First-Order Predicate Logic (2)

Predicate Logic (2)

Understanding first-order predicate logic formulas.

Satisfiability and undecidability of satisfiability.

Tautology, logical consequence, and logical equivalence.

Completeness of first-order predicate logic

Incompleteness of arithmetic and second-order logic.

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 Translations into Predicate Logic

Every house is a physical object is translated as

x.(house(x) physical object(x)),

where house and physical object are unary predicate symbols.

Some physical objects are houses is translated as

x.(physical object(x) house(x))

Every house has an owner or, equivalently, every house is owned by

somebody is translated as

x(house(x) y.owns(y, x)),

here owns is a binary predicate symbol.

Everybody owns a house is translated as

x.y.(owns(x, y) house(y))
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 Translations into Predicate Logic

Sue owns a house is translated as

x.(owns(Sue, x) house(x))

where Sue is an individual constant symbol.

Peter does not own a house is translated as

x.(owns(Peter, x) house(x))

Somebody does not own a house is translated as

x.y.(owns(x, y) house(y))

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 The truth relation

Let S be the signature consisting of the unary predicates house and human, the
binary predicate owns, and the individual constant Sue. Give an S-interpretation
F with F |= G for the following sentences G:

there are houses: x.house(x)

there are human beings: x.human(x)

no house is a human being: x.(house(x) human(x))

some humans own a house: x.y.(human(x) house(y) owns(x, y))

Sue is human: human(Sue)

Sue does not own a house: x.(owns(Sue, x) house(x))

every house has an owner: x.(house(x) y.owns(y, x))

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 The S-interpretation F

We can take, for example, F defined by

D F = {a, b, c, d, e};

humanF = {a, b, c};

houseF = {d, e}

ownsF = {(b, d), (c, e)};

SueF = a.

Note that in this interpretation all owners are humans. We can also take humanF =
{a, b} and the sentences from the previous slide are still true in F .
(Note that this is not the case for humanF = {a}.)

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 Satisfiability

Definition A first-order predicate logic sentence G over S is satisfiable if there

exists an S-structure F such that

F |= G

Examples

(a) x.(P (x) P (x)) is not satisfiable.

(b) x.y.Q(x, y)u.v.Q(v, u) is satisfiable. (The sentence states that the

domain of Q is the whole domain of discourse and that the range of Q is
not the whole domain of discourse.)

(c) x.P (x) x.P (x) is not satisfiable.

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 Proof for (b)

To show that x.y.Q(x, y) u.v.Q(v, u) is satisfiable we have to define a

{Q}-structure F such that

F |= x.y.Q(x, y) u.v.Q(v, u)

Let

D F = {a, b};

QF = {(a, b), (b, b)}.

We have: for all d D F there exists d0 D F with (d, d0 ) QF . Thus, F |=

xy.Q(x, y).
For d = a there does not exists d0 D F such that (d0 , d) QF . Thus, F |=
u.v.Q(v, u).

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 Proof for (c)

To prove that x.P (x) x.P (x) is not satisfiable, we have to show that for all
{P }-structures F :
F 6|= x.P (x) x.P (x)
For a proof by contradiction assume there exists a {P }-structure F such that

F |= x.P (x) x.P (x)

Since F |= x.P (x), there exists d D F such that d 6 P F . Take an assign-

ment a with a(x) = d. Then (F , a) 6|= P (x). Hence F 6|= x.P (x) and we have
derived a contradiction to F |= x.P (x) x.P (x).

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 Undecidability of satisfiability (very informal!)

We show that there does not exist any algorithm (no computer program) that
decides whether a first-order predicate logic sentence is satisfiable; i.e., for in-
put sentence G outputs Yes if G is satisfiable and No if G is not satisfiable.

To this end, we show that there is no computer program that decides whether
a given computer program P halts for a given input number n. (Called unde-
cidability of the halting problem.)

To formulate this a bit more precisely, let L be some standard programming

language. If a problem is decidable, then one can implement a program in L
solving it. With every program P in L we associate a unique number P ] .

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 Undecidability

Now we show: there is no program in L which outputs yes for input (P, n) (P a
program in L and n a number) if program P terminates for input n, and outputs
no otherwise.

For a proof by contradiction, assume there exists a program in L which outputs

yes for input (P, n) if P terminates for input n and outputs no otherwise.

Then there exists a program Qterm that outputs yes for input P ] if P terminates
for input P ] . Otherwise it outputs no.

