Other linguists are drawn to the similarities

between Ebonics and Caribbean Creole English The Linguistic Society of America was founded in
varieties, for instance, the fact that both frequently 1924 for the advancement of the scientific study of lan-
drop is and are , and that both permit dropping guage. The Society serves its nearly 7,000 personal
word initial d, b, and g in tense-aspect markers and institutional members through scholarly meetings,
(Caribbean examples include habitual/progressive publications, and special activities designed to
(d)a, past tense (b)en, and future (g)on). These advance the discipline.
traits suggest that some varieties of American The Society holds its Annual Meeting in early January
Ebonics might have undergone the kinds of simplifi- each year and publishes a quarterly journal, LAN-
cation and mixture associated with Creole forma- GUAGE and the LSA Bulletin. Among its special educa-
tion in the Caribbean and elsewhere. They might tion activities are the Linguistic Institutes held every
also suggest that American Ebonics was shaped by other summer in odd-numbered years and co-spon-
the high proportions of Creole-speaking slaves that
were imported from the Caribbean in the earliest
sored by a host university.

The web site for the Society (http://www.lsadc.org)

What is
settlement periods of the thirteen original colonies.
includes a Directory of Programs in Linguistics in the
Arguments about and evidence on the origins issue
continue to be brought forth. A relatively new his-
United States and Canada, The Field of Linguistics
(brief, nontechnical essays describing the discipline
Ebonics?
torical issue has emerged in recent years: Is and its subfields), and statements and resolutions
Ebonics converging with or diverging from other
vernacular varieties of American English? One thing
issued by the Society on matters such as language (African American
rights, the English-only/English-plus debate, bilingual
is for sure: This dynamic, distinctive varietythor-
oughly intertwined with African American history
education, and ebonics. Vernacular
and linked in many ways with African American
literature, education, and social lifeis one of the English)
most extensively studied and discussed varieties of
American English, and it will probably continue to
Written by John R. Rickford,
be so for many years to come.
Stanford University

