TE0221

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYSTEM LAB

Laboratory Manual

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SRM UNIVERSITY
S.R.M. NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR 603 203.

FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
 DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TE0221
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYSTEM LAB
(2011-2012)

Revision No: 3 PREPARED BY,

Date:
Mrs. N. Showme
Mr. Vemula Ramkishore

HOD/TCE
 SRM UNIVERSITY

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

TEO221 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYSTEM LAB

List of Analog Experiments

S. No Name of the experiment

1 Inverting and Non inverting Amplifier

2 Summing and Differential Amplifier

3 Linear Op amp circuits such as Instrumentation amplifier,

Integrator and Differentiator
4 Precision Rectifier

5 Comparator

6 RC Phase Shift Oscillator and Wein Bridge Oscillator

7 Applications of Timer IC 555

8 Study of Timer IC 555

9 Study of Function Generator IC566

 SRM UNIVERSITY

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

TEO221 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYSTEM LAB

List of Digital Experiments

S.No Name of the experiment

1 Study of Logic Gates

2 Study of Flip Flops using Gates

3 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers

4 Encoders and Decoders

5 Implementation of Combinational and Arithmetic Functions using

Mux,Demux and Decoders
6 Design of Synchronous Circuit

7 Ripple Counters

8 Shift Registers

 INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIERS

Pre-Lab questions:

1. What is an Op-amp?
2. Design an inverting amplifier with a gain of -10 and input resistance equal to 10K.

3. Design a Non-inverting amplifier with a gain of +5 using one Op-amp

4. What are the different linear IC packages?

5. List the characteristics of an ideal Op-amp.

EXPT NO:1

DATE: INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIERS

AIM:
To study the following linear applications of op-amp

1. Inverting amplifier
2. Non inverting amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Op Amp IC 741
2. Dual Power Supply 15V,
3. Resistors
4. Capacitors
5. Function Generator
6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard and Connecting Wires

THEORY:
Inverting Amplifier:

This is the most widely used of all the Op-amp circuits. The output V0 is fed back to the
inverting input through the Rf Rin network as shown in figure where Rf is the feedback
resistor. The input signal Vi is applied to the inverting input terminal through Rin and non-
inverting input terminal of Op-amp is grounded.The output V0 is given by

V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)

Where, the gain of amplifier is - Rf / Rin

The negative sign indicates a phase-shift of 180 degrees between Vi and V0. The effective
input impedance is Ri. An inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to invert and amplify a
voltage. The Rin,Rf resistor network allows some of the output signal to be returned to the input.
Since the output is 180 out of phase, this amount is effectively subtracted from the input,
thereby reducing the input into the operational amplifier. This reduces the overall gain of the
amplifier and is dubbed negative feedback
CIRCU
UIT DIAG
GRAM:

LATION:
TABUL Vi =----------------

Rin =----------------

S.No Rf Observed V0 Calculatted V0

V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)

MODE
EL GRAPH
H:
Non in
nverting amp
plifier

The circuit diagram

T d of non
n invertiing ampliferr is shown inn figure. Here,
H the signnal is
applied to
t the non inverting input terminal and feedbback is giveen to inverting terminal. The
circuit am
mplifiers thee input signall without invverting it. Thhe output Vout
o is given by
b

The voltaage gain is given

g by

V0ut R2
ACL = = 1 +
Vin R1

Compareed to the inveerting amplifier, the inpuut resistancee of the non-iinverting is extremely laarge.

CIRCU
UIT DIAG
GRAM:

TABULA
ATION: Vi =----------------

Rin =----------------

S.No Rf Obseerved V0 Calculated V0

V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)
MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
Inverting & Non inverting amplifier

1. Make connections as given in fig 1 & fig 2 for inverting and non inverting amplifiers
respectively.
2. Give sinewave input of Vi volts using AFO with the frequency of 1 KHZ.
3. The output voltage V0 observed on a CRO. A dual channel CRO to be used to see Vi &
Vo.
4. Vary Rf and measure the corresponding V0 and observe the phase of V0 with respect to
V0.
5. Tabulate the readings and verify with theoretical values.

RESULT:
Thus the linear applications of 741 op amp were studied experimentally.
Post Lab Questions:

1. What is the input impedance of a non inverting op-amp amplifier?

2. If the open loop gain of an op-amp is very large, does the closed loop gain depend upon the
external components or the op-amp?

