Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aquatic Toxicology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aqtox

Growth and physiological responses of a marine diatom (Phaeodactylum MARK

tricornutum) against two imidazolium-based ionic liquids ([C4mim]BF4 and
[C8mim]BF4)

Xiang-Yuan Denga,b, , Biao Chena, Da Lia, Xiao-Li Hua, Jie Chenga, Kun Gaoa, Chang-Hai Wangb
a
College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212003, China
b
Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ionic liquids (ILs) have been considered as green substitutes for traditional organic solvents in many existing
Phaeodactylum tricornutum biological and chemical areas. However, they have high solubility and poor biodegradability in water, sug-
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate gesting that they could become persistent chemical pollutants in aquatic environment. The ability of two widely
1-Octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate used imidazolium-based ILs to aect the growth and physiological characteristics of a marine diatom
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
(Phaeodactylum tricornutum) was investigated in this study. The diatom was exposed to dierent concentrations
Antioxidant enzymes
of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate ([C4mim]BF4) and 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetra-
uoroborate ([C8mim]BF4) for 96 h within a batch-culture system. Results showed that [C4mim]BF4 and
[C8mim]BF4 were very stable in seawater during 96 h of exposure, and the compounds signicantly inhibited the
growth of P. tricornutum with 24, 48, 72 and 96 h EC50 values of 30.81, 28.53, 39.92, 45.88 mg L1 and 30.17,
23.36, 28.62, 31.37 mg L1, respectively. In addition, the photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll a synthesis of
P. tricornutum were inhibited by [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4, indicating that the structural integrity of
chloroplasts of the diatom may be disrupted or damaged by the two ILs. Compared with that of the controls,
reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was increased by 0.65, 1.17, 1.85, 3.13, 2.94 times and 0.55, 1.77, 2.42,
3.45, 3.47 times in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 treatments, respectively. The
excessive ROS may cause lipid peroxidation, shortage of metabolic energy and decline of photosynthetic e-
ciency, which may be the main reason for toxicity of the two ILs to marine diatoms. To withstand the damaging
eects of excessive ROS, remarkable physiological and biochemical responses occurred in treatments with the
two ILs to protect the cells of P. tricornutum. Parameters such as soluble protein content, soluble sugar content,
and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) activities of the diatom increased signicantly with
increasing concentrations of the two ILs at 96 h of exposure relative to the controls. These ndings not only
provide strong background for evaluating the ecological risks and toxicity of ILs in marine environment, but also
help to unravel the toxic mechanism of the two ILs to marine diatoms.

1. Introduction and pointed out that the potential hazards of ILs to environment, par-
ticularly to aquatic environment, cannot be ignored (Pham et al., 2010;
Ionic liquids (ILs) have been considered as a promising green Cvjetko Bubalo et al., 2014b). As we all know, the marine environment
substitute for traditional organic solvents and areused widely as media is regarded as an important sink for almost all types of chemical
for catalysts, organic syntheses, extractions in electrochemistry appli- pollutants, including organochlorine compounds, herbicides, domestic
cations, and separation processes (Zhang et al., 2011; Moosavi and and municipal wastes, petroleum products, heavy metals, and so forth
Daneshvar, 2014). However, some previous studies indicated that ILs (Haynes and Johnson, 2000). Thus, it can be inferred that ILs could
could become persistent environmental pollutants because of their high become one kind of marine pollutants once they enter aquatic en-
chemical stability, high solubility and poor biodegradability in water vironment by accidental leakage or euents.
(Docherty et al., 2007; Pham et al., 2016). Many researchers have Recently, a number of studies have focused on the inuence and
evaluated the toxicity of ILs at dierent trophic and biological levels, toxicity of ILs on marine organisms at physiological, biochemical and

Corresponding author at: College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212003, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X.-Y. Deng).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.05.016
Received 1 May 2017; Received in revised form 18 May 2017; Accepted 28 May 2017
Available online 31 May 2017
0166-445X/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