Further reading
Baugh, John. 2000. Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic pride
and racial prejudice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Green, Lisa. 2002. African American English: A linguis-
tic introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Labov, William. 1973. Language in the inner city: Studies
in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Poplack, Shana, ed. 2000. The English history of African
American English. Malden, MA, and Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
Rickford, John R. , and Russell J. Rickford. 2000. Spoken Linguistic Society of America
Soul: The story of Black English. New York: John Wiley.
1325 18th St, NW, Suite 211
Smitherman, Geneva. 2000. Black talk: Words and
Washington, DC 20036-6501
phrases from the hood to the amen corner. New York:
Houghton Mifflin. (202) 835-1714
Wolfram, Walt, and Erik R. Thomas. 2002. The develop-
[email protected]
ment of African American English. Malden, MA, and http://www.lsadc.org
Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Duplicate as needed
At its most literal level, Ebonics simply means black Ebonics pronunciation includes features like the Some deny its existence (like the black Chicagoan
speech (a blend of the words ebony black and omission of the final consonant in words like past whose words Aint nobody here talkin no Ebonics
phonics sounds). The term was created in 1973 by a (pas ) and hand (han), the pronunciation of the th in belied his claim). Others deprecate it (like Maya
group of black scholars who disliked the negative bath as t (bat) or f (baf), and the pronunciation of the Angelou, who found the Oakland School Boards 1996
connotations of terms like Nonstandard Negro English vowel in words like my and ride as a long ah (mah, Ebonics resolutions very threatening although she
that had been coined in the 1960s when the first rahd). Some of these occur in vernacular white uses Ebonics herself in her poems, e.g. The
modern large-scale linguistic studies of African English, too, especially in the South, but in general Pusher).
American speech-communities began. However, the they occur more frequently in Ebonics. Some Ebonics
It should be said, incidentally, that at least some of
term Ebonics never caught on among linguists, much pronunciations are more unique, for instance, drop-
the overwhelmingly negative reaction to the Oakland
less among the general public. That all changed with ping b, d, or g at the beginning of auxiliary verbs like
resolutions arose because the resolutions were misin-
the Ebonics controversy of December 1996 when the dont and gonna, yielding Ah on know for I dont
terpreted as proposals to teach Ebonics itself, or to
Oakland (CA) School Board recognized it as the pri- know and ama do it for Im going to do it.
teach in Ebonics, rather than as proposals to respect
mary language of its majority African American stu-
and take it into account while teaching standard
dents and resolved to take it into account in teaching What does Ebonics look like?
English. The method of studying language known as
them standard or academic English. These distinctive Ebonics pronunciations are all sys- contrastive analysis involves drawing students
Most linguists refer to the distinctive speech of African tematic, the result of regular rules and restrictions; attention to similarities and differences between
Americans as Black English or African American they are not random errorsand this is equally true Ebonics and Standard English. Since the 1960s, it has
English (AAE) or, if they want to emphasize that this of Ebonics grammar. For instance, Ebonics speakers been used successfully to boost Ebonics speakers
doesnt include the standard English usage of African regularly produce sentences without present tense is reading and writing performance in Standard English,
Americans, as African American Vernacular English and are, as in John trippin or They allright. But most recently in public schools in DeKalb County, GA,
(AAVE). In theory, scholars who prefer the term Ebonics they dont omit present tense am. Instead of the and in Los Angeles, CA (as part of the LA Unified
(or alternatives like African American language) wish to ungrammatical *Ah walkin, Ebonics speakers would School Districts Academic English Mastery Program).
highlight the African roots of African American speech say *Ahm walkin. Likewise, they do not omit is and
and its connections with languages spoken elsewhere are if they come at the end of a sentenceThats Where did Ebonics come from?
in the Black Diaspora, e.g. Jamaica or Nigeria. But in what he/they is ungrammatical. Many members of
On this point, linguists are quite divided. Some
practice, AAVE and Ebonics essentially refer to the the public seem to have heard, too, that Ebonics
emphasize its English origins, pointing to the fact that
same sets of speech forms. Here, we will use Ebonics speakers use an invariant be in their speech (as in
most of the vocabulary of Ebonics is from English and
without ideological or theoretical qualification, prefer- They be goin to school every day); however, this be
that much of its pronunciation (e.g. pronouncing final
ring it to AAVE and other alternatives simply because it is not simply equivalent to is or are. Invariant be
th as f) and grammar (e.g. double negatives, I dont
is the most widely-known public term right now. refers to actions that occur regularly or habitually
want none) could have come from the nonstandard
rather than on just one occasion.
dialects of English indentured servants and other
What does Ebonics sound like? workers with whom African slaves interacted.
What do people think of Ebonics?
To many people, the first examples that come to mind
That depends on whom you ask. Black writers from Others emphasize Ebonics African origins, noting that
are slang words like phat excellent and bling-bling
Paul Laurence Dunbar to Zora Neale Hurston to West African languages often lack th sounds and final
glittery, expensive jewelry, words that are popular
August Wilson have made extensive use of it in their consonant clusters (e.g. past), and that replacing or
among teenagers and young adults, especially rap and
work, and some, like James Baldwin (this passion, simplifying these occurs both in US Ebonics and in
hip hop fans. But words like kitchen the especially
this skill, ... this incredible music.), Toni Morrison, West African English varieties spoken in Nigeria and
kinky hair at the nape of ones neck and ashy the
and June Jordan have praised it explicitly. Black preach- Ghana. Moreover, they argue that the distinction
whitish appearance of black skin when dry, as in
ers and comedians and singers, especially rappers, made between completed actions (He done walked)
winter are even more interesting. Unlike many slang
also use it for dramatic or realistic effect. But many and habitual actions (We be walkin) in the Ebonics
terms, these black words have been around for ages,
other people, black and white, regard it as a sign of tense-aspect system reflects their prevalence in West
they are not restricted to particular regions or age
limited education or sophistication, as a legacy of slav- African language systems and that this applies to
groups, and they are virtually unknown (in their black
ery or an impediment to socioeconomic mobility. other aspects of Ebonics sentence structure.
meanings) outside the African American community.