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 Undecidability

We can rewrite Qterm into a program Aterm that terminates for input P ] if Qterm
outputs no for input P ] . Otherwise it does not terminate. Then

Aterm terminates for input A]term if, and only if (by def. of Aterm )

Qterm outputs no for input A]term if, and only if (by def. of Qterm )

Aterm does not terminate for input A]term .

We have derived a contradiction.

Now, for any (P, n), (P in a standard programming language L), one can write
up a first-order predicate logic sentence FP,n such that FP,n is satisfiable if, and
only if, P does not terminate for input n. FP,n describes the computation steps
of P .

Since the halting problem is undecidable, we obtain that satisfiablility of first-

order predicate logic sentences is undecidable.
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 Tautology

Definition A first-order predicate logic sentence G over S is a tautology if F |= G

holds for every S-structure F .

Examples of tautologies

(a) x.P (x) x.P (x);

(b) x.P (x) P (c);

(c) P (c) x.P (x);

(d) x(P (x) P (x));

(e) x((P1 (x) P2 (x)) (P1 (x) P2 (x))).

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 Proof for (a)

To show that x.P (x) x.P (x) is a tautology it is sufficient to prove that for
every {P }-structure F : if F |= x.P (x), then F |= x.P (x).

Assume F |= x.P (x). Then P F coincides with the domain of discourse D F ;

i.e., P F = D F . Note that D F is, by definition, always nonempty. Thus, there
exists d P F . Define a variable assignment a by setting a(x) = d. Then
(F , a) |= P (x). Hence F |= x.P (x).

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 The relationship between satisfiability and tautologies

Observation

A first-order predicate logic sentence G is a tautology if, and only if, G is

not satisfiable.

A first-order predicate logic sentence G is satisfiable if, and only if, G is

not a tautology.

Consequence There is no algorithm that decides whether a first-order predi-

cate logic sentence is a tautology.

Proof. Such an alogithm could be used to decide satisfiable of first-order pred-

icate logic sentences. As satisfiability of first-order predicate logic sentences is
undecidable, being a tautology is undecidable as well.

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 Semantic consequence

Definition Let X be a set of sentences over a signature S and G be a sentence

over S. Then G follows from X (is a semantic consequence of X) if the following
implication holds for every S-structure F :

If F |= E for all E X, then F |= G.

This is denoted by
X |= G

Observations

For any first-order sentence G: |= G if, and only if, G is a tautology. Since
being a tautology is undecidable it follows that being a logical con-
sequence is undecidable: there is not algorithm that decides whether
X |= G.

{G} |= F if, and only if, G F is a tautology.

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 Examples

Let c be an individual constant and P, Q unary predicate symbols.

We have:
{P (c)} |= xP (x).

We have:
{P (c), x(P (x) Q(x))} |= xQ(x).

We have:
{P (c), x(P (x) Q(x))} 6|= Q(c).

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 Example

We can model the logical consequence if my car is blue and all blue cars are
fast, then my car is fast as follows: take

individual constant MyCar and

unary predicates blue, fast, car.

Then

{blue(MyCar), car(MyCar), x.((blue(x) car(x)) fast(x))} |= fast(MyCar)

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 F |= G versus X |= G

Note that F |= G or F |= G, for every sentence G. Thus, we have

complete information about the domain of discourse. There are many
examples where X 6|= G and X 6|= G. We have incomplete information.

F |= G means that G is true in the structure F . Checking whether this is

the case for finite F coincides with querying relational database instances
and can be done very efficiently. It is also the underlying problem of model
checking approaches to program verification: F is a representation of a
program and one wants to know whether a property expressed by G is
true.

X |= G means that G is true in every structure in which X is true. This

is a much harder problem; in fact, it is undecidable. The research area
automated reasoning develops methods which work in some cases. In-
complete databases, ontologies, and theorem proving are application
areas which are based on the problem of deciding X |= G.

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 Logical equivalence

Definition Two first-order predicate logic sentences G1 and G2 over a signature

S are called logically equivalent if they are true in the same S-structures. In
other words, G1 and G2 are logically equivalent if the following holds for all
S-structures F :

F |= G1 if and only if F |= G2 .

This is denoted by
G1 G2 .

Observations

G1 G2 if, and only if, {G1 } |= G2 and {G2 } |= G1 ;

G1 G2 if, and only if, G1 G2 is a tautology.