molecular levels (Deng et al., 2015, 2016, 2017; Tsarpali et al., 2016). which to unravel the toxic mechanism of ILs to marine diatoms and to
Some toxic mechanisms of ILs have been proposed and summarized as further evaluate the safety of ILs in marine environment.
follows: (1) ILs can interact with cell membrane phospholipid bilayers
and hydrophobic domains of membrane proteins, leading to disruption 2. Materials and methods
of membrane physiological functions, because ILs have similar structure
with detergents, pesticides and antibiotics (Samor et al., 2011; Li et al., 2.1. Chemical regents
2012; Nancharaiah et al., 2012); (2) ILs can induce overproduction of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells, which would cause oxidative Two imidazolium-based ILs ([C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4) with a
stress and lipid peroxidation, resulting in random target attack and purity of 99.0% were purchased from Chengjie Chemical Co., Ltd.
toxic eects (Wu et al., 2013; Cvjetko Bubalo et al., 2014b; Deng et al., (Shanghai, China). The choice of these ILs was based on their popularity
2017); (3) hydrolysis of ILs with uorinated anions may result in the and application in scientic elds, as well as the increased likelihood of
formation of uoride, which is a potent inhibitor of the Na+, K+ and them migrating from industry to the environment (Tsarpali et al.,
ATPase, and interferes with processes essential in cell self-maintenance 2016). All other reagents were of high analytical grade and obtained
(Stolte et al., 2006; Fatemi and Izadiyan, 2011). However, knowledge from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Stock
about toxic mechanisms of ILs to marine microalgae is still incomplete, solutions of the two ILs were prepared in sterile seawater with f/2
due to the great variety of ILs, whose toxic ability may dier depending medium (Guillard and Ryther, 1962).
on the ions of which they are produced, as well as on the dierent
microalgal species sensitivity (Cvjetko Bubalo et al., 2014b; Tsarpali
2.2. Marine diatom and cultivation
et al., 2016).
Microalgae, widely distributed in ponds, lakes, rivers, coastal sea-
A marine diatom, P. tricornutum, was obtained from the State Key
water and oceans, are a very diverse group of aquatic photosynthetic
Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science (Xiamen, China), and was
organisms with the ability to convert sunlight to food and energy. They
grown photoautotrophically in 500 mL Erlenmeyer asks containing
play an important role in freshwater and marine ecosystem as primary
200 mL sterile seawater with f/2 medium. The asks were placed in a
producers because of their key position in the trophic chain, their
20 1 C incubator (Jiangnan Instrument Factory, Ningbo, China)
ability to produce high amounts of oxygen, and their participation in
with a photoperiod of 12 h light/12 h dark and a light density of
nutrient cycles (Ma et al., 2010; Tsarpali et al., 2016). The ubiquity and
40 mol photons m2 s1. Cool white uorescent lamps were xed
importance of microalgae make them the ideal biological model for
vertically on the two sides of incubator to supply light for the growth of
(eco)-toxicological assessments because they have a short life cycle and
P. tricornutum. Cells of the diatom were pre-cultivated and induced to
can respond quickly to environmental stresses (Pham et al., 2010; Bae
the exponential phase of growth with a cell density of 5.2 107 cells
and Park, 2014). Among marine microalgae, diatoms are one of the
mL1, which was used for the following experiments.
most used groups of microalgae in marine bioassays because of their
easy cultivation and signicant sensitivity to metals and chemical
2.3. Toxicity tests
pollutants (Wang and Zheng, 2008; Brandt et al., 2015). Several groups
have studied the eects of ILs on diatoms, such as Cyclotella mene-
After pre-cultivation, cells of the diatom were washed twice with
ghiniana, Skeletonema marinoi, Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Skeleto-
sterile seawater to remove the inuence of other substances, and then
nema costatum (Lataa et al., 2009a; Samor et al., 2011; Deng et al.,
collected for toxicity tests. The tests were conducted in 250 mL asks
2015, 2016, 2017). However, the information about potential risk and
containing 100 mL sterile seawater with f/2 medium. Dierent con-
toxicity of ILs to diatoms is still limited up to now. In addition, cell wall
centrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 (0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and
plays an important role in transport of substances in and out of the cell
60 mg L1) were injected into the medium according to our pre-
(Samor et al., 2011). Cells of diatoms have a range of features that
liminary range-nding tests. Cultivation conditions, such as tempera-
make them to diverge greatly from the classical cellular structure of
ture, light intensity, photoperiod, and other conditions, were main-
microalgae and higher plants (Lataa et al., 2009a). The toxic me-
tained similar to the ones described above. Three biological replicates
chanisms of ILs to diatoms may be dierent from those of other mi-
were set up for each treatment and six for the controls. All operations
croalgal species. Thus, more studies are needed to further assess the
were carried out aseptically.
toxicity of ILs to diatoms and to unravel the underlying toxic me-
chanism.
Based on the statistical data about known ILs on the Web of Science, 2.4. Determination of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 concentrations
imidazolium-based ILs are found to be the most widely produced and
used at a large scale (Sun et al., 2017). In the present study, two The concentrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 were de-
commonly used imidazolium-based ILs, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium termined with a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC,
tetrauoroborate ([C4mim]BF4) and 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tet- Agilent 1260, USA) according to the methods described by Liu et al.
rauoroborate ([C8mim]BF4) were selected as the tested ILs because (2016) and Deng et al. (2017). The detailed experimental protocols
they are widely used in chemical industry (Gutkowski et al., 2006; have been presented in a previous study (Deng et al., 2017). Each
Grishina et al., 2013), and their toxic eects on green microalgae have sample was measured in triplicate, and then the average value was
been reported by other researchers (Tsarpali and Dailianis, 2015; given as mg L1.
Tsarpali et al., 2016). In addition, P. tricornutum was used as a model
organism to investigate the growth and physiological responses of 2.5. Growth inhibition analysis
marine diatoms against the two ILs because it is an important food
resource for marine zooplankton and other ltering organisms in the Samples were taken every day during the 96-h exposure, and the
marine food chain, and is also used as a standard marine species in numbers of P. tricornutum cells were determined using a Neubauer he-
bioassays on the toxicity of chemical pollutants (Wang and Zheng, mocytometer with an optical microscope (Nikon, YS100, Japan). Cell
2008). The purposes of this study were to evaluate the potential eects density of P. tricornutum (X, cells mL1) was calculated based on the
of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on growth, photosynthetic activity, method of Deng et al. (2017). Each sample was counted at least three
cellular components (soluble protein and sugar contents), antioxidant times. Specic growth rate (ri, d1) and growth inhibition percentage
enzyme activity, and lipid peroxidation levels of the diatom. It is hoped (IR, %) were calculated and analyzed according to a previous study
that this study could provide more data and a theoretical basis upon (Deng et al., 2017).

116
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

Fig 1. Dynamic variation of [C4mim]BF4 (A) and [C8mim]BF4 (B) concentrations in dierent treatments during the exposure periods. Each point represents the mean of 3 biological
replicates and the error bars represent the standard deviation (SD).

