Life Prediction of Ammonia Storage Tanks Based On Laboratory Stress Corrosion Crack Data

Rolf Nyborg I and Liv Lunde I
LIFE PREDICTION OF AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS

BASED ON LABORATORY STRESS CORROSION CRACK DATA
REFERENCE: N y b o r g , R. a n d L u n d e , L . , " L i f e P r e d i c t i o n o f Ammonia

Storage Tanks Based on Laboratory Stress Corrosion Crack Data,"
Application of Acce]erated Corrosion Tests to Service Life PredicT,
tion of Materials ASTM STP 1194, Gustavo Cragnolino and Narasi
Sri.dhar, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1996.
ABSTRACTt Stress corrosion crack growth of carbon steel in anhydro~

ammonia has been studied at both ambient temperature and at -33 ~
This has resulted in the development of a crack growth model where t~
crack depth is predicted to be proportional to the square of the
stress intensity factor and the square root of the exposure time. Th~
crack growth is much slower at a low temperature of -33 ~ than at
ambient temperature. The crack growth model has been used together
with field inspection results and probabilistic methods to obtain a
quantitative measure for the probability of tank failure as function
of time. This approach can be used by the ammonia storage tank opera-
tors to optimize the inspection intervals and procedures while assur-
ing the safety of the tank.
KEYWORDS~ stress corrosion cracking, carbon steel, ammonia, storage

tanks, crack growth rate, probabilistic methods
Storage tanks for anhydrous ammonia suffer stress corrosion

cracking in the welds. Spherical pressure vessels operating at ambien~
temperature are inspected with a few years' interval, and in many
cases several stress corrosion cracks from 1 to 5 mm deep are found.
The cracks are ground down, and repair welding is applied if the
remaining wall thickness becomes too small. Many spheres have been
repaired and inspected several times, and often new cracks develop
between each inspection. Before the experiments described here were
started, there was no information available about how quickly the
ISenior Research Scientist and Department Head, respectively,

Institutt for energiteknikk, P.O.Box 40, N-2007 Kjeller, Norway
27
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Sun Apr 24 22:51:08 EDT 2016
Downloaded/printed
Copyright 9 1994 by by ASTM International www.astm.org
Missouri Univ of Science (Missouri Univ of Science ) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.
28 SERVICELIFE PREDICTION OF MATERIALS
cracks actually had grown. Cracks could have grown slowly during the
period from one inspection to the other, or could have been formed
shortly after filling of the tank. In this period the oxygen content
in the ammonia is high, and this gives a high susceptibility to stress
corrosion cracking [i,~,~]. Information about the crack growth rate of
carbon steel in ammonia is of vital importance from a safety point of
view.
Until a few years ago it was believed that SCC did not occur in
low temperature storage tanks operating at -33 ~ where the vapour
pressure of ammonia is at atmospheric pressure. During the last years,
stress corrosion cracks have been found also in several low tempera-
ture storage tanks [~,~,~,l]. The present experiments provide informa-
tion about crack growth rates for both ambient temperature and low
temperature storage tanks.
The tendency for stress corrosion cracking of ammonia storage

tanks can be reduced by using low strength steel and soft welding
electrodes, minimizing residual welding stresses and local hardness
peaks, minimizing oxygen contamination and inhibiting with water addi-
tions [~]. However, this cannot guarantee against cracking in every
case, and the ammonia storage tank operators have to assume the pres-
ence of cracks in their tanks. Fracture mechanics calculations can
give critical crack sizes for each tank, and inspection can ensure
that no significant cracks are present. Inspections must be repeated
before any undetected or new cracks can grow to a critical size. Some
information about crack growth rates is necessary in order to estab-
lish safe inspection intervals. The crack growth model presented here
can provide a useful tool for this. However, model predictions must be
compared with actual inspection results, and the model adjusted if
necessary. Uncertainties in model predictions, complex stress distri-
butions and lack of physical data on specific materials can give re-
sults with too high of an uncertainty to be of practical use.
Probabilistic methods can provide tools for dealing with these various
uncertainties in a rational manner. Such an approach can ensure safety
of ammonia storage tanks while optimizing inspection intervals and
procedures.
CRACK GROWTH EXPERIMENTS
Experimental Procedure
The experiments were performed with 25 m wide compact tension