3. Define common mode rejection ratio

4. Explain the meaning of open loop and closed loop operation of an op- amp?

5. What is a practical op-amp? Draw its equivalent circuit.

 SUMMING AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Pre-Lab questions:

1. What is a Differential amplifier

2. Define a Summing amplifier
3. Define difference mode gain and common mode gain
4. Give the applications of summing and differential amplifier

EXPT NO:2

DATE: SUMMING AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

AIM:
To study the operation of IC741 as

a) Summing Amplifier
b) Differential Amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Op-Amp IC 741
2. Dual power Supply 15V
3. Resistor
4. Capacitors
5. Function Generator
6. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard and Connecting wires.

THEORY:
Summing Amplifier:

This is one of the liner applications of the Op-Amp. A circuit whose output is the sum of
several input signals is called a summer. Shown in fig.1 is an inverting summer. The output is

Rf Rf
V0 = - V1 + V2
R1 R2

When Rf = R1 =R2, then

V0 = - (V1+V2)

That is, the output is an inverted sum of the inputs.

CIRCU
UIT DIAG
GRAM:
Rf

R1

2 -
741
R2
3 6

Rcomp

R1, R2, Rf
R = 10k Rcomp = 5K
5

TABUL
LATION:
S.no V1 V2 Observed outtput
O Theooretical outpuut
vo V1+ V2)
(

Differen
ntial amplifieer:

A basic diffeerential ampllifier can bee used as a subtractor.

s Iff all the resiistor are equual in
value as given in figu
ure, then the output voltaage can be derived
d by ussing superpoosition princiiple

V0ut = (V
( 2-V1)

CIRCU
UIT DIAG
GRAM:

VALUES
S: Rf =10
0K, R1 =100K , R2 =110K,
TABULATION:
S.no V1 V2 Observed output Theoretical output
V0ut V0ut = (V2-V1)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figures to construct summer and subtractor circuit
respectively.
2. Vary the voltages in RPS and observe the output voltages.
3. Check the result with the theoretical values.

RESULT:
Thus the liner applications of 741 op amp were studied experimentally.
Post Lab Questions:

1. What is a current mirror?

2. What is cross over distortion and how it is eliminated?
3. For op-amp, CMRR=105 and differential gain Adm=105. Calculate the common mode
gain Acm of the Op-amp
4. Why the gain of the differential amplifier is choosen to be a large one?
 LINEAR OP AMP CIRCUITS SUCH AS INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIER, INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR
Pre-Lab questions:

1. What are the features of an instrumentation amplifier

2. What is an instrumentation amplifier? Draw a system whose gain is controlled by an
adjustable resistance.
3. What is an integrator and a differentiator?
4. What are the limitations of an ordinary op-amp differentiator? Draw the circuit of a
practical differentiator that will eliminate these limitations
5. Draw the circuit of a Lossy integrator showing initial conditions
EXPT NO:3

DATE: LINEAR OP AMP CIRCUITS SUCH AS

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER, INTEGRATOR
AND DIFFERENTIATOR
AIM:
To verify the linear op amp circuit such as instrumentation amplifier, Integrator and
differentiator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.Resistor

2.Capacitor

3.AFO

4.OpAmp

5.Dual Supply

6.CRO

7.Bread Board

THEORY:
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that
has been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching
and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment.
Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop
gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation
amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term are
required.

The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The
gain of the circuit is
 The rightmosst amplifier, along with the resistors labelled R2 and R3 is just the stanndard
T
differentiial amplifierr circuit, withh gain = R3 / R2 and diffferential inpuut resistancee = 2R2. Thee two
ft are the bufffers. With Rgain removeed (open circcuited), theyy are simple unity
amplifierrs on the left
gain bufffers; the circcuit will worrk in that staate, with gaiin simply eqqual to R3 / R2 and high input
impedancce because of the bufffers. The buuffer gain could c be increased by putting resiistors
between the buffer inverting
i inpputs and groound to shunnt away som me of the neegative feedbback;
however,, the single resistor Rgain g between the two innverting inpuuts is a muuch more eleegant
method: it increases the differenntial-mode gain g of the buffer pair while leaving the com mmon-
mode gaain equal to 1. This incrreases the coommon-modde rejection ratio (CMR RR) of the circuit
and also enables the buffers to handle
h muchh larger commmon-mode signals
s without clippingg than
would bee the case if they
t were seeparate and had
h the samee gain.

A
Another beneefit of the method is thatt it boosts thhe gain usingg a single reesistor ratherr than
a pair, thhus avoiding a resistor-mmatching probblem (althouugh the two R1s need to be b matched)), and
very connveniently alllowing the gain of thee circuit to be b changed by changinng the value of a
single ressistor. A sett of switch-selectable ressistors or evven a potentiiometer can be used for Rgain,
providingg easy chan nges to the gain
g of the circuit,
c withhout the commplexity of having to sw witch
matched pairs of resiistors.