2.6. Measurements of chlorophyll uorescence in each treatment were taken out and harvested by centrifugation
(6000 g, 10 min, 4 C). The harvested cells of P. tricornutum were
Chlorophyll uorescence of photosystem II (PSII) of P. tricornutum resuspended in 1.5 mL sodium phosphate buer (0.05 mol L1, pH
treated with dierent concentrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 7.8), and then lysed by sonication (Scientz Biotechnology Co. Ltd.,
was measured with a pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) uorometer Ningbo, China) for 10 min with a repeating duty cycle of 5 s in ice bath.
(AquaPen AP-C100, Photon Systems Instruments, Drasov, Czech The cellular homogenate was centrifuged (12,000 g, 10 min, 4 C) to
Republic) according to the procedure described by Deng et al. (2017). separate the cell debris, and the liquid supernatant was used to de-
In brief, samples of the diatom were kept in the dark for 15 min to termine the MDA content and enzyme activities of P. tricornutum ac-
obtain the equilibrium of the PSII oxido-reduction state. Then, max- cording to manufacturers instructions and the method of Wang and
imum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm), derived from (Fm F0)/Fm, where Zheng (2008).
Fm and F0 are the maximum and minimum uorescence of the dark-
adapted cells, was recorded. The eective quantum yield of PSII (PSII), 2.10. Statistical analysis
calculated as (Fm F0)/Fm, where Fm is the maximum light-adapted
uorescence yield and F0 is the lowest uorescence yield at F0 in dark- In this work, EC50 value (the eect concentration of [C4mim]BF4 or
adapted cells, was also measured. [C8mim]BF4 leading to a 50% growth inhibition of P. tricornutum) was
calculated and analyzed according to the method of Deng et al. (2012)
2.7. Chlorophyll a, and soluble protein and sugar content determination using SPSS software (version 18.0) for Windows (Statistical Product and
Service Solutions, formerly Statistical Package for the Social Sciences,
Chlorophyll a (Chl a) content of P. tricornutum exposed to dierent distributed by SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). In addition, the results were
concentrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 was measured and presented as the means standard deviation (SD) of three in-
calculated according to the method of Deng et al. (2015). After 96 h of dependent experiments in each treatment to check the reproducibility
exposure, soluble protein and sugar were extracted from the harvested of the data. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dun-
cells of P. tricornutum according to the method described by Deng et al. can's multiple range tests was used to evaluate the statistical sig-
(2017). Soluble protein assay kits and sugar content test kits were ob- nicance of the data between treatments and controls with SPSS 18.0.
tained from Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China). Based The results were considered statistically signicant if the p-values were
on the manufacturers instructions of these kits, soluble protein and 0.05 or less.
sugar contents of the diatom were determined and calculated.
3. Results and discussion
2.8. ROS level determination
3.1. Dynamic variation of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 concentrations
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay kits were purchased from
Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China). The ROS level was The residual concentrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 in
determined with a 2,7-dichlorofuorescin diacetate probe, and detected seawater with f/2 medium were determined every 24 h, and shown in
by a multi-mode microplate reader (Molecular Devices, California, Fig. 1. No [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 were detected in the controls
USA) at the emission and excitation wavelengths of 525 and 485 nm, during 96 h of exposure. Residual concentrations of the two ILs changed
respectively. no more than 5% in dierent treatments during the whole exposure
period, suggesting that both of them were very stable in seawater with
2.9. MDA content, and SOD and POD activity determination f/2 medium. Some previous studies indicated that ILs, especially the
imidazolium-based ILs, were not easily biodegraded, and thus were
Malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and very stable in the environment. For instance, Liu et al. (2016) reported
peroxidase (POD) activity assay kits were obtained from Jiancheng that residual concentrations of 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride
Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, China). After being exposed to ([C8mim]Cl) and [C8mim]BF4 changed no more than 20% in freshwater
[C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 for 96 h, 40 mL of well-blended cultures during 14 d of exposure. Sun et al. (2017) observed that the

117
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

12 12
0 0 e
5 mg L-1 5 mg L-1
e
10 10
Cell density ( 10 6 cells mL-1)

Cell density ( 10 6 cells mL-1)

10 mg L-1 20 mg L-1 10 mg L-1 20 mg L-1 d
d e
d
8 40 mg L-1 60 mg L-1 e 8 40 mg L-1 60 mg L-1 d
d
de c e d
f d c
6 6 d
e c c
d d
d
e c c b
4 c b 4 c b
d cd b
c b b b
b b
2 2 a a
a a a
a a
a
0 0
0 24 48 72 96 0 24 48 72 96
Exposure time (h) Exposure time (h)

A B
Fig. 2. Growth curves of Phaeodactylum tricornutum under dierent [C4mim]BF4 (A) and [C8mim]BF4 (B) concentrations during 96 h of exposure. Each point represents the mean of 3
biological replicates and the error bars represent the standard deviation (SD). Dierent letters indicate signicant dierences at p < 0.05 between the treatments and the controls
according to Duncans multiple range tests.

concentrations of [C8mim]BF4 remained stable in soil during 40 d of the dierent alkyl chain lengths of the two ILs. Ma et al. (2010) re-
exposure. Our previous results showed that 1-dodecyl-3-methylimida- ported that EC50 values of [C4mim]Br, [C6mim]Br, [C8mim]Br,
zolium tetrauoroborate ([C12mim]BF4) was very stable in seawater [C10mim]Br and [C12mim]Br decreased from 22.24, 5.88, 0.34 and
during 96 h of exposure (Deng et al., 2017). Moreover, ILs could keep 0.1 mg L1 to 0.02 mg L1, respectively, when S. obliquus was exposed
their intact properties and become persistent chemical pollutants in to the ILs for 96 h, notably indicating that toxicity of ILs was mainly
aquatic environment according to the report of Ma et al. (2010). The dependent on their alkyl chain length. Pham et al. (2016) observed that
ndings in this study could provide more information to prove the lengthening of the alkyl chain would lead to a concomitant increase in
stability and lack of biodegradation of ILs in marine environment. the toxicity of ILs to a freshwater green microalga, Pseudokirchneriella
subcapitata. Reasons for this phenomenon may be due to the fact that
the increased lipophilic properties of ILs with longer alkyl chains would
3.2. Inhibitory eects of two ILs towards the diatom
increase the membrane permeability and their toxicity. During 96 h of
exposure, the EC50 values decreased rst from 30.81 and 30.17 mg L1
In this work, P. tricornutum was selected as a model species of
to 28.53 and 23.36 mg L1, and then increased to 45.88 and
marine diatoms to investigate the potential threats of [C4mim]BF4 and
31.37 mg L1 in [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 treatments, respectively
[C8mim]BF4 to marine environment. As illustrated by the growth
(Table 1). It is indicated that the toxicity of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]
curves in Fig. 2, P. tricornutum showed a normal growth curve in the
BF4 to P. tricornutum increased rst and then decreased with increasing
controls, but its growth was signicantly inhibited by both [C4mim]BF4
exposure time, reaching maximum toxicity at 48 h of exposure. The
and [C8mim]BF4. Growth rates of P. tricornutum decreased with in-
decrease of toxicity with increase of exposure time probably resulted
creasing concentrations of the two ILs. The maximum growth rates of
from the acclimation of the diatom to ILs (Ertrk and Saan, 2012). This
the diatom were 0.509, 0.470, 0.449, 0.371, 0.251, 0.052 d1 and
trend has also been previously discussed by other researchers (Liu et al.,
0.461, 0.391, 0.420, 0.310, 0.254, 0.043 d1 in 0, 5, 10, 20, 40 and
2015b; Deng et al., 2017), and appears to occur regardless of dier-
60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 treatments, respectively. Si-
ences in the organisms examined and the methodologies employed, and
milar results were found in our previous studies, growth rates of Ske-
dierences in the cation and anion combinations of the ILs tested.
letonema costatum and P. tricornutum were signicantly decreased with
Moreover, a recent study (Tsarpali et al., 2016) reported the toxicity of
the increase of [C8mim]Br and [C12mim]BF4 concentrations, respec-
[C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 to a green microalga D. tertiolecta with
tively (Deng et al., 2016, 2017). These ndings suggest that ILs were
24 h, 48 h, 72 h and 96 h IC50 values of > 200, > 200, > 200, >
toxic to the growth of marine diatoms, and might pose serious potential
200 mg L1 and 11.6, 8.0, 23.9, 29.5 mg L1, respectively. The
threats to marine ecosystems. In addition, EC50 values of [C4mim]BF4
variability in EC50 or IC50 values among dierent microalgal species
were signicantly higher than those of [C8mim]BF4 at 48, 72 and 96 h
may be caused by the dierences in the inherent physiological status of
of exposure (Table 1). The higher value of EC50, which is a relatively
dierent species. It was reported that green algae are far less sensitive
sensitive index for evaluating the toxicity of a compound, means lower
to chemical pollutants than diatoms because of the dierent cell wall
toxicity. Thus, it is suggested that the toxicity of [C4mim]BF4 was lower
structures and cell size (Lataa et al., 2009b). In the case of green algae,
than that of [C8mim]BF4 to P. tricornutum, which might be attributed to
as indigestible cellulose forms the main structural element in the cell
wall. This is far stronger and less sensitive to chemicals than the silica
Table 1
frustule surrounding diatoms. The dierence in size of microalgal cells
Inhibitory eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on the growth of Phaeodactylum tri-
cornutum, expressed as median eective concentrations (EC50) standard deviation (SD) and in production of extracellular organic substances may also lead to
(mg L1) at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure. high variability in the sensitivity of dierent algal species to the same
chemical pollutant (Rojkov and Marlek, 1999).
Test EC50 (mg L1)
chemicals
24 h 48 h 72 h 96 h 3.3. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on chlorophyll uorescence
[C4mim]BF4 30.81 1.23 28.53 1.41 39.92 1.24 45.88 1.54
[C8mim]BF4 30.17 1.30 23.36 1.42 28.62 1.31 31.37 1.24 To investigate the photosynthetic status of P. tricornutum under the
stress of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4, the Fv/Fm and the PSII values

