locations. These systems are operated either pneumatically or electronically, or a
combination of both can be used. For the most economical operation of the air conditioning system, controls
must be maintained. Their calibrations should be routinely checked along with the proper operation of valves
and dampers.
10.1.1.7 Distribution System
The distribution system is a network of ducts which transports the air between the conditioning
equipment and the conditioned space(s). The system consists of outlet and inlet terminals (diffusers,
registers, grilles) for distribution of air within the conditioned space, and dampers (automatic and manual) for
control of air volume. The design of the distribution system greatly affects the amount of pressure drop
(resistance) it adds to the total system. Low-pressure (low-velocity) systems are designed with duct velocities
of 1,300 fpm or less for comfort air conditioning systems and up to 2,000 fpm for industrial air conditioning
systems. High-pressure (high-velocity) systems employ duct velocities from 2,500 fpm on small systems
(1,000 to 3,000 cfm) up to 6,000 fpm on large systems (40,000 to 60,000 cfm). Higher duct velocities result
in higher duct system resistance (pressure drop resulting in increased fan horsepower).
10.1.2 Psychrometry
Psychrometry deals with the determination of the thermodynamic properties of moist air and the
utilization of these properties in the analysis of conditions and processes involving moist air. Air
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Notes conditioning deals with changing the properties of air to provide desired results in the conditioned space. The
psychrometric chart, a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, is an invaluable
aid in illustrating and solving air conditioning problems.
Since the properties of moist air are affected by barometric pressure, corrections must be made when
equipment installation is done at other than sea level (29.92 inches Hg). Psychrometric charts are available
for elevations at sea level, 2,500 feet, 5,000 feet, 7,500 feet, and 10,000 feet. Also, charts are available for
different temperature ranges. The properties of moist air shown on a psychrometric chart are dry bulb (DB)
temperature, wet bulb (WB) temperature, dew point temperature (DP), relative humidity (RH) in percent,
specific humidity (W) in grains per pound, specific enthalpy (h) in Btu per pound, and specific volume (V) in
cubic feet per pound. A description of these terms is listed in Appendix D. These properties can be found by
using a typical psychrometric chart.
10.1.3 Computation
The following formulae and factors are used in the air conditioning field:
Btu = (lbs) (sp. heat) (t)
Btu/hr = (lbs/hr) (sp. heat) (t)
Btu/hr = (lbs/hr) (hg - hf)*
Lbs/hr std. air = (cfm) (lbs/cf) (60 min/hr)
= (cfm) (0.075) (60)
= (cfm) (4.5)
SH, Btu/hr std. air = (lbs/hr) (sp. heat) (t)
= (cfm) (4.5) (0.24) (t)
= (cfm) (1.08) (t)
cfm = SH / [(1.08)(room temperature supplied air temperature)]
LH, Btu/hr std. air = (lbs/hr) (hg hf) (grains of moisture diff./7,000 grains/lb)
= (cfm) (4.5) (1,054) (grains diff./7,000)
= (cfm) (0.68) (grains diff.)
Lbs/hr water = (gpm) (lbs/gal) (min/hr)
= (gpm) (10.33) (60)
= (gpm) (500)
hp air = [(cfm)( P)] / [(6,350)(fan efficiency)]
hp water = [(gpm)( P)] / [(3,960)(pump efficiency)]
where
t = temperature difference
P = pressure difference
*(hg -hf) = 1,054 Btu/lb represents the heat of vaporization at 70F. Variation in value for different
conditions will be small.
10.1.4 Energy Conservation
The potential for energy conservation in the air conditioning field can vary greatly depending upon
the following:
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Examples of various energy-saving methods used in the following sections are based on a facility
having the following characteristics:
1. Supply fan capacity: 10,000 cfm @ 3,0 in S.P., 6.8 bhp
2. Outdoor air: 30% = 3,000 cfm
3. Return air: 70% = 7,000 cfm
4. Room temperature: 75F DB, 62.5F WB, 55.0F DP, 50% RH
5. Room loads: summer = 108,000 Btu/hr/(sensible heat)
winter = 216,000 Btu/hr/(sensible heat)