T ideal co
The ommon-modde gain of an a instrumenntation ampplifier is zerro. In the circuit
shown, common-mo
c ode gain is caused by mismatches
m in the valuues of the equally-numb
e bered
resistors and by the mis-match
m inn common mode
m gains of
o the two innput op-ampss. Obtainingg very
closely matched
m resistors is a siggnificant diffficulty in faabricating thhese circuits,, as is optim
mizing
the comm mon mode performance
p of the inputt op-amps. AnA instrumenntation amp can also be built
with 2 opp-amps to saave on cost and
a increase CMRR, but the gain muust be higherr than 2 (+6 dB). d

CIRCU
UIT DIAG
GRAM:

INTEG
GRATOR:

The Integrattor Amplifi

T fier is an operational amplifier circuit thaat performss the
mathemaatical operatiion of Integrration, that is
i we can caause the outtput to respoond to changges in
the inputt voltage oveer time. The integrator amplifier
a actts like a storage elementt that "produuces a
voltage output
o which
h is proportional to the integral
i of itts input volttage with resspect to timee". In
other woords the mag gnitude of thhe output siggnal is determmined by thhe length of time a voltaage is
present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor
as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

When a voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the
uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit (voltage
follower circuit) giving an overall gain of less than one. No current flows into the amplifiers
input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the feedback capacitor C begins to
charge up, its reactance Xc decreases this results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing an
output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.

At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking anymore flow of DC current.
The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor (Xc/Rin) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain.
The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the
amplifier goes into saturation .Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings
heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in between. The ideal
voltage output for the Integrator Amplifier as:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WAVEFORMS:
DIFFERENTIATOR:
A Differentiator is a circuit that is designed such that the output of the circuit is
proportional to the derivative of the input. It creates an output voltage proportional to the rate of
change of the input voltage. This leads to cool applications such as extracting edges for, square
waves, converting sine waves into cosines and c hanging triangle waves into square waves. But
most circuits are susceptible to some trouble and this ones vulnerabilities are instability and
noise. However, remedies are available to reduce the troubles without losing the desired
function.

The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks any
DC content so there is no current flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output
voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage changes to pass through and whose
frequency is dependant on the rate of change of the input signal. At low frequencies the
reactance of the capacitor is "High" resulting in a low gain (Rf/Xc) and low output voltage from
the op-amp. At higher frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is much lower resulting in a
higher gain and higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.

However, at high frequencies a differentiator circuit becomes unstable and will start to
oscillate. This is due mainly to the first-order effect, which determines the frequency response of
the op-amp circuit causing a second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an output
voltage far higher than what would be expected. To avoid this the high frequency gain of the
circuit needs to be reduced by adding an additional small value capacitor across the feedback
resistor Rf. Ideal voltage output for the Differentiator Amplifier is given as:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WAVEFORMS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figures.

2. Set the input voltage using AFO.

3. Observe the output waveform in CRO and measure the output parameters.

RESULT:
Thus the linear Op Amp circuit such as Instrumentation amplifier,Integrator and
Differentiator was designed and verified.
Post Lab Questions:

1. Explain why integrators are preferred over differentiators in analog computer

2. What are the applications of integrator and differentiator
3. Give the Practical applications of instrumentation amplifier
4. What are the monolithic instrumentation amplifier commercially available
5. What is the function of an instrumentation amplifier?

 PRECISION RECTIFIER
Pre-Lab questions:

1. What is a precision diode

2. Give the uses of precision diode
3. Give some applications of precision diode
4. What are the major limitations of an ordinary diode
5. Define a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier
EXPT NO:4

DATE: PRECISION RECTIFIER

AIM:
To construct precision half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier using Op Amp.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.Resistor

2.IC 741

3.AFO

4.Diode IN 4001

5.Connecting wires

6.CRO

7.Bread board

THEORY:
The major limitation of ordinary diodes is that it cannot rectify voltage below 0.6v,the
cutin voltage of the diode.The precision rectifier, which is also known as a super diode, is a
configuration obtained with an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behaving like an
ideal diode and rectifier.It can be useful for high-precision signal processing.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

A half-wave rectifier is an electronic circuit. The rectifier circuit takes alternating current
(AC) from the wall outlet and converts it into a positive direct current (DC) output. The
particular electronic device that accomplishes this task is a semiconductor called a diode. The
diode like all semiconductors is a material which has a resistance in between that of a conductor
or wire and an insulator like that of a plastic.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

2 +12V D1IN4001

3 6

4
AFO
12V RL

10K

TABULATION:

INPUT OUTPUT FREQUENCY

Amplitude Time Amplitude Time

ON OFF

MODEL GRAPH:
Input waveform: Output waveform:

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc

voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts
during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied ac
voltage.