118
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

Fig. 3. Changes of the maximum photochemical eciency of PSII (Fv/Fm) (A and B) and the eective quantum yield of PSII (PSII) (C and D) of Phaeodactylum tricornutum treated with
dierent concentrations of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4, respectively, during 96 h of exposure. Each point represents the mean of 3 biological replicates and the error bars represent the
standard deviation (SD). Dierent letters indicate signicant dierences at p < 0.05 between the treatments and the controls according to Duncans multiple range tests.

were measured (Fig. 3), which, respectively, show the photosynthetic PSII, and aect the photosynthesis of microalgae (Samor et al., 2011;
capacity and eciency of the microalgal cells. As shown in Fig. 3A and Huang et al., 2013). Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on PSII of
B, Fv/Fm values in the controls were stable throughout the experiments P. tricornutum are shown in Fig. 3C and D, respectively. Although there
with mean values of 0.53, indicating that the diatom was in good were no signicant dierences in PSII of P. tricornutum between the
physiological state (Maxwell and Johnson, 2000). Compared with that controls and treatments with 5 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 during 96 h of
of the controls, Fv/Fm values were not signicantly aected in [C4mim] exposure (p > 0.05), it was signicantly inhibited by 10, 20, 40 and
BF4 treatments with a concentration of 40 mg L1. Nevertheless, in 60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 at all exposure times relative to the controls
60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 treatments, Fv/Fm decreased sharply during (p < 0.05) (Fig. 3C). Similar changes in PSII of P. tricornutum were
24 h of exposure, and then gradually decreased after 24 h of exposure also found in [C8mim]BF4 treatments (Fig. 3D). These results are con-
(Fig. 3A). The same trend was also observed in [C8mim]BF4 treatments sistent with the previous literature showing that ILs inhibit PSII in
(Fig. 3B). Similar results were reported in a previous study (Deng et al., microalgae (Samor et al., 2011; Deng et al., 2017). The marked de-
2017), which showed that Fv/Fm values of P. tricornutum did not change crease of PSII under the stress of ILs showed an inhibiting eect of ILs
in treatments with low [C12mim]BF4 concentrations (1 mg L1), but on photosynthetic eciency of the diatom, which may be caused by ILs
decreased signicantly in treatments with high concentrations of stopping the formation of cell assimilatory power (NADPH and ATP) or
[C12mim]BF4 (2.5 mg L1). These ndings were also in line with aecting the xation and assimilation of carbon in the microalgal cells
those reported by Samor et al. (2011). In general, a decrease of Fv/Fm (Liu et al., 2015a).
values indicated that the ratio of electrons generated in PSII to photons
absorbed by the light-harvesting pigments decreased due to oxidation,
degradation of D1 protein, or severely reduced pigment contents 3.4. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on chlorophyll a content
(Devilla et al., 2005; Li et al., 2014). Moreover, ILs could cause oxi-
dation of electron transport chain or primary electron acceptor of the In this work, a reduction of Chl a content of P. tricornutum was
observed in the treatments with [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 (from 5

119
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

0 5 mg L-1 10 mg L-1 0
2.50 2.50 5 mg L-1 10 mg L-1
-1 -1 -1 -1
2.25 20 mg L 40 mg L 60 mg L 2.25 20 mg L 40 mg L -1
60 mg L-1
a a
a a a a a

Content of Chl a ( g 107 cell-1)

Content of Chl a ( g 107 cell-1)

2.00 2.00
a ab
a b b b
1.75 a a
b b c 1.75 b b b b b b
c b b bc
a d b bcd
b c 1.50 c c cd
1.50 d e
d 1.25
1.25

1.00 1.00

0.75 0.75 d
c e d c e
0.50 0.50
f
e
0.25 0.25

0.00 0.00
24 48 72 96 24 48 72 96
Exposure time (h) Exposure time (h)