(CT) specimens with 1.5 mm deep side grooves. The specimens were made
from the normalized carbon steel St 52-3N (DIN 17100) with yield point
380 MPa and tensile strength 550 MPa. This steel corresponds to ASTM
A537 Grade 1 or BS 4360 Grade 50D, and represents construction steels
typically used for large ammonia storage tanks. The specimens were
mounted in a stainless steel test container, which was then half
Downloaded/printed by
NYBORG AND LUNDE ON AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS 29
filled with liquid ammonia. The oxygen content in the liquid ammonia
was controlled by adjusting the air pressure in the test container
before filling with ammonia, and the resulting air partial pressure
was measured continuously during the experiment. The temperature of
the liquid ammonia was kept constant at either 18 ~ or -33 ~ The
experiments were performed with 1 to 10 ppm oxygen and 50 ppm water in
the liquid ammonia. Previous investigations have shown that this
composition range gives the highest SCC susceptibility [i,2,~].
The load was applied to the specimen after stable environmental
conditions had been obtained by means of a hydraulic cylinder mounted
on top of the test container. Stress intensity factors between 30 and
120 MPa m I/2 and exposure times between 20 and 900 hours were used.
After the experiment, the specimens were broken apart and the fracture
surface examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The first experiments were performed with CT specimens with
fatigue precracks. Severe crevice corrosion attack was found inside
the fatigue crack, and this attack seemed to prevent SCC. No stress
corrosion cracks were found in these specimens. CT specimens with a
sharp notch without fatigue crack obtained SCC readily, and specimens
of this type were used for the crack growth studies.
Crack Growth At Ambient Temperature
A series of experiments was performed with constant load and

stress intensity factor 80-85 MPa m I/2 at 18 "C. Exposure times varied
from 24 to 900 hours. Fig. i shows the maximum crack depth in each
specimen as function of exposure time. There is a considerable spread
in results, but evidently the crack growth slows down with time. The
full-drawn line in the figure corresponds to an SCC crack depth
proportional to the square root of the exposure time. This represents
an upper bound for the crack depth at ambient temperature in these
experiments.
SEM examination of the fracture surfaces showed a crevice corro-
sion attack in the outer part of the stress corrosion crack. This
crevice corrosion attack seems to slow down the stress corrosion crack
growth possibly by reducing the oxygen content in the ammonia near the
crack tip or by changing the electrochemical conditions in the crack.
Findings of deposits inside the cracks have been reported in both
published [2] and unpublished tank inspection results. The presence of
oxygen in the ammonia is a vital requirement for SCC of carbon steel
in ammonia [i,~]. Oxygen in liquid ammonia does not produce a passive
film of the same character as the one formed in aqueous systems, but
forms an adsorbed film on the steel surface which maintains the
corrosion potential at noble values. Iron dissolution can take place
when this film is disrupted by plastic deformation, accompanied by
oxygen reduction in oxygen filmed areas [~]. Pure ammonia has much
lower conductivity than pure water, and for a deep crack to grow it is
30 SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION OF MATERIALS
Crack depth mm
0.1 .~ 9 9 a 3 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
o 10 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
A . . A"
9
A"
u 1 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
9 3 pprn oxygen, -33 ~
0.01
lO 100 1000
Time h
FIG. 1--Maximum stress corrosion crack depth for experiments
with stress intensity factor 80 to 85 MPa m I/2.
necessary to maintain a galvanic cell between an unfilmed surface at

the crack tip and an oxygen filmed surface at the crack walls or
sufficient migration of ionic species through the narrow crack to the
surface.
Crack Growth At Low Temperature
Experiments with CT specimens at a low temperature of -33 =C