During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased and
D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains OFF. The load current flows
through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. During the negative
half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2 becomes forward
biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the
voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

INPUT OUTPUT FREQUENCY

Amplitude Time Amplitude Time

ON OFF

MODEL GRAPH:
Input waveform: Output waveform:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figures for Half wave and Full wave rectifier.

2. Set the input signal voltage using AFO.

3. Observe the output waveform in CRO and measure the output parameters.

RESULT:
Thus the half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier are constructed and the output
waveforms are drawn.
Post Lab Questions:

1. Draw the circuit of a full wave rectifier and explain how it gives the average value
2. What is a Clipper and Clamper circuit
3. Draw the circuit of a clipper which will clip the input signal below a reference voltage
4. Draw the equivalent circuit of a full wave rectifier for input voltage less than zero
volts(Vi<0)
 COMPARATOR
Pre-Lab questions:

1. What is a comparator circuit?

2. List the different types of comparator

3. Give the applications of comparator

4. Give the applications of Non linear op amp circuits

EXPT NO:5

DATE: COMPARATOR
AIM:
To verify the Non linear op amp circuit comparator and its applications

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.Resistor

2.Capacitor

3.AFO

4.OP Amp

5.Dual supply

6.CRO

7.Bread board

THEORY:

A comparator is a device that compares two voltages or currents and switches its output
to indicate which is larger. They are commonly used in devices such as Analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs). A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster than a general-
purpose operational amplifier pressed into service as a comparator. A dedicated voltage
comparator may also contain additional features such as an accurate, internal voltage reference,
an adjustable hysteresis and a clock gated input. A comparator normally changes its output state
when the voltage between its inputs crosses through approximately zero volts. Small voltage
fluctuations due to noise, always present on the inputs, can cause undesirable rapid changes
between the two output states when the input voltage difference is near zero volts. To prevent
this output oscillation, a small hysteresis of a few millivolts is integrated into many modern
comparators

APPLICATION:

ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR:

For this type of detector, a comparator detects each time an ac pulse changes polarity.
The output of the comparator changes state each time the pulse changes its polarity, that is, the
output is HI (high) for a positive pulse and LO (low) for a negative pulse. The comparator also
amplifies and squares the input signal
 Zero-crossing detector is an applied form of comparator. Either of the op-amp
basic comparator circuits discussed can be employed as the zero-crossing detector provided the
reference voltage Vref is made zero. Zero-crossing detector using inverting op-amp comparator is
depicted in figure.

The output voltage waveform shown in figure indicates when and in what direction an
input signal vin crosses zero volt. In some applications the input signal may be low frequency one
(i.e. input may be a slowly changing waveform). In such a case output voltage vOUT may not
switch quickly from one saturation state to the other. Because of the noise at the input terminals
of the op-amp, there may be fluctuation in output voltage between two saturation states (+ Vsat
and Vsat voltages). Thus zero crossings may be detected for noise voltages as well as input
signal vin. Both of these problems can be overcome, if we use regenerative or positive feeding
causing the output voltage vout to change faster and eliminating the false output transitions that
may be caused due to noise at the input of the op-amp.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
2. Set the input voltage using AFO to 100mv
3. Observe the output waveform in CRO and measure the output parameter

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of Non linear OP Amp circuit comparator and Zero crossing
detector is verified.
Post Lab Questions:

1. What is a Zero-crossing detector?

2. What is a window detector?

3. Draw the characteristics of an ideal comparator and that of a commercially available

comparator

4. Define the term hysteresis

 RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR AND WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
Pre-Lab questions:

1. Define Barkhausen criterion for oscillations

2. State the two conditions of oscillations.
3. Classify the Oscillators
4. What is the frequency range of RC phase shift Oscillator
5. Define a wien bridge Oscillator
EXPT NO:6

DATE: RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR AND WEIN

BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To design ,construct and test the RC Phase Shift Oscillator and Wein Bridge Oscillator

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.Op AmpIC741

2.Dual power supply

3.Resistors

4.Capacitors

5.Diode IN 4001

6.CRO

7.Bread board

8.Connecting wires

THEORY:
An oscillator is a circuit, which generates ac output signal without giving any input ac
signal. This circuit is usually applied for audio frequencies only. The basic requirement for an
oscillator is positive feedback.

An oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network.

1) 'Active device' i.e. Op Amp is used as an amplifier.
2) Passive components such as R-C or L-C combinations are used as feed back
net work.

To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive feedback is not the only
sufficient condition. Oscillator circuit must satisfy the following two conditions known
as Barkhausen conditions:

i. The first condition is that the magnitude of the loop gain (A) = 1
A = Amplifier gain and = Feedback gain.
ii. The second condition is that the phase shift around the loop must be 360 or 0.
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR:

Phase-shift oscillator is a simple electronic oscillator. It contains an inverting amplifier,

and a feedback filter which 'shifts' the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at the
oscillation frequency.The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency. It must have
a maximum phase shift of considerably greater than 180 at high frequencies, so that the phase
shift at the desired oscillation frequency is 180.

The most common way of achieving this kind of filter is using three identical cascaded resistor-
capacitor filters, which together produce a phase shift of zero at low frequencies, and 270
degrees at high frequencies. At the oscillation frequency each filter produces a phase shift of 60
degrees and the whole filter circuit produces a phase shift of 180 degrees.

DESIGN:

1
f0 =
6 2RC

Rf 29R1

R1 10R

Choose C = .1F

f0 = 500 Hz

1 1
R= =
6 2f 0 C 6 2x500 x0.1x10 6

R = 1.3 K

Choose R = 1.5K

R115K (to prevent loading)

Therefore,

R1 = 10R = 15K

Rf = 29R1=29x15K=435K (Use 1Mpot)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Rf

R1 2 7
IC741

3 6 V0

Rcomp

C C C

R R R

Values:
R = 1.5K
C=0.1F
Rf = 1M
R1 = Rcomp = 15K

TABULATION:
INPUT OUTPUT

Amplitude Time Period Frequency Amplitude Time Period Frequency

MODE
EL GRAPH
H:
Output waveform:
w

PROCE
EDURE:
RC PHA
ASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR:

1.Design the circuit for f0=500Hz.callculate R1,R

R2,and Rf

2.connect the circuit as shhown in the figure with the designedd values.

3.Switch on the power suupply and obbservw the waveform.

4.Note down the amplitudde and time period.

5.Plot the wav

veforms on a graph sheeet.

WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLA

ATOR

A Wien bridg ge oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator thatt generates sine waves. It can
generate a large rang
ge of frequenncies. The freequency of oscillation
o iss given by:

The Wien Brridge Oscilllator

T uses a feedback circuit
c consiisting of a series RC circuit
connecteed with a parrallel RC off the same component
c v
values produucing a phasse delay or phase
advance circuit depeending uponn the frequenncy. At the resonant freequency r the phase shhift is
0o.Then for oscillations to occuur in a Wienn Bridge Osscillator circcuit the folloowing condiitions
must apply.:
p

1. With no inp
put signal thhe Wien Briddge Oscillatoor produces output oscilllations.

2. The Wien Bridge

B Oscilllator can prroduce a largge range of fr
frequencies.

3. The Voltag
ge gain of the amplifier must
m be at leeast 3.
 4. The network can be used with a Non-inverting amplifier.

5. The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared to R so that the RC
network is not overloaded and alter the required conditions.

6. The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect of external loading
is minimised.

7. Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be provided because
if the voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation will decay and stop and if it
is too large the output amplitude rises to the value of the supply rails, which saturates the op-amp
and causes the output waveform to become distorted.

8. With amplitude stabilisation in the form of feedback diodes, oscillations from the
oscillator can go on indefinitely.

DESIGN:

1
f0 =
2RC

Rf
AV = 1 + =3
Ri

Rf
=2
Ri

Rf =2Ri

Let c = 0.047F, f0 = 1KHz

1
R= = 3 .2 K
2f 0 C

Let Ri = 10K

Rf = 2Ri = 20K (use 20K pot)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Rf

2 7
IC741

3 6 V0

Ri
4

R C

R C

Values:

R = 3.3K
C=0.047F
Rf = 20K
R1 = 10K

TABULATION:
INPUT OUTPUT

Amplitude Time Period Frequency Amplitude Time Period Frequency

MODEL GRAPH:
Output waveform:

PROCEDURE:
WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR:

1.Design the circuit for f0=1KHz.calculate R C Rf and Ri

2.connect the circuit as shown in the figure with the designed values.

3.Switch on the power supply and observe the waveform.

4.Note down the amplitude and time period.

5.Plot the waveforms on a graph sheet.

RESULT:
Thus the RC Phase Shift oscillator and Wein Bridge oscillator are designed and
constructed.