A B
Fig. 4. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 (A) and [C8mim]BF4 (B) on the mean values (mean SD; number of biological replicates (n) = 3) of chlorophyll a content in Phaeodactylum tricornutum
during 96 h of exposure. Each bar is the mean of 3 biological replicates. Error bar represents the standard deviation (SD). Dierent letters above columns indicate signicant dierences at
p < 0.05 between the treatments and the controls according to Duncans multiple range tests.

to 60 mg L1) during 96 h of exposure (Fig. 4), indicating that the treatments; while an obvious decrease was found in the treatments with
photosynthetic system of the diatom may be partly damaged and its 60 mg L1 of the two ILs. Similar results were obtained in our previous
photosynthetic eciency inhibited by the two ILs. The negative eects studies (Deng et al., 2015, 2016, 2017). The increase of soluble protein
of ILs on the photosynthetic pigments in algae have been reported by content may be attributed to the following reasons: (1) an increase of
many researchers (Ma et al., 2010; Deng et al., 2015, 2017; Liu et al., antioxidant and biotransformation enzymes in the cells because they
2015b). Several mechanisms have been proposed: perhaps the rst one are important components of soluble protein (Kumar et al., 2008); (2)
is that the long alkyl chain of ILs can incorporate into the polar head an elevated and potentially prolonged expression of target genes of the
groups of phospholipid bilayer as described by Cvjetko Bubalo et al. diatom in response to the two ILs (Bajguz and Piotrowska-Niczyporuk,
(2014a). The disruption of phospholipid bilayer of chlorophyll mem- 2014). The decrease of soluble protein content may be due to various
brane, especially by ILs with longer alkyl chains attached to cation core, propagating radicals and ROS in the cells. They would induce oxidative
is an obvious scenario (Kumar et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013). Another modications of amino acid side chains, cause ROS-mediated peptide
mechanism could be excessive ROS generation in the cells. ROS would cleavage, reactions of peptides with lipids and carbohydrate oxidation
attack chlorophyll molecule and chloroplast membrane. In plant cells, products, and cause the formation of carbonyl derivatives of proteins
the biosynthesis pathway of Chl a requires the formation of Mg-proto- (Valavanidis et al., 2006).
porphyrin IX from magnesium chelatase and magnesium; the excessive Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on the soluble sugar content
ROS would block this process (Walker and Willows, 1997). As a result, of P. tricornutum were investigated in this study. As shown in Table 2,
the microalgal photosynthetic eciency would be inuenced and the soluble sugar content of the diatom increased from 0.27 to 0.41, 0.43,
energy deciency would be aggravated. 0.42, 0.64, 0.78 g 106 cell1 and from 0.25 to 0.44, 0.51, 0.60,
1.04, 1.09 g 106 cell1 at 96 h of exposure in 5, 10, 20, 40 and
60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 treatments, respectively.
3.5. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on soluble protein and sugar These data were in agreement with those reported in previous studies.
contents An increase of soluble sugar content was found in green algae (Clado-
phora) under the stress of lead (Cao et al., 2015). It was reported that
After 96 h of exposure, soluble protein content of P. tricornutum was synthesis of sugar in microalgae was stimulated by environmental
determined and shown in Table 2. Compared with that of the controls, a stresses, and the algae may use sugar to increase the thickness of cell
remarkable increase of soluble protein content in the diatom was ob- wall or to combine with chemical pollutants (Warr et al., 1985; Kirrolia
served in 5, 10, 20 and 40 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4

Table 2
Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on the mean values (mean SD; number of biological replicates (n) = 3) of soluble protein and sugar contents, ROS level and MDA content, and
SOD and POD activities in Phaeodactylum tricornutum after 96 h of exposure. Dierent letters indicate signicant dierences at p < 0.05 between the treatments and the controls
according to Duncans multiple range tests.

Test chemicals Concentrations Soluble protein content Soluble sugar content ROS level MDA content SOD activity POD activity
(mg L1) (g 106 cell1) (g 106 cell1) (FU 107 cell1) (nmol 108 cell1) (U mg1 proteins) (U mg1 proteins)

[C4mim]BF4 0 0.78 0.02a 0.27 0.01a 1.26 0.19a 0.38 0.08a 8.33 1.55a 0.75 0.09a
5 1.30 0.10b 0.41 0.04b 2.08 0.03b 0.98 0.15b 18.24 0.95b 1.05 0.07b
10 1.59 0.02c 0.43 0.04b 2.73 0.10c 1.32 0.08c 20.39 1.31b 1.08 0.06b
20 1.62 0.08c 0.42 0.02b 3.59 0.06d 1.55 0.13c 42.20 4.72c 1.62 0.09c
40 1.62 0.04c 0.64 0.04c 5.21 0.08e 1.52 0.10c 51.56 3.66d 2.26 0.07d
60 0.31 0.10d 0.78 0.05d 4.97 0.23f 2.54 0.22d 18.30 9.53b 1.46 0.08e
[C8mim]BF4 0 0.70 0.04a 0.25 0.02a 1.32 0.06a 0.20 0.05a 7.82 0.80a 0.73 0.08a
5 1.57 0.22b 0.44 0.06b 2.05 0.12b 0.53 0.11b 21.03 0.81b 1.32 0.03b
10 1.94 0.14c 0.51 0.03b 3.66 0.08c 0.74 0.05c 24.40 1.87c 1.87 0.07c
20 1.97 0.25c 0.60 0.06b 4.52 0.14d 1.02 0.07d 44.29 4.30d 2.38 0.11d
40 1.70 0.15bc 1.04 0.05c 5.88 0.04e 1.62 0.17e 54.91 4.85e 3.41 0.16e
60 0.68 0.14a 1.09 0.18c 5.90 0.38e 3.54 0.08f 21.96 2.92bc 1.08 0.05f