6. Space, volume: 55,000 cu. ft.
7. Space, area: 5,500 sq. ft.
8. Space, cfm/sq.ft.: 1.8
9. Space, supply air temp.: summer design = 65F,
winter design = 95F
10. Design preheater load : 162,000 Btu/hr = 169 lbs/hr (based on 50F disc. temp.)
11. Design on cooling coil load: 364,500 Btu/hr = 30 tons
12. Design outdoor temp.: summer = 95F DB, 78F WB; winter 0F
13. Design outdoor degree days : 5,220 (65F), 3,100 (55F), 2,100 (50F)
14. Design outdoor avg. winter temp.: 41.4F (Oct. to Apr. inclusive)
< 67.0F, 3,052 hrs/yr
38.0F = Avg. < 50F, 3,543 hrs/yr
33.0F = Avg. < 40F, 2,162 hrs/yr
15. Equiv. hrs/season refrig. at full load: 750 hrs
10.1.4.1 Operate Systems Only When Needed
Air conditioning systems, including refrigeration machines, pumps, and cooling tower systems,
should be operated only when areas are occupied (for comfort air conditioning systems) and when processes
are operating (for non-comfort air conditioning system). It is not uncommon for systems to operate
continuously. Reducing operating hours will reduce electrical, cooling, and heating requirements.
Continuous operation during normal working hours of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., five days per week, such as that for an
office building is a good example of excessive operation of equipment.
The savings resulting from reducing operating hours from 168 hours per week to 50 hours per week
is calculated as follows.
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Exhibit 10.3: Economizer Cycle (Outdoor Temp. Swi tchover, Mixing Temp. Control) Notes
The savings resulting from an economizer cycle vary with the type of economizer cycle control and
the type of air conditioning system control. Savings for different conditions are given in the examples shown
below.
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2. Economizer savings when the outdoor temperature is between 40F and 56.5F. (Above 56.5F only
minimum 30% outdoor air is used.) The average temperature of air entering the cooling coil is
approximately 67F*, which represents the midpoint between the maximum and the minimum
temperature that would occur.
= {[(10,000)(1.08)(67* - 56.5)] / [12,000]}{(1.25) ($360)[(3,052) / (8,760)] = $1,481/yr
Max Min
Outdoor temp. = 56.5F 40.0F
30% outdoor air = 17.0 12.0
70% return air @ 75F = 52.5 52.5
Avg. temp. = 69.5 64.5
Average = (69.5F + 64.5F) / 2 = 67F
Annual Savings for Condition A
Outdoor temp. < 40F = $ 800
Outdoor temp. between 40F and 56.6F = 1,400
Total $2,280
*Temperature of air entering coil.
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Therefore, the average reduction in cooling load using outdoor air with the enthalpy switchover Notes
method is:
Reduction cooling load = 289,800 / 2 = 144,900 Btu/hr
Enthalpy remains constant for any given WB temperature irrespective of DB temperatures.
Accordingly, the number of hours for which a given enthalpy existed can be obtained from local weather
records of WB temperatures. For this example, the outdoor WB temperature was between 47.5F WB and
62.5F WB for approximately 2,000 hours per year.
Additional annual savings using enthalpy control:
= [(Btu/hr saved) / (Btu/ton)](refrig., hp/ton)(cost, $/hp-yr)[(hrs. applicable) / (8,760)
= [(144,900) / (12,000)](1.25)($360)[(2,000) / (8,760)] = $1,240/yr
Total annual savings for the enthalpy switchover method over no economizer cycle include the
above savings plus the savings for the DB switchover outdoor temperature method in the previous example.
Outdoor temperature method = $2,280
Additional savings with enthalpy method = $1,240
Total $3,520
10.1.4.5 Minimize Amounts of Makeup and Exhaust Air
The amount of makeup air a system must have depends upon the largest demand caused by the
following:
1. Ventilation for personnel
2. Exhausting of air from work areas
3. Overcoming of infiltration
In many systems, the sum of items No. 2 and 3 dictates the amount of makeup air required. When
this is the case, the amount of air being exhausted should be reviewed to determine if it is excessive.
Minimizing infiltration requires that all openings between conditioned and non-conditioned spaces be closed
and that doors and windows fit tightly. The ventilation rate for people can vary between 5 to 20 cfm and
sometimes higher depending on the use of the room. Also, excessive damper leakage can result in an
excessive amount of makeup air.