(i)RC phase shift oscillator F0=

(ii) Wein Bridge oscillator F0=

Post Lab Questions:

1. Explain how the clipping is eliminated in wien bridge oscillator

2. Draw the basic structure of a feedback oscillator.
3. What is the frequency range of LC oscillators
4. For sustained oscillations, what is the gain of the RC phase shift oscillator?
5. Design a phase shift oscillator to oscillate at 100Hz
 APPLICATIONS OF TIMER IC 555
Pre-Lab questions:

1. Draw the pin diagram of 555 timer IC

2. List the applications of Monostable Multivibrator
3. Define the term Duty cycle
4. For Ra=6.8K,Rb=3.3Kand C=0.1 F, Calculate (a)free running frequency (b) Duty
cycle, D
5. Give methods for obtaining symmetrical square wave
6. Why a monostable multivibrator is called a one shot multivibrator
7. Why a Astable multivibrator is called a Free running oscillator

EXPT NO:7

DATE: APPLICATIONS OF TIMER IC 555

AIM:
To design and study the following circuits using 555 timer.

1. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
2. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
3. SCHMITT TRIGGER

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.IC 555
2.Resistors
3.capacitors
4.CRO
5.AFO
6.RPS

THEORY:
555 is a very commonly used IC for generating accurate timing pulses. It is an 8pin timer
IC.The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode
Astable free running mode
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger

The input/output relationships for the various multivibrators are shown in Figure
MONOSTABLE
OSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Monostable multivibrator often called a one shot multivibrator is a pulse generating

circuit in which the duration
duration of this pulse is determined by the RC network connected externally
to the 555 timer. In a stable or standby state, the output of the circuit is approximately zero or a
logic-low level. When external trigger pulse is applied output is forced to go high ( VCC). The
time for which output remains high is determined by the external RC network connected to the
timer. At the end of the timing interval, the output automatically reverts back to its logic-low
stable state. The output stays low until trigger pulse is again applied. Then the cycle repeats. The
monostable circuit has only one stable state (output low) hence the name monostable.

DESIGN OF MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Time period of pulse=T=1.1RC=10ms
Let C=100f
T=1.1RC
10ms=1.1*R*100f
R=100K

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Vcc

D
100K
1K
84
Trigger 8
2
Input
7
C3
555
330
3

56
C2
1
C1

C1 = .01f, C2 = 100f, C3 = .001f

TABUL
LATION:
INPUT OUTPUT

AMPLIT
TUDE TIME PER
RIOD AMPLITU
UDE T
TIME PERIIOD

MODE
EL GRAPH
H:

PROCE
EDURE:

1.Connection ns are made asa per the cirrcuit diagram

m
2.A trigger puulse is givenn to pin No 2
3.Note the tim
me for whichh the LED gllows and notte down Tonn

ASTABLE
B MUL
LTIVIBRA
ATOR

T astable multivibrator
The m r generates a square wavve, the periood of which is determineed by
the circuuit external to
o IC 555. The astable multivibrator
m r does not reequire any external triggger to
change thhe state of th
he output. Heence the namme free runnning oscillatoor. The time during whicch the
output iss either hig gh or low iss determineed by the tw wo resistorss and a capaacitor whichh are
externallyy connected d to the 555 timer.
t
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VALUES: R1=10K, R2=100K, C=0.1f, C1=0.01f

TABULATION:
INPUT OUTPUT
AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD AMPLITUDE TIME PERIOD
ON OFF Charging Discharging
time time time time

MODEL GRAPH:

OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CAPACITOR VOLTAGE

PROCEDURE:
1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2.A supply voltage of 5v to be given
3.The output waveforms at pin3 and pin 2 are observed on a CRO.
4.Measure Ton and toff of the waveform

SCHMITT TRIGGER:

In the Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin
is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches. The trigger
and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via Pull-up resistors while the
threshold input (pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to
ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset
input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors
are required in a bistable configuration. Pins 5 and 7 (control and discharge) are left floating.