120
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

et al., 2011; Cao et al., 2015). Among dierent solutes accumulating in studies have conrmed that the antioxidant enzyme activities in algae
response to stress, sugars may play a key role in maintaining the os- increased under the stress of ILs (Kumar et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013;
motic regulation in microalgal cells. Thus, the increase of sugar content Deng et al., 2015, 2016, 2017). The increased SOD activity may be
in the diatom may be considered as an adaptive measure to protect cells attributed to the overproduction of superoxide, which is considered to
from the stress of ILs (Roitsch, 1999). be a central component of signal transduction, resulting in the activa-
tion of existing enzyme pools or the increased expression of genes that
3.6. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on ROS level and MDA encode SOD (Mishra et al., 2006). The enhancement of POD activity is
content considered to be an adaptive trait against the damage caused by ROS
(Zhang et al., 2013). Thus, the increase of SOD and POD activities may
In this study, ROS level was measured to conrm whether the be due to a protective strategy to eliminate excessive ROS and prevent
growth inhibition of ILs on microalgae was caused by ROS. As shown in oxidative damage to the diatom. In addition, a decrease of SOD and
Table 2, ROS level of P. tricornutum was increased by 0.65, 1.17, 1.85, POD activities observed in 60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4
3.13, 2.94 times and 0.55, 1.77, 2.42, 3.45, 3.47 times relative to the treatments may be due to ROS levels that were beyond the scavenging
controls in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 mg L1 [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 capacity of SOD and POD, leading to inhibition of SOD and POD ac-
treatments, respectively. There are several reports indicating that con- tivities. These data are consistent with those obtained by Zhang et al.
taminants trigger ROS accumulation in microalgal cells, and the re- (2013), Du et al. (2014) and Deng et al. (2016), where the SOD and
sulting oxidative damage may be a mechanism of toxicity in aquatic POD activities also increased rst and then decreased with the in-
organisms exposed to pollutants (Chen et al., 2014). Thus, it was not creasing concentrations of ILs.
surprising to nd that the ROS level of the diatom was signicantly
increased with increasing concentrations of the two ILs. These results 4. Conclusion
are consistent with those obtained by Zhang et al. (2013), who observed
that dimethyl thiourea (ROS scavenger) eectively enhanced the anti- This study investigated the eects of two imidazolium-based ionic
oxidant ability of Lemna minor; and suggested that ROS might be in- liquids ([C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4) on the growth and physiological
volved in the mechanism of ILs-induced toxicity to L. minor. In our characteristics of a marine diatom P. tricornutum for evaluating the
previous studies (Deng et al., 2016, 2017), a signicant increase of ROS toxicity of ILs to marine environment. The main conclusions were as
level was also found in the diatoms under the stress of ILs. According to follows.
the ndings of Asada (1999), ROS are mainly produced through the
transfer of electrons on molecular oxygen (O2) from photosystem I (PSI) (1) [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 were very poorly biodegraded, and
during the photosynthesis process. Thus, an increase of ROS level in the consequently were very stable in seawater during 96 h of exposure.
diatom may be the consequence of the inhibition on photosynthesis as (2) [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 signicantly inhibited the growth of
mentioned above. P. tricornutum with 24, 48, 72 and 96 h EC50 values of 30.81, 28.53,
Lipid peroxidation is one of the primary manifestations of oxidative 39.92, 45.88 mg L1 and 30.17, 23.36, 28.62, 31.37 mg L1, re-
damage in organisms. As the main product of lipid peroxidation, MDA spectively, indicating that [C8mim]BF4 was more toxic to the
content can serve as an indicator of the degree of lipid peroxidation and diatom than [C4mim]BF4 and both of them were potential en-
the severity of cellular damage (Li et al., 2010). In this work, the MDA vironmental pollutants.
content of the diatom cells increased with increasing concentrations of (3) The photosynthetic activity and Chl a synthesis of P. tricornutum
[C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4, following a similar trend to that ob- were inhibited by [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4, which suggested
served for ROS level (Table 2). Similar results were reported by other that the structural integrity of chloroplasts in the diatom was dis-
researchers (Kumar et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2013; Deng et al., 2016, rupted or damaged by the two ILs.
2017), when they studied the toxic eects of ILs on algae, indicating (4) Excessive ROS were produced during the exposure to the two ILs in
that, although the ILs and organisms were dierent in these studies, the the diatom, which could cause lipid peroxidation, shortage of me-
toxic mechanism of ILs may be consistent. The increased MDA contents tabolic energy and decline of photosynthetic eciency.
in the treatments suggested that the integrity of the lipid membrane of (5) Contents of soluble protein and sugar, and activities of antioxidant
the diatom was seriously damaged by the attacks of excessive ROS enzymes (SOD and POD) in the diatom were increased under the
(Kumar et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2016). The contents of Chl a were sig- stress of the two ILs, which may be viewed as active defense to
nicantly decreased in the diatom treated by the two ILs (Fig. 4), in- protect the cells from injury and poisoning caused by ILs.
dicating that excessive ROS might reduce the eciency of photo- (6) Consequently, ILs are potential threats once they are released into
synthesis by causing cellular pigments losses. Moreover, the presence of the marine environment accidentally, and their toxicity may mainly
excessive ROS in the diatom could consume some additional metabolic be caused by the ROS overproduction in microalgal cells induced by
energy, which might lead to a shortage of metabolic energy (Zhou et al., ILs. These ndings will be helpful for understanding the ecological
2013). As a result, the growth of P. tricornutum was inhibited because risks and toxicity of ILs in marine environment.
the membrane integrity, algal energy metabolism, and photosynthetic
eciency are very important for the proliferation of microalgae. Acknowledgements
Therefore, these results obtained in present study conrmed that ILs
induced the diatom to produce excessive ROS, providing an explanation This manuscript was supported by the National Natural Science
to the toxic mechanism of ILs to microalgae. Foundation of China (no. 31200381) and Jiangsu Provincial Natural
Science Foundation of China (no. BY2015065-10).
3.7. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on SOD and POD activities
References
To nd out the ROS-eliminating mechanism, activities of several
antioxidant enzymes including SOD and POD were measured in this Asada, K., 1999. The water-water cycle in chloroplasts: scavenging of active oxygens and
study. Eects of [C4mim]BF4 and [C8mim]BF4 on SOD and POD ac- dissipation of excess photons. Annu . Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 50,
601639.
tivities of P. tricornutum are presented in Table 2, which show that the Bae, M.J., Park, Y.S., 2014. Biological early warning system based on the responses of
activities of the two antioxidant enzymes increased with increasing the aquatic organisms to disturbances: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 466467, 635649.
concentrations of both ILs from 5 to 40 mg L1, and then a sharp de- Bajguz, A., Piotrowska-Niczyporuk, A., 2014. Interactive eect of brassinosteroids and
cytokinins on growth, chlorophyll, monosaccharide and protein content in the green
crease was observed in 60 mg L1 treatments with the two ILs. Many