showed that SCC initiation is very difficult at this temperature [~].
Several experiments with constant stress intensity factor in the range
80 to 120 MPa m I/2 at -33 ~ resulted in no stress corrosion cracks.
Similar experiments at 18 ~ resulted always in extensive SCC [~].
Experiments with slowly increasing stress intensity factor from 60 to
80 MPa m I/2 resulted in very little SCC at -33 "C and extensive crack-
ing at 18 ~ Previous low temperature experiments with thin-walled
tubular specimens stressed by internal gas pressure showed that
substantial stress corrosion cracking can be obtained in the labora-
tory at -33 ~ when the plastic deformation and the strain rate is
high enough [i]. Stress corrosion crack initiation is certainly
possible at -33 ~ but it seems that the stress/strain and environ-
mental conditions for SCC initiation are much more narrow at -33 ~
than at ambient temperature. The plane strain situation in the CT
specimens does not represent the worst case conditions for SCC initia-
tion. The authors are currently running a research project focused on
the conditions for SCC initiation in low temperature ammonia storage
tanks.
FIG. 2--Transgranular SCC at 18 ~ (top) followed by

intergranular SCC at -33 ~
In order to be able to study crack growth at -33 ~ it was

necessary to initiate stress corrosion cracks at ambient temperature
first. This was accomplished by a short exposure to ammonia at 18 ~
with increasing stress intensity factor from 60 to 70 MPa m I/2 during
3 hours. After this the specimen was exposed at -33 ~ to a constant
stress intensity factor of 80 MPa m I/2 for a period varying from 48 to
700 hours. This procedure resulted in a purely transgranular crack
with depth 20-40 ~m resulting from the exposure at 18 ~C, followed by
a stress corrosion crack with a mixture of transgranular and inter-
granular cracking formed during the exposure at -33 ~ where the
crack growth was much slower. The transition from one fracture mode to
the other was easily recognizable, as shown in Fig. 2. Transgranular
cracking is often associated with high crack growth rates for carbon
steel in ammonia [~,i0].
The results from the crack growth experiments at low temperature
are included in Fig. 1, where the maximum depths of the stress cor-
rosion cracks formed at -33 ~ are indicated as filled points. The
figure shows clearly that the stress corrosion crack growth rate is
lower at -33 ~ than at 18 ~ The deepest cracks at -33 ~ were about
one third of the largest crack depths at ambient temperature. The low
temperature crack depths are too small and too few to determine the
time correlation at -33 ~ However, if a similar time dependence is
assumed at ambient and low temperature, the dashed line in Fig. 1 may
be taken as an upper bound for the low temperature experiments. The
dashed and solid lines in the figure differ by a factor 3.
D E V E L O P M E N T O F C R A C K GROWTH M O D E L
The results from crack growth experiments with stress intensity

factors in the range 30 to 120 MPa m I/2 are shown in Fig. 3. In this
figure the crack depth divided by the square root of the exposure time
is shown as function of stress intensity factor. According to Fig. 1
the maximum crack depth should be proportional to the square root of
the exposure time for a given stress intensity factor. There is obvi-
ously a strong dependence of the stress intensity factor on the stress
corrosion crack growth. The full-drawn line in the figure has a slope
of 2, and gives an upper bound for stress corrosion cracking of this
type of carbon steel in ammonia at ambient temperature. This line also
represents a model for stress corrosion crack growth of carbon steel
in ammoniaz
a - 3x10 -4 K2t 1/2 (1)
where
a - stress corrosion crack depth, m m
K - stress intensity factor, MPa m I/2
t - time, years.
According to this model the maximum stress corrosion crack depth is

