Writing Case Studies

1 Preparing a Case Study

1.1 Getting Started
The first two steps in preparing a case study are reversible in order, in fact they follow the pattern of
the classic which came first, the chicken or the egg question. Does one think of an interesting ethical
question or learning objective and then find or construct a scenario to illustrate it, or does one come across
an interesting ethical situation or scenario and then construct the question or learning objective.
For example, one might read about a drug that was withdrawn from experimental trials because it was
not viewed as having as much overall profit potential as an alternative drug although it is more effective
for a small percentage of the population. This might spark a series of ethical questions about who are the
stake holders in a problem: shareholders in a drug company, the majority of the people involved, the most
disadvantaged of the people involved, and so on. Or one might be interested in ethical issues related to
loyalty to family versus friends versus country and construct a scenario about surrendering information to a
terrorist group at the threat of loss of life to ones family.
The important thing is that there be clear ethical issues arising from a realistic situation with which
those analyzing the case can identify.

1.2 What is a Learning Outcome?

A learning outcome is a statement that specifies what learners will know or be able to do as a result of a
learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes.
Learning outcomes provide direction in the planning of a learning activity. They help to:

Focus on learners behavior that is to be changed

Serve as guidelines for content, instruction, and evaluation
Identify specifically what should be learned
Convey to learners exactly what is to be accomplished

Learning outcomes have three distinguishing characteristics.

1. The specified action by the learners must be observable.

2. The specified action by the learners must be measurable.
3. The specified action must be done by the learners.

Learning outcomes should involve action verbs. Some example action verbs are: compile, create, plan,
revise, analyze, design, select, utilize, apply, demonstrate, prepare, use, compute, discuss, explain, predic-
tassess, compare, rate, and critique. Some verbs to avoid are: know, become aware of, appreciate, learn,
understand, and become familiar with.
Here are some example learning objectives. After analyzing this case study, the student should be able
to do the following.

1. List the different agents who are affected by the scenario presented in this case study.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of the main concepts and theories of ethics (e.g., egoism, rights, duties, utili-
tarianism, Kantianism, virtue ethics and so forth) in analyzing the this case study.
3. Differentiate between what is good for Sallie Mae and what is good for her neighbor Freddie Mac.

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 4. List the action set for the different agents in this case study.

5. List which choices in part 4 are ethical decisions.

6. Write a moral premise for at least one and maybe more of the ethical decisions listed in part 5.
7. Prepare a statement of facts that would allow you to draw a moral conclusion for the ethical problem
faced by Sallie Maes father Lyndon B. Johnson.

8. Provide a moral premise, set of factual premises, and a reasonable ethical conclusion different from
that of the eighty-ninth congress in passing the Higher Education Act of 1965.

1.3 Ethical Issues and Learning Outcomes

Make a list of well defined ethical issues and learning objectives for the case study. Identify the key ethical
issues that will be presented in the case study. Decide on your pedagogical goals for those who will analyze
the case, whether in terms of being able to analyze a given ethical issue or gain new ethical insights. Learning
outcomes specify what participants are expected to know and what they are expected to be able to do, value,
or feel at the completion of the exercise. That is to say, you have to think about or list the learning issues you
would like participants to engage in while studying the case, and the learning outcomes that will be achieved
after completing work on the case. Eventually, the learning outcomes help you determine the content of
the case in terms of the concepts, rules and principles needed. An effective case should make participants
interested in and motivate them to acquire a deeper understanding of the concepts and principles that have
been taught or they are going to learn.

1.4 Determination of the Ethical Scenario

Find and/or construct a scenario that presents the ethical choice situations you have identified for the case
study. The best cases are based on events that are typical of everyday life, ones that everyone can recognize
and to which they can add their own experience or insights. Use as much factual information as possible.
Quotes, exhibits and pictures can be included to add realism and life to the case.
Here are some questions that are often useful in deciding about the usefulness of a given scenario.

1. Can the story be portrayed as a web of decisions leading to certain consequences?

2. Can the story be told by, or seen from the viewpoint of, a central player acting under pressure and
caught in a situation which requires the exercise of judgment in choosing a course of action? As the case
unwinds, the central actor will be the vehicle for problem analysis and the identification of alternative
courses of action.

3. Will the central figure be surrounded by other key actors or observers, able to add complementary or
different insights into the problem? These people may either be friendly or hostile towards the central
character.
4. Does the scenario have one central, broadly applicable theme plus several sub-plots and issues? Whilst
the central issue could involve a choice to be made, making that choice could involve several other
choices or dilemmas.
5. Is the end a critical decision point: where the central player must decide what to do? Or does the case
present the decision make by the key actor and then ask for analysis of that decision?

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1.5 Preparing the Case
Decide what information should be put into the case. You need to decide what information is needed early
enough in the planning process because the availability of information directly influences your choice and
quality of content. Moreover, the components of a case also determine what information is needed.
Start looking for materials to make the case real and actual. The materials may come from different
sources. They might come from the reflections on your own personal experience, from stories that you have
heard from friends or colleagues, or from articles and publications. The materials also can be obtained from
interviews with experts on the subject matter that you are dealing with or with the personnel in a particular
organization in which you are interested in and that is related to the case issues.
Make sure you have correct technical data and accurate factual information. The scenario needs to fit
real world situations and parameters.