Excess makeup air in the winter will result in additional heating load. The cost to preheat 1,000 cfm
of outdoor air to 50F is calculated as follows.
Cost = (cfm) (1.08) (50F - avg. temp. < 50) (hrs./yr. temp < 50F)x (stm. cost, $/MM-Btu)
= (1, 000) (1.08) (50 - 38) (3,543) ($4.26 / 106 ) = $196/yr.
Excess make-up air in the summer will result in additional cooling load. The cost of cooling is
estimated to be $410/yr. Total annual savings = $196 + $410 = $606
10.1.4.6 Minimize the Amount of Air Delivered to a Conditioned Space
The amount of air delivered to a conditioned space is governed by one or more of the following:
1. Heating and/or cooling load
2. Delivery temperature
3. Ventilation requirements (exhaust, people, infiltration)
4. Air circulation (air changes)
The design of both comfort and many industrial air condition systems requires that, for good air
circulation, the amount of supply air should provide an air change every 5 to 10 minutes. The design of many
systems will be for a 6- to 7-minute change. Reducing airflow will reduce fan horsepower. The model that
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Notes has been used is such a system; it requires heat, and the air change is 5.6 minutes (1.8 cfm per square foot, 10-
foot ceiling height).
The method used in reducing the systems airflow has a great influence on the amount of horsepower
saved. Three methods normally used are:
1. Fan discharge damper
2. Fan vortex damper (fan inlet)
3. Fan speed change
The savings resulting from reduced reheat and fan horsepower on a year-round air conditioning
system when the airflow is reduced from 1.8 cfm per square foot (5.6 minute air change) to 1.1 cfm per
square foot (9.1 minute air change) can be calculated as follows.
1. Find the new airflow
cfm 2 = (cfm)[(air change 2 ) / (air change 1 )] = 10,000 (1.1/1.8) = 6,110
2. Find the new supply temperature:
Supplied air inlet temp. = room temp. - [(given room sensible load, Btu/hr]) / [(1.08)(cfm)]
= 75 - [(108,000) / (1.08 x 6,110)] = 58.6F
3. Find the savings from reheat reduction:
Cost1.8 = (cfm) (1.08) (T2 - T1 ) (cost, $/MM-Btu/hr-yr)
= (10,000) (1.08) (65 - 56.5) [($37,100) / 106 ] = $3,406/yr
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Other
10%
Lighting
30%
Boilers &
Chillers
30%
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HP1 CFM 1
3
=
HP2 CFM 2
OR
HP1 GPM 1
3
=
HP2 GPM 3
Thus: If CFM/GPM is reduced by 10%, the new hp will be 73% of original and for CFM/GPM
reduction of 40%, new hp will be 22% of original.
Exhibit 10.9: Load vs. Efficiency
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Notes
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Notes The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) publish
standards for many aspects of HVAC design. One example is ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
Exhibit 10.11: Heating and Cooling Loads
ASHRAE Standard 90-1980 Energy Conservation in New Building Design gives the following
guidelines for energy conservation regarding HVAC systems.
1. Summer
Troom 78F
room: Min HVAC energy use
0.3 ACH (residential)
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2. Winter Notes
T room 72F
room 30%
0.3 ACH (residential)
Exhibit 10.12 defines the comfort zone for personnel using criteria such as temperature and vapor pressure.
From this chart the comfort zone for consideration in the HVAC design is:
1. Summer
73F Tdb 81F
20% 60%
2. Winter
68F Tdb 75F
30% 70%
Most of the work on comfort since about 1970 has been to redefine the x-axis on the comfort chart to
be more general (i.e., include effects of heat radiation, clothing, metabolism, air motion, etc.). There are
different approached to quantifying comfort. To minutely quantify comfort is the EUROPEAN approach
(reason: they dont heat their buildings as much). The UNITED STATES approach is to adjust the thermostat
(becoming less acceptable to do so).
Exhibit 10.12: Comfort Zone Detail
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TSkin
Radiation
TCore
Respiration Convection
Metabolism
Evaporation
A persons activity has a great affect on their metabolic heat generation. For example an adult
males heat generation rate during three different activities would be:
100 W; seated at rest
850 W; heavy exercise
1,500 W; Olympic Athlete
Exhibit 10.14 lists the heat flux generated for various activities further illustrating how much activity affects
comfort.