121
X.-Y. Deng et al. Aquatic Toxicology 189 (2017) 115122

alga Chlorella vulgaris (Trebouxiophyceae). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 80, 176183. Li, H., Yu, C., Chen, R., Li, J., Li, J., 2012. Novel ionic liquid-type gemini surfactants:
Brandt, K.K., Amezquita, A., Backhaus, T., Boxall, A., Coors, A., Heberer, T., Lawrence, synthesis, surface property and antimicrobial activity. Colloids Surf. Physicochem.
J.R., Lazorchak, J., Schonfeld, J., Snape, J.R., Zhu, Y.G., Topp, E., 2015. Eng. Aspects 395, 116124.
Ecotoxicological assessment of antibiotics: a call for improved consideration of mi- Li, Y., Zhu, H., Guan, C., Zhang, H., Guo, J., Chen, Z., Cai, G., Lei, X., Zheng, W., Tian, Y.,
croorganisms. Environ. Int. 85, 189205. Xiong, X., Zheng, T., 2014. Towards molecular, physiological, and biochemical un-
Cao, D.J., Shi, X.D., Li, H., Xie, P.P., Zhang, H.M., Deng, J.W., Liang, Y.G., 2015. Eects of derstanding of photosynthetic inhibition and oxidative stress in the toxic Alexandrium
lead on tolerance, bioaccumulation, and antioxidative defense system of green algae, tamarense induced by a marine bacterium. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 98,
Cladophora. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 112, 231237. 46374652.
Chen, H., Zou, Y., Zhang, L., Wen, Y., Liu, W., 2014. Enantioselective toxicities of chiral Liu, H., Zhang, S., Zhang, X., Chen, C., 2015a. Growth inhibition and eect on photo-
ionic liquids 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium lactate to aquatic algae. Aquat. Toxicol. system by three imidazolium chloride ionic liquids in rice seedlings. J. Hazard. Mater.
154, 114120. 286, 440448.
Cvjetko Bubalo, M., Hanousek, K., Radoevi, K., Gaurina Srek, V., Jakovljevi, T., Liu, H., Zhang, X., Chen, C., Du, S., Dong, Y., 2015b. Eects of imidazolium chloride ionic
Radoji Redovnikovi, I., 2014a. Imidiazolium based ionic liquids: eects of dif- liquids and their toxicity to Scenedesmus obliquus. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 122,
ferent anions and alkyl chains lengths on the barley seedlings. Ecotoxicol. Environ. 8390.
Saf. 101, 116123. Liu, T., Guo, Y., Wang, J., Wang, J., Zhu, L., Zhang, J., Zhang, C., 2016. Assessing toxic
Cvjetko Bubalo, M., Radoevi, K., Radoji Redovnikovi, I., Halambek, J., Srek, V.G., eects of [Omim]Cl and [Omim]BF4 in zebrash adults using a biomarker approach.
2014b. A brief overview of the potential environmental hazards of ionic liquids. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 23, 73607368.
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 99, 112. Ma, J.M., Cai, L.L., Zhang, B.J., Hu, L.W., Li, X.Y., Wang, J.J., 2010. Acute toxicity and
Deng, X.Y., Gao, K., Sun, J.L., 2012. Physiological and biochemical responses of eects of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ionic liquids on green algae.
Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 to Irgarol 1051 and diuron. Aquat. Toxicol. 122123, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 73, 14651469.
113119. Maxwell, K., Johnson, G.N., 2000. Chlorophyll uorescence-a practical guide. J. Exp. Bot.
Deng, X.Y., Cheng, J., Hu, X.L., Gao, K., Wang, C.H., 2015. Physiological and biochemical 51, 659668.
responses of a marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum exposed to 1-octyl-3-me- Mishra, S., Srivastava, S., Tripathi, R.D., Govindarajan, R., Kuriakose, S.V., Prasad,
thylimidazolium bromide. Aquat. Biol. 24, 109115. M.N.V., 2006. Phytochelatin synthesis and response of antioxidants during cadmium
Deng, X.Y., Hu, X.L., Cheng, J., Ma, Z.X., Gao, K., 2016. Growth inhibition and oxidative stress in Bacopa monnieri L. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 44, 2537.
stress induced by 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide on the marine diatom Moosavi, M., Daneshvar, A., 2014. Investigation of the rheological properties of two
Skeletonema costatum. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 132, 170177. imidazolium-based ionic liquids. J. Mol. Liq. 190, 5967.
Deng, X.Y., Li, D., Wang, L., Hu, X.L., Cheng, J., Gao, K., 2017. Potential toxicity of ionic Nancharaiah, Y.V., Reddy, G.K.K., Lalithamanasa, P., Venugopalan, V.P., 2012. The ionic
liquid ([C12mim]BF4) on the growth and biochemical characteristics of a marine liquid 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium demonstrates comparable antimicrobial and an-
diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Sci. Total Environ. 586, 675684. tibiolm behavior to a cationic surfactant. Biofouling 28, 11411149.
Devilla, R.A., Brown, M.T., Donkin, M., Tarran, G.A., Aiken, J., Readman, J.W., 2005. Pham, T.P.T., Cho, C.W., Yun, Y.S., 2010. Environmental fate and toxicity of ionic liquids:
Impact of antifouling booster biocides on single microalgal species and on a natural a review. Water Res. 44, 352372.
marine phytoplankton community. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 286, 112. Pham, T.P.T., Cho, C.W., Yun, Y.S., 2016. Structural eects of ionic liquids on microalgal
Docherty, K.M., Dixon, J.K., Kulpa Jr., C.F., 2007. Biodegradability of imidazolium and growth inhibition and microbial degradation. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23,
pyridinium ionic liquids by an activated sludge microbial community. 42944300.
Biodegradation 18, 481493. Roitsch, T., 1999. Source-sink regulation by sugar and stress. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2,
Du, Z., Zhu, L., Dong, M., Wang, J., Wang, J., Xie, H., Liu, T., Guo, Y., 2014. Oxidative 198206.
stress and genotoxicity of the ionic liquid 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide in Rojkov, R., Marlek, B., 1999. Selection and sensitivity comparisons of algal species