Bistable signifies two stable stateshigh and low. In the bistable mode, the 555 acts
like a Schmitt trigger.A Schmitt trigger produces an output when the input exceeds a specified
level. The output continues until the input falls below a specified level. With the 555, a trigger at
one input sets the output to high; a trigger at another input sets the output to low. The output
retains its value until the input changes sufficiently to trigger a state change.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:

INPUT OUTPUT
Amplitude Time period Amplitude Time period
ON time OFF time

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

1.Construct the circuit as shown in the figure

2. observe the output waveform of schmitt trigger circuit by giving sinewave as input

3.Note down the amplitude and time period and draw the output waveform

RESULT:
Thus the Monostable multivibrator ,Astable multivibrator and Schmitt Trigger circuits
are designed and constructed and the output waveforms are drawn.
Post Lab Questions:

1. Discuss the operation of a FSK generator using 555 timer.

2. How is an Astable multivibrator connected into a pulse position modulator.
3. Explain the function of reset?
4. What are the modes of operation of a timer?
5. Derive the expression of time delay of a monostable multivibrator.
 STUDY OF TIMER IC 555
Pre-Lab questions:

1. Draw the pin diagram of 555 timer IC

2. What are the features of 555 Timer IC
3. Give the applications of Timer IC 555
4. Define Flip flop
5. What is a comparator? what are the applications of comparator
EXPT NO:8

DATE: STUDY OF TIMER IC 555

AIM:
To study the characteristics of IC 555 Timer

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.IC 555

2.Resistors

3.capacitors

4.CRO

5.AFO

6.RPS

THEORY:
555 is a very commonly used IC for generating accurate timing pulses. It is an 8pin timer
IC.The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.
Astable free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse
position modulation and so on. Selecting a NTC as timing resistor allows the use of the
555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the
temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period
to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches.

The important features of the 555 timer are :

It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts
supply voltage.
Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be
made into several minutes Proper selection of only a few external components allows
 tiiming intervaals of severaal minutes allong with thhe frequenciees exceedingg several hunndred
kilo hertz.
Itt has a high current
c outpuut; the outpuut can drive TTL.
T
It has a temp perature stability of 50 parts
p per million (ppm) per degree Celsius channge in
teemperature, or equivalenntly 0.005 %/% C.
T duty cycle of the timer
The t is adjjustable witth the maxim mum powerr dissipationn per
package is 60 00 mW and its i trigger annd reset inputts are logic compatible.
c

IC PIIN CONFIG
GURATION
N:

The connnection of th
he pins is as follows:
f

PIN
P NAMME PURPOSE E
1 GROOUND Ground, loow level (0 V)V
2 TRIIGGER OUT rises,, and intervaal starts, wheen this input falls below 1/3
VCC.
3 OUTTPUT This outpuut is driven too +VCC or GN ND.
4 RES
SET Active loww- interrupts the timing interval at Output.
O
5 CONNTROL "Control" access
a to thee internal voltage dividerr (by defaultt, 2/3
VOLLTAGE VCC).
6 THRRESHOLD The intervaal ends whenn the voltagee at THR is greater
g than at
CTRL.
7 DIS
SCHARGE Open colleector output; may dischaarge a capaciitor between
intervals
8 VCC Positive suupply voltagee is usually between
b 3 annd 15 V.
Block Diagram:

The block diagram of a 555 timer is shown in the above figure. A 555 timer has two
comparators, (which are basically 2 op-amps), an R-S flip-flop, two transistors and a resistive
network.

Resistive network consists of three equal resistors and acts as a voltage divider.
Comparator 1 compares threshold voltage with a reference voltage + 2/3 VCC volts.
Comparator 2 compares the trigger voltage with a reference voltage + 1/3 VCC volts.

Output of both the comparators is supplied to the flip-flop. Flip-flop assumes its state
according to the output of the two comparators. One of the two transistors is a discharge transis-
tor of which collector is connected to pin 7. This transistor saturates or cuts-off according to the
output state of the flip-flop. The saturated transistor provides a discharge path to a capacitor con-
nected externally. Base of another transistor is connected to a reset terminal. A pulse applied to
this terminal resets the whole timer irrespective of any input.

Working Principle:

Comparator 1 has a threshold input (pin 6) and a control input (pin 5). In most
applications, the control input is not used, so that the control voltage equals +2/3 VCC. Output of
this comparator is applied to set (S) input of the flip-flop. Whenever the threshold voltage
exceeds the control voltage, comparator 1 will set the flip-flop and its output is high. A high
output from the flip-flop saturates the discharge transistor and discharge the capacitor connected
externally to pin 7. The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3, the output. The
output available at pin 3 is low. These conditions will prevail until comparator 2 triggers the flip-
flop. Even if the voltage at the threshold input falls below 2/3 VCC, that is comparator 1 cannot
cause the flip-flop to change again. It means that the comparator 1 can only force the flip-flops
output high.
 To change the output of flip-flop to low, the voltage at the trigger input must fall below +
1/3 Vcc. When this occurs, comparator 2 triggers the flip-flop, forcing its output low. The low
output from the flip-flop turns the discharge transistor off and forces the power amplifier to
output a high. These conditions will continue independent of the voltage on the trigger input.
Comparator 2 can only cause the flip-flop to output low.From the above discussion it is
concluded that for the having low output from the timer 555, the voltage on the threshold input
must exceed the control voltage or + 2/3 VCC. They also turn the discharge transistor on. To force
the output from the timer high, the voltage on the trigger input must drop below +1/3 VCC. This
also turns the discharge transistor off.