Exhibit 10.14: Heat Flux Generated by Various Activities
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clo Attire
Slacks, short sleeve shirt
1 Three-piece suit
4 Fur coat
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Environmental indices that affect personnel comfort include factors such as temperature, humidity, Notes
and air flow. Operating temperatures that take into account humidity can be determined using the following
equations.
hr Tr + hcTa
To =
hr + hc
To = Tr + ( 1 ) Ta
where Tr = mean radiant temperature
Ta = dry bulb temperature
1 2
3 3
1 N
Tr = T
N i =1 i
Exhibit 10.18 lists equations for convection heat transfer coefficients for various activities.
Exhibit 10.18: Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients
Where h c is in Btu/h ft 2
V is in fpm
M in met units; 1 met = 110.43 Btu/h ft 2
Standard conditions for comfort are given as:
Icl = 0.60 clo Tr = Ta
m = 1 met im = 0.4 (Moisture permeability index) -
(85% are comfortable)
V 20 fpm
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Exhibit 10.22: Single Zone - All Direct Control from Space Thermostat
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10.3 VENTILATION
Many operations require ventilation to control the level of dust, gases, fumes, or vapors. Excess
ventilation for this purpose can add significantly to the heating load. All air that is exhausted from the
building must be replaced by outside air.
During the heating season the air must be heated to room temperature by makeup air units or by
infiltration and mixing with room air. When process heating is also involved, excess ventilation results in a
loss of energy at all times.
A common problem during the winter heating season is negative building pressure resulting from
attempting to exhaust more air than can be supplied. The most obvious problem encountered with air
starvation is difficulty in opening doors. Negative pressure will lead to a number of other problems.
1. Heaters, ovens, and other plant equipment that depend on natural draft cannot operate properly under
negative pressure and their combustion efficiency drops.
2. Downdrafts can cause condensation and corrosion. Fumes can also be drawn into the plant,
affecting employee health and effectiveness.
3. Without proper exhaust, air stagnation creates concentrations of fumes or odors. Warm, moist air
may even condense on manufactured products or mechanical and electrical equipment.
4. Workers near the buildings perimeters may be subjected to drafts as the pressure differential
between inside and outside draws cold air through doors and windows. Downdrafts can also occur
around ventilation hoods that are temporarily inoperative. Turning up the thermostat causes
employees in the middle of the building to roast and offers little help to those near the walls.
5. Exhaust fans cannot work at rated capacity under negative pressure causing dust, dirt, and
contaminants in the plant increase. Maintenance, housekeeping, and operating costs rise, and
equipment wears out much faster. If new exhaust fans are added without equivalent makeup air
capacity, equipment efficiency suffers.
Exhaust airflows are usually established for the more demanding winter conditions when negative
pressures may exist. Consequently, with no adjustment to the exhaust system during the non-heating season
when the building pressure is at equilibrium with the outside air, the exhaust rate will be greater. Where no
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Notes process heating is involved, the resulting higher summer exhaust rate is not a problem. However, when
process heating is involved, such as with ovens, the higher exhaust rate will increase the heat loss.
10.3.1 Losses
Losses of air from buildings are inevitable. The air which was heated will slowly seep through gaps
around windows, doors and ducts. It is a phenomenon one has to deal with. On the other hand, not only that
the total elimination of air leaks would be prohibitively expensive, but also could cause condensation and/or
pressure inequality in the building with respect to the outside.
10.3.1.1 Room Air
The following two equations may be used to estimate makeup air heating costs on an hourly and
yearly basis.
Hourly Cost = 1.08 x cfm x t x (C/eff.)
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*
1.08 = 60 min/hr x 0.075 lbs/cu ft x 0.24 specific heat of air Notes
**
If a direct-fired gas makeup unit is used, the air is heated at nearly 100 percent efficiency.
For an indirect unit an efficiency of 80 percent or $3.75/MMBtu can be used.
Additional saving in fan horsepower is possible if fan speed is reduced.