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 Examples

Let G and H be first-order predicate logic formulas.

x.G x.G;

x.G x.G;

x.G x.G;

x.G x.G;

x.G x.H x.(G H);

x.G x.H 6 x.(G H);

x.G x.H x(G H);

x.G x.H 6 x.(G H).

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 Completeness of First-order Predicate Logic

Theorem There exists a computer program that outputs exactly the tautologies
of first-order predicate logic.

There are many distinct types of deduction systems that can be used to imple-
ment such a program:

Hilbert-style systems

Natural deduction

Sequent calculus

Tableaux method

Resolution

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 Hilbert Style System

We assume that formulas are constructed using , , and . We regard , ,

and as abbreviations:

(G D) = (G D);

(G D) = (G D);

x.G = x.G.

We set
(G D F ) = (G (D F ))
Intuitively, (G D F ) means If G and D are true, then F is true.

We slightly generalise the notion of a tautology: a formula G is called a tautol-

ogy if, and only if, the sentence x1 . . . . xn .G is a tautology, where x1 , . . . , xn
are the free varables of G.

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 The Axioms (Part 1)

The following formulas are tautologies, for any first-order predicate logic formu-
las D, G, and F :

(A1) ((G D F ) (G D) (G F ))

(A2) (G (D G D))

(A3) ((G D) G)

(A4) ((G D) D)

(A5) ((G D) (D G))

Note that (A1)-(A5) axiomatize the propositional part of first-order predicate

logic.

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 The Axioms (Part 2)

If t is a term, then we write G xt for the formula obtained from G by replacing

every free occurrence of x in G by t. For example

P (x) xc = P (c)

x.P (x) xc = x.P (x)

The following formulas are tautologies for all first-order predicate logic formulas
G and D:

(A6) x.G G xt (t not bound in G)

(A7) G x.G (x not free in G)

(A8) (x.(G D) (x.G x.D))

(A9) (y.G xy x.G) (y not in G)

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 Two Rules

We take, in addition to the axioms (A1)-(A9), the following two rules:

(MP) G, G D/D;

(GE) G/x.G.

The first rules is called Modus Ponens. The second rule is called Generalisation.
Note

if G and G D are tautologies, then D is a tautology

if G is a tautology, then x.G is a tautology.

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 Completeness

We say that G is provable from (A1)-(A9) with (MP) and (GE) if, and only if, there
is a sequence G1 , . . . , Gn such that for all Gi one of the following conditions
holds:

Gi is of the form (A1) or (A2) or or (A9);

there exists j < i such that Gj = F and Gi = x.F (for some F, x);

there exist j, k < i such that Gj = F and Gk = F Gi (for some F ).

Theorem A formula G is a tautology if, and only if, it is provable from (A1)-(A9)
with (MP) and (GE).

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 Arithmetic is incomplete

Recall that
SAR = {smaller, sum, prod, even, 0, 1, . . .}
The standard structure for SAR is given by

A = (D A , smallerA , sumA , prodA , evenA , 0A , 1A , . . .)

where

D A is the set of natural numbers 0, 1, 2 . . .;

smallerA = {(n, m) | n < m};

sumA = {(n, m, k) | n + m = k};

prodA = {(n, m, k) | n m = k};

evenA = {n | n is even };

0A = 0, 1A = 1, and so on.

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 Incompleteness of Arithmetic

Theorem There does not exist an algorithm (computer program) that outputs
exactly the first-order sentences G over SAR such that A |= G.

It follows, in particular, that there is no finitary calculus that captures the sen-
tences that are true in A. Undecidability of arithmetic follows from incomplete-
ness:

Theorem There does not exist an algorithm (computer program) that decides
whether for a first-order sentence G over SAR it holds that A |= G.

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 Second-order Predicate Logic

Second-order predicate logic is an extension of first-order predicate logic which

has, for every arity n > 0, variables X for relations of arity n. If X is a variable
of arity n and t1 , . . . , tn are terms, then

X(t1 , . . . , tn ) is a second-order formula.

Then, if X is a variable and G is a second-order predicate logic formula,

X.G is a formula of second-order predicate logic.

Second-order logic is much more expressive than first-order logic. For example,
one can formalise induction (we use, for simplicity, + instead of sum):

X.((X(0) (x.X(x) X(x + 1))) y.X(y))

Theorem There does not exist an algorithm (computer program) that outputs
exactly the tautologies of second-order logic.

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