1.6 Writing the Case

A case should contain a description of the setting (time and place), the characters (personality and respon-
sibility), and a sequence of events that are present in the problem or decision-making situation.
Cases are usually presented in a narrative or story format. A narrative is a story of an event. It includes
what happened, who was involved, when it happened, why it happened, and how it happened. Good narrative
brings the characters and actions to life. The usual way to organize a narrative is chronologically, in the
order in which events occur. You may organize in order of importance, or start with the setting and time,
or the actual event. Sometimes it can be more effective to start with the end of the action, or somewhere in
the middle, and then tell the story through a series of flashbacks. No matter how you organize the case, the
principle is to make the narrative structure clear by transition and focused on the points that you want to
make.
A plot should be implemented in the case. The plot should revolve around an interest or conflict-arousing
issue. The plot should provide uncertainty and draw readers into the particulars of the subject matter related
to the case and the roles of the actors involved in the case.
The case should show different perspectives. A case writer should reveal the information in a way
that the discussion of the case or the suggested solution for the case will draw the analysts into different
interpretations, different judgments, different decisions and, consequently, different actions to take. A case
involving armed robbery for the thrill of breaking the law does not leave a lot of room for ethical ruminations
and judgment.
There should be sufficient background information to allow participants tackle the issue. Include not
only the events that happened, but also how the people involved perceive them. There should be enough
description in the prose of the case itself for participants to be able to situate the case problem, understand
the various issues that bear on the problem, and identify themselves with the decision-makers position.
In many case studies, the narrative may end with one or two case problems, which require the learner to
analyze or solve a particular question.

1.7 Parts of a Case Study

1. Introduction

The introduction defines the problem to be examined and explains the parameters or limitations of the
situation. It could be as a simple as Consider the following news story or something more formal.

2. Overview/Narrative

The overview/narrative provides a scenario of the situation and offers more detail about the various
players in the scenario, including the situation, people involved, and the issues in question. It may also

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 mention important background information, professional, technical or theoretical issues that arise from
the situation.
3. Case problems

In many case studies, the narrative may end with one or two case problems, which require the learner to
analyze or solve a particular question. Here are some common questions or problems.

a. Provide a series of questions to be answered that will guide the group through the analysis process.
b. Give a specific choice situation and ask the learners what key individuals in the problem should do
next.
c. Give the learners a task such as preparing a report recommending an action for review by a key official,
or a recommended course of remedial actions for individuals involved.
d. Ask the learners to prepare a list of key decision points in the problem where those involved may have
made different choices leading to different outcomes.
e. Provide two or three alternative outcomes or solutions for the problem and ask learners to identify
strengths and weaknesses of each.

2 Some Characteristics of a Good Case Study

1. The incident has emotional power.
2. The incident entails difficult choices.
3. Is open-ended, allowing multiple interpretations and solutions.
4. Entails fundamental/underlying value conflicts.

5. Speaks to important aspects of your goals for your student learning.

6. Gets at issues that require or benefit collegial discussions,
7. Is related to the important curricular and pedagogical aims of the program.

8. The situation has stayed with you and wants to be told.

3 Some Ideas from Tom Tomlinson

Constructing Case Studies for Ethics Teaching

In constructing case studies, consider the following:

1. What is the ethical problem to be embodied in the case study?

a. A problem of deciding upon a general policy or principle?

b. A problem of interpreting or applying a general policy or principle?
c. A problem of conflict or conscience for an individual?

2. What are the learning objectives for the case study?

a. Practice in evaluating competing ethical positions?

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 b. Practice in applying accepted ethical principles to particular circumstances?
c. Practice in articulating alternative courses of action?
d. Practice in developing acceptable compromises?

3. What are the salient facts or features that create the problem?
4. Which features should be included to serve the learning purpose? Which features should be omitted
to serve the learning purpose?
5. How should the features be organized in a narrative?

a. Participants or observers point of view?

b. Chronological/historical or atemporal?
c. Plot-driven, including actors motivations and perceptions?