10.3.1.3 Air -Water Mixture
The heat loss is considerably greater when water vapor is included with the exhaust, as occurs with
washing or drying. As an example of the heat loss from an exhaust including water vapor, the enthalpy of dry
air at 110F is 26.5 Btu per pound; the enthalpy of a saturated mixture of air and water vapor is 87.5 Btu per
pound of dry air. The extent of this loss emphasizes the importance of using minimum exhaust where heated
baths are involved. A high temperature psychrometric chart can be used to determine enthalpies at other
conditions.
10.3.2 Balance Air Flows
Too often no provision is made to supply sufficient makeup air. Consequently, it must leak through
doors, windows, and stray openings, producing undesirable drafts in the vicinity of the leakage.
Barring the ability to make sufficient reduction in exhaust to balance the air supply and demand, the
best practice is to add more makeup air units to supply heated air in amounts equal to that exhausted and
distribute it in the region of the exhaust system. While this will contribute little to energy conservation, it will
eliminate the problems associated with negative pressure.
Plant personnel should check all exhausts to determine if losses can be reduced or eliminated.
Measures than can be taken to reduce exhaust losses are:
3. Reduce temperature.
4. Recover exhaust.
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Notes general, the most effective hood designs are those which completely surround the emission source with
minimum openings to the surrounding area. The following are some guidelines for optimum hood design.
Enclosure
The more complete the enclosure, the less exhaust air is required. Exhaust hoods are commonly
located at a considerable distance from the surface of a tank. As a consequence, room air is exhausted along
with the fumes. Rates are also increased if control is upset by cross drafts in the area. The following steps
can provide a more complete enclosure.
1. Extend the hood vertically on one or more sides. This approach can be taken where access is not
necessary on all sides.
2. Provide a hanging drop cloth or plastic strips that will allow for access when necessary without
undue interference with operation.
The addition of flanges will eliminate air flow from ineffective zones where no contaminant exists.
Air requirements can be reduced as much as 25 percent by incorporating flanges in the hood design.
Capture Velocity
The airflow past the source must be sufficient to capture the contaminant. However, if no standards
or arbitrary standards in excess of needs are used, proper capture velocity or volume should be determined to
avoid unnecessary exhaust.
Large Openings
Where exhaust openings are of necessity large in size, the hood can be made more effective by
incorporating multiple take-offs, slotted openings, baffles, etc. Hoods with this feature will provide more
uniform flow over the area to be ventilated and reduce total air requirements.
Outside Air
The introduction of outside air, where possible, at the point of ventilation will reduce the amount of
room air exhausted. Heating requirements will, therefore, be reduced to the extent the exhaust air includes
outside air instead of heated room air.
10.3.2.3 Reduce Temperature
Process requirements usually dictate the temperature at which the process must be maintained.
However, a review of conditions may indicate opportunities to reduce temperature in the following areas:
Current practice maintains temperature above standard to provide a wide margin of safety.
The standard was established arbitrarily or without adequate testing.
The standard was established to handle a worst-case situation, which no longer exists or occurs
rarely (at which time exhaust rate could be increased).
10.3.2.4 Recover Heat
Heat recovery from the exhaust air should be considered after first completing the steps to reduce
exhaust loss by any of the above methods. Several precautions should be considered in the evaluation of a
heat recovery system.
1. Because air is less dense than water, large volumes of air are required to approach the equivalent Btu
content of wastewater. Where heat recovery from both systems cannot be beneficially utilized, a
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heat recovery system for water is generally preferable to air because of the formers better payback Notes
and lower maintenance. The plant-wide potential for waste recovery should, therefore, be studied
first to ensure the design of any installation will be coordinated with an overall plan.
2. Any evaluation of savings must reflect the actual hours of use. For example, if air-to-air heat
recovery from an oven is planned for heating the building, the recovery system will be in use only
during the heating season. Furthermo re, if the oven is not operating continuously, the heat recovery
system will be available for this purpose for an even shorter period.
3. Although considerable heat may be lost in exhaust gases, especially when a number of sources are
involved, the potential for heat recovery is dependent on the temperature of the gases. When the
temperature range is low (200F to 400F), the potential for economical recovery is minimized.
4. The exhaust gases may contain some contaminants that will foul heat exchanger surfaces. In this
situation, the ease of cleaning the exchanger is of prime importance.
10.3.3 Types of Heat Exchangers
As the name indicates, the heat exchanger is a device where heat from one medium is transferred
into another. This way, some of the energy otherwise lost is used to help achieve desired conditions. Several
types of heat exchangers are available depending on the application.