zebrash (Danio rerio). Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 67, 261269. for toxicity testing. Chemosphere 38, 33293338.
Ertrk, M.D., Saan, M.T., 2012. First toxicity data of chlorophenols on marine alga Samor, C., Sciutto, G., Pezzolesi, L., Galletti, P., Guerrini, F., Mazzeo, R., Pistocchi, R.,
Dunaliella tertiolecta: correlation of marine algal toxicity with hydrophobicity and Prati, S., Tagliavini, E., 2011. Eects of imidazolium ionic liquids on growth, pho-
interspecies toxicity relationships. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 31, 11131120. tosynthetic eciency, and cellular components of the diatoms Skeletonema marinoi
Fatemi, M.H., Izadiyan, P., 2011. Cytotoxicity estimation of ionic liquids based on their and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 24, 392401.
eective structural features. Chemosphere 84, 553563. Stolte, S., Arning, J., Bottin-Weber, U., Matzke, M., Stock, F., Thiele, K., Uerdingen, M.,
Grishina, E.P., Ramenskaya, L.M., Gruzdev, M.S., Kraeva, O.V., 2013. Water eect on Welz-Biermann, U., Jastor, B., Ranke, J., 2006. Anion eects on the cytotoxicity of
physicochemical properties of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium based ionic liquids with ionic liquids. Green Chem. 8, 621629.
inorganic anions. J. Mol. Liq. 177, 267272. Sun, X., Zhu, L., Wang, J., Wang, J., Su, B., Liu, T., Zhang, C., Gao, C., Shao, Y., 2017.
Guillard, R.R.L., Ryther, J.H., 1962. Studies of marine planktonic diatoms. I. Cyclotella Toxic eects of ionic liquid 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate on soil
nana Hustedt, and Detonula confervacea (cleve) Gran. Can. J. Microbiol. 8, 229239. enzyme activity and soil microbial community diversity. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf.
Gutkowski, K.I., Shariati, A., Peters, C.J., 2006. High-pressure phase behavior of the 135, 201208.
binary ionic liquid system 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrauoroborate + carbon Tsarpali, V., Dailianis, S., 2015. Toxicity of two imidazolium ionic liquids, [bmim][BF4]
dioxide. J. Supercrit. Fluids 39, 187191. and [omim][BF4]:to standard aquatic test organisms: role of acetone in the induced
Haynes, D., Johnson, J.E., 2000. Organochlorine, heavy metal and polyaromatic hydro- toxicity. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 117, 6271.
carbon pollutant concentrations in the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) environment: a Tsarpali, V., Harbi, K., Dailianis, S., 2016. Physiological response of the green microalgae
review. Mar. Poll. Bull. 41, 267278. Dunaliella tertiolecta against imidazolium ionic liquids [bmim][BF4] and/or [omim]
Huang, C., Zhao, S., Wang, L., Anjum, S.A., Chen, M., Zhou, H., Zou, C., 2013. Alteration [BF4]: the role of salinity on the observed eects. J. Appl. Phycol. 28, 979990.
in chlorophyll uorescence:lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes activities in Valavanidis, A., Vlahogianni, T., Dassenakis, M., Scoullos, M., 2006. Molecular bio-
hybrid ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.) under drought stress. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 7, 594599. markers of oxidative stress in aquatic organisms in relation to toxic environmental
Kirrolia, A., Bishnoi, N.R., Singh, N., 2011. Salinity as a factor aecting the physiological pollutants. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 64, 178189.
and biochemical traits of Scenedesmus quadricauda. J. Algal Biomass Utln. 2, 2834. Walker, J.C., Willows, D.R., 1997. Mechanism and regulation of Mg-chelatase. Biochem.
Kumar, S., Habib, K., Fatma, T., 2008. Endosulfan induced biochemical changes in ni- J. 327, 321333.
trogen-xing cyanobacteria. Sci. Total Environ. 403, 130138. Wang, L.P., Zheng, B.H., 2008. Toxic eects of uoranthene and copper on marine diatom
Kumar, M., Trivedi, N., Reddy, C.R., Jha, B., 2011. Toxic eects of imidazolium ionic Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Environ. Sci. 20, 13631372.
liquids on the green seaweed Ulva lactuca: oxidative stress and DNA damage. Chem. Warr, S.R.C., Reed, R.H., Chudek, J.A., Foster, R., Stewart, W.D.P., 1985. Osmotic ad-
Res. Toxicol. 24, 18821890. justment in Spirulina platensis. Planta 163, 424429.
Lataa, A., Ndzi, M., Stepnowski, P., 2009a. Toxicity of imidazolium and pyridinium Wu, X., Tong, Z.H., Li, L.L., Yu, H.Q., 2013. Toxic eects of imidazolium-based ionic
based ionic liquids towards algae. Chlorella vulgaris, Oocystis submarina (green algae) liquids on Caenorhabditis elegans: the role of reactive oxygen species. Chemosphere
and Cyclotella meneghiniana, Skeletonema marinoi (diatoms). Green Chem. 11, 93, 23992404.
580588. Zhang, Q., Zhang, S., Deng, Y., 2011. Recent advances in ionic liquid catalysis. Green
Lataa, A., Ndzia, M., Stepnowski, P., 2009b. Acute toxicity assessment of peruorinated Chem. 13, 26192637.
carboxylic acids towards the Baltic microalgae. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 28, Zhang, B., Li, X., Chen, D., Wang, J., 2013. Eects of 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium bro-
167171. mide on the antioxidant system of Lemna minor. Protoplasma 250, 103110.
Li, X.Y., Luo, Y.R., Yun, M.X., Wang, J., Wang, J.J., 2010. Eects of 1-methyl-3-octyli- Zhou, J., Yang, C., Wang, J., Sun, P., Fan, P., Tian, K., Liu, S., Xia, C., 2013. Toxic eects
midazolium bromide on the anti-oxidant system of earthworm. Chemosphere 78, of environment-friendly antifoulant nonivamide on Phaeodactylum tricornutum.
853858. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 32, 802809.

122