4 Example Case Study

Case Study on Use on Animals for Veterinary Teaching

When students are admitted to veterinary colleges, they are generally focused on the goal of helping
animals and alleviating animal suffering. Their orientation is bolstered by the veterinary oath, taken at
graduation from veterinary school, that states, in part, I solemnly swear to use my scientific knowledge
and skills for the benefit of society through the protection of animal health, the relief of animal suffering,
. . . . Furthermore, over 75% of freshman veterinary students have a stated goal of working with companion
animals (such as dogs, cats and horses), as opposed to working with animals raised for food. As they
progress through the curriculum, however, many students feel themselves conflicted between their desire to
help animals and some of the requirements of the veterinary curriculum.
Veterinary medicine is a 4-year program leading to a license to practice veterinary medicine on any
non-human animal species. During the first three (pre-clinical) years of the veterinary curriculum, some
courses require students to use animal cadavers or live animals to obtain and practice certain sets of skills.
Anatomy, which requires dissection of animal cadavers, is taught in freshman year. Over the course of their
first year in veterinary school, students work in small groups to dissect one dog, one horse, and one cow per
group. Cows for this purpose are purchased at auctions or from slaughterhouses and horses are typically
purchased as low-cost animals at in-state sales barns. Anatomy staff at the veterinary college euthanize
these animals and prepare them for anatomical dissection by injecting latex into veins and arteries to permit
their visualization. Dogs are usually random-source (not purpose-bred) dogs that are obtained as prepared
cadavers from suppliers in the southern USA.
In second year, students begin learning basic surgical skills. Cooperative relationships with local humane
societies or animal shelters allow students to practice inducing general anesthesia and performing routine
neutering procedures (spays and castrations) on dogs and cats from these sources. Such arrangements are
mutually beneficial as neutered animals have a much higher chance of being adopted when they are returned
to the humane society.
Surgical procedures of no benefit to the animal are not permitted by humane societies partly because of
public relations concerns and the dependence of humane societies on charitable donations. In addition, the
complication rate (bleeding, infection and breakdown of the incision site(s) or dehiscence) is much higher
when inexperienced surgeons perform procedures than when experienced surgeons operate. Accordingly,
common surgical procedures at which the public reasonably expects all veterinary graduates to be compe-
tent, such as intestinal surgery to remove a foreign object, are learned in the junior year using dogs that
are purchased for this purpose. Commonly, dogs are retired breeding animals from research facilities. These
dogs would be humanely euthanized if they were not sold for this purpose as they have reached the end
of their useful reproductive lives. At the veterinary college, the students evaluate he health of these dogs

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over 2-3 days and care for them during this time. Subsequently, the dogs are anesthetized, one or more
surgical procedures are performed under general anesthesia, and the dogs are euthanized by intravenously
administering an overdose of barbiturate while they are still under general anesthesia.

Questions for Analysis

1. Make a list of ethical issues that arise in this case study.
2. Consider the anatomical dissection of animal cadavers by veterinary students in their first year.

a. Identify all stakeholders in this issue.

b. What are the benefits of students using animal cadavers for anatomical dissection?
c. What are the costs of students using animal cadavers for anatomical dissection?
d. Is it morally permissible to dissect cadavers for student learning when the animals were expressly
purchased and killed for this purpose? Why or why not?

3. Consider second year students performing neutering procedures on dogs and cats to be adopted out by
humane societies.

a. Are there any changes to the stakeholders listed in 2a?

b. Are there any changes to the benefits listed in 2b
c. Are there any changes to the costs listed in 2c
d. Is it morally permissible for inexperienced student surgeons to neuter humane society animals for
learning purposes? Why or why not?

4. Consider students performing intestinal surgery on dogs purchased for this purpose and humanely euth-
anized at the end of the procedure.

a. What interests are at stake in this situation?

b. Who are the stakeholders?
c. What are the benefits?
d. What are the costs?
e. Is it morally permissible for student surgeons to perform terminal surgical procedures?

5. Would your answer to 4e change if the animals used for the terminal surgeries were pigs instead of dogs?
Why or why not?
6. Consider the situation in 4 above. Suppose that instead of euthanizing the dogs at the end of the
procedure, the dogs are recovered from anesthesia and provided the same level of care as would be the
case if they were pet dogs with caring, committed owners. Would your answers to questions 4a-4e change
in this situation?

5 Some Helpful Links

http://www.bioethics.iastate.edu/classroom/case_studies.html
http://www.web-miner.com/ethicscases.htm
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/CenterforEthics/cases.html
http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/rlee/ethpsu06/casestud.html
http://ethics.sandiego.edu/resources/cases/HomeOverview.asp
http://www.businessethics.ca/cases/

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http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/cases.cfm
http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/teaching/teaching.html
http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/teaching/good-case.html
http://dls.intan.my/accsm/case_writing_process.htm
http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/Tools/Cases/
http://www.ecch.com/
http://cases.ivey.uwo.ca/cases/Pages/home.aspx

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 COGNITIVE (Knowledge and understanding) 1. Demonstrate knowledge of the views of some historically
important moral philosophers (e.g., Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Nietzsche, Singer).
3. Apply these concepts and theories to case studies and contemporary moral issues. 4. Articulate an
understanding of connections between reason and feeling and between cultural and intellectual traditions.
5. Express conclusions with awareness of the degree to which these conclusions are supported by evidence.
AFFECTIVE (Skills) 6. Demonstrate imaginative, creative, and reflective abilities by articulating philo-
sophical insights. 7. Present effectively in writing an extended argument on a topic of ethical importance.
8. Articulate counter-arguments to ones own position. 9. Ask questions to clarify problems further.
SOCIAL (Values) 10. Demonstrate openness and intellectual humility by approaching situations involving
a conflict of views in a spirit of inquiry. 11. Identify and reflect on values through analysis of case studies
in such areas as justice, abortion, and the impact of humans on the environment. 12. Reflect on ones
intellectual and intuitive responses to issues concerning ethical values. 13. Demonstrate increasing awareness
of the complexity of issues and of the necessity of examining issues from many different perspectives.