10.3.3.1 Rotary Heat Exchanger
Because the matrix in this type of exchanger has fine air passages, the rotor may soon become
blocked if it is installed in an air stream containing contaminants. This heat exchanger has the highest
efficiency, recovering 70 to 85 percent of the exhaust energy, including both latent and sensible heat. It is
best suited to a clean air stream since some blockages of the exhaust air to the supply side can occur.
10.3.3.2 Sealed Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger
The heat pipe operates on the principle that when heat is applied to one end of a sealed tube,
evaporation of a fluid in the pipe occurs. The vapor flows to the cold end where it is condensed. The
condensed working fluid is then transported by capillary action to the warm end where the cycle is repeated.
In this exchanger, the fins mounted on the outside of the tube to aid heat transfer may also become blocked
with contaminants. Heat exchanger efficiency decreases when deposits build up on the surface, so keeping
the surfaces clean is important. The unit recovers 60 to 80 percent of the sensible heat.
The use of a filtering system and/or periodic cleaning are often necessary to ensure clean heat
transfer surfaces. The advantages of the heat pipe are minimal maintenance, because it contains no moving
parts; and no cross-contamination, because the exit and incoming gas streams are completely sealed off from
each other.
10.3.3.3 Plate Heat Exchanger
Heat transfer is accomplished by counter flowing two streams between plates. This type of
exchanger is less likely to become blocked with contaminants and is more easily cleaned. Maintenance is
also minimized because there are no moving parts. This type is suitable for either air-to-air or air-to-water
heat recovery. About 70 percent of the sensible heat is recovered by these units.
The equipment cost for an air-to-air heat exchanger from one manufacturer ranges from $0.60 to
$1.60 per cfm depending on the size, usage, efficiency, airflow, pattern, etc. An air-to-water heat exchanger
costs from $1.30 to $3.10 per cfm, again depending on efficiency, size, usage, etc. Installation costs range
from 1 to 2.5 times the cost of the equipment.
If the exhaust gases contain oil mists and other contaminants, some form of filter unit may be
necessary ahead of the heat exchanger. Either a conventional filter or electrostatic precipitator can be
considered.
10.3.3.4 Coil-Run-Around System
The above three types of heat exchangers require the supply and exhaust stream to be brought
together. A coil-run-around unit permits the two streams to be physically separated by using an intermediary
Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency 309
HVAC: Ventilation
Notes fluid, usually ethylene glycol, to transfer energy between the two streams. The ethylene glycol is circulated
in a closed loop through heat exchangers in the hot and cold stream. Coil-run-around systems recover 60
to 65 percent of the sensible heat between the two streams.
10.3.3.5 Hot Oil Recovery System
This system has the advantages of eliminating heat exchanger fouling and reducing pollution
abatement problems. In this system, exhausts are passed through cool, cascading oil, which absorbs most of
the heat as well as the high boiling chemicals. The hot oil passes over exchange coils containing incoming
process water and is then recycled.
Where flammable solvents are used, lower flammable limit (LFL) monitoring equipment is
necessary. Improved LFL systems include self-checking equipment and completed control loops that allow
the use of modulated dampers to provide for minimal safe ventilation requirements. The self-checking
system eliminates much of the periodic need to calibrate and check the function of safety circuits.
Accordingly, exhaust reduction can be considered for drying ovens containing solvent vapors. The capital
expenditure for an LFL monitor is about $15,000.
REFERENCES
1. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Handbook of
Fundamentals, 1972
2. Sherratt, A.F.C., Energy Conservation and Energy Management in Buildings, Applied Science
Publishers, 1976
3. Southern California Gas Company, How to Save Energy in Commercial Buildings, Publication
7436
4. ASHRAE Standard 90-75, Energy Conservation in New Building Design, ASHRAE, 1975
5. Reay, D.A., Industrial Energy Conservation, Pergamon Press, 1977
6. Kenney, W.F., Energy Conservation in the Process Industries, Academic Press, 1984
7. Payne, G.A., The Energy Managers Handbook, IPC Science and Technology Press, 1977
310 Guide to Industrial Assessments for Pollution Prevention and Energy Efficiency