A voltage may be applied to the control input to change the levels at which the switching
occurs. When not in use, a 0.01 nano Farad capacitor should be connected between pin 5 and
ground to prevent noise coupled onto this pin from causing false triggering.Connecting the reset
(pin 4) to a logic low will place a high on the output of flip-flop. The discharge transistor will go
on and the power amplifier will output a low. This condition will continue until reset is taken
high. This allows synchronization or resetting of the circuits operation. When not in use, reset
should be tied to +VCC.

RESULT:

Thus the functions of IC 555 Timer is studied

Post Lab Questions:

1. Discuss the operation of a FSK generator using 555 timer.

2. How is an Astable multivibrator connected into a pulse position modulator.
3. Explain the function of reset?
4. What are the modes of operation of a timer?
5. Derive the expression of time delay of a monostable multivibrator.
 STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR IC566
Pre-Lab questions:

1. Draw the pin diagram of NE/SE 566.

2. What are the types of waveforms that are able to generate by using a function generator.
3. Draw the transfer characteristics of sine shaper circuit.
4. What are the conditions of a self-sustained oscillation?
5. List some applications of Function Generator.

EXPT NO:9

DATE: STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR IC566

AIM:

To study the function of voltage controlled oscillator IC 566 and to generate the square
wave and triangular wave using the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1.IC 566

2.Resistors

3.capacitors

4.Regulated power Supply

5.Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

THEORY:

A Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is a circuit that provides a varying output signal

(typically of square-wave or triangular-wave form) whose frequency can be adjusted over a
range controlled by a dc voltage. An example of a VCO is the 566 IC unit, which contains
circuitry to generate both squarewave and triangular-wave signals whose frequency is set by an
external resistor and capacitor and then varied by an applied dc voltage.

PIN DIAGRAM OF NE566:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NE566:

OPERATION:

The Op amp A1 is used as a buffer. The Op amp A2 is used as a schmitt trigger and the
Op amp A3 is used as a inverter.The voltage Vc is applied to the modulation input pin,which is a
control voltage.

The capacitor C1 is linearly charged or discharged by a constant current source.The

charging current can be controlled by controlling thevoltage vc at pin5 or by varying the
resistance R1 which is external to the IC.The charging and discharging levels are determined by
the schmitt trigger.

The output voltage of the schmitt trigger is designed to swing between+v and 0.5v.For
Ra=Rb the voltage at non inverting terminal swingsbetween 0.5(+v) to 0.25(+v).Thus the
triangular wave is generated due to charging and discharging of the capacitor c1,in linear
manner.when c1 voltage increases beyond 0.5(+v) the schmitt trigger output goes low,and the
capacitor starts discharging.when the voltage becomes less than 0.25(+v) the schmitt trigger
output goes high,Due to similar current sources used for charging and discharging the time taken
by c1 to charge and discharge is same.This produces exact triangular wave.The output of the
schmitt trigger is step response which is available at pin 3 as a square wave output.

2(+V Vc )
The frequency of the output waveform is f 0 =
C1 R1 (+V )

FEATURES:
Wide range of operating voltage (up to 24V; single or dual)
High linearity of modulation
Highly stable center frequency (200ppm/C typical)
 Highly linear triangle wave output
Frequency programming by means of a resistor or capacitor,
voltage or current
Frequency adjustable over 10-to-1 range with same capacitor

APPLICATIONS:
Tone generators
Frequency shift keying
FM modulators
Clock generators
Signal generators
Function generators

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULATION:

Output at Pin 3:

Amplitude Time period

Output at Pin 4:

Amplitude Charging time of Discharging time

capacitor of capacitor

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

1.Construct a voltage controlled oscillator using IC 566 as shown in the figure

2.Give the modulating voltage Vc to the input.

3.Observe the output waveforms in the respective pins using a CRO.

RESULT:

Thus the function of IC 566 is studied and by using the same the square and triangular
waves are generated.
Post Lab Questions:

1. What is the widely used monolithic IC that can be used to build a function generator.
2. Draw the pin configuration of XR-2206 monolithic IC.
3. Define the term Duty cycle.
4. Give the block diagram representation of NE 566.
5. What is the purpose of using Constant current source in NE 566.