proportional to the square of the stress intensity factor and the
square root of the exposure time.
lO
mm/y 1/2
A 3 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
o 10 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
D 1 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
9 3 ppm oxygen, -33 ~
o.1
lO 100
K MPan~~
FIG. 3--Stress corrosion crack depth divided by square root
of exposure time as function stress intensity factor.
N Y B O R G AND L U N D E ON A M M O N I A S T O R A G E TANKS 33
The full-drawn line in Fig. 3 shows the model for crack growth
at ambient temperature. Experiments at -33 =C have only been performed
at a stress intensity factor of 80 MPa m I/2, so there are not available
data to make a similar model at low temperature. However, if a similar
time and stress intensity factor dependence is assumed at ambient and
low temperature, the dashed line in Fig. 3 can give an indication of
crack growth in low temperature ammonia storage tanks. This line dif-
fers from the solid line by a factor 3.
The crack growth results can also be presented as in Fig. 4,
where a/K 2 is shown as function of time. This figure shows the time
dependence in the same way as Fig. 1, but Fig. 4 includes all experi-
mental results with stress intensity factors ranging from 30 to 120
MPa m I/2. The full-drawn line in the figure represents the model given
in Equation 1. This line gives a reasonable upper limit for the data
also when stress intensity values other than 80 MPa m I/2 are included.
The line in Fig. 4 gives the crack depth after a certain time at
a specific stress intensity factor. However, in order to make crack
depth estimates, it is necessary to integrate Equation 1, taking into
account the increase in stress intensity factor as the crack grows
deeper. Typical stress intensity factors in an ammonia storage sphere
can be in the range of 50 MPa m I/2 with a 3 m m deep crack in an 11 m m
thick wall [10]. With the present model, such a crack can grow further
to 5 ~ m in four years and to 6 mm in 8 years. Inspection results show
that most cracks are between I and 4 m m deep, even after several
10"6
(MPa)'2 o
10 .7
"A~" 9 9:~ A 3 ppm oxygen, 18 ~

10 .8 A
,,, .~ - " " o 10 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
[] 1 ppm oxygen, 18 ~
9 3 ppm oxygen, -33 ~
, , , , , , , , , , , , , . . . . i , , . . . . . . , . . . . . , , ,
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Time years
FIG. 4--Stress corrosion crack depth divided by square of

stress intensity factor as function of time.
years' exposure, with a few instances of 7 to 10 nun deep cracks [10].

Comparison of inspection results with the model can be difficult
because inspection results often report detected crack depths without
any estimation of the actual stress intensity factor. Inspection
results gathered by the group of ammonia producers sponsoring the
present work indicate that the crack growth predicted by the model is
in the same range as experienced by inspection of ammonia storage
tanks. The model seems to give somewhat low values compared to a few
very deep cracks found in storage tanks in the past. However, in the
early days of finding SCC in ammonia spheres, little, if any, distinc-
tion was made between SCC and fabrication defects. Hence, cracks could
be a combination of a fabrication defect with stress corrosion crack-
ing propagating from it, the total depth being significantly greater
than the stress corrosion cracking element.
Fig. 4 illustrates that model calculations for operating periods
of several years obviously will involve considerable uncertainties, as
the model is based on experimental data with duration up to 0.1 year
and considerable spread in results. The data in Fig. 1 can be fitted
to a line with a slope in the range from 1/3 to 1/2. The lines in the
figure represent the steepest slope giving a reasonable correlation to
the data. This should give conservative values for crack growth.
A square root of time dependence in the stress corrosion crack
depth might suggest that a diffusion-controlled process is the rate-
controlling factor in the stress corrosion crack growth process. The
oxide layer observed on the crack surfaces might reduce crack growth
by consuming the oxygen dissolved in the ammonia inside the crack. As
discussed above, the presence of oxygen in the ammonia is a vital
requirement for the propagation of stress corrosion cracks. The cracks
are very narrow, and if the oxide layer on the crack surfaces fills
most of the space in the crack, transport of dissolved oxygen or other
species from the bulk liquid through the narrow, oxide-filled crack to
the crack tip may be very slow. This may account for the reduction in
crack growth rate as the crack grows deeper, and may eventually result
in a cease in crack growth. A continued crack growth is then dependent
on some mechanism for reactivation of the crack, for instance as a
result of load variations during emptying and filling of the tank or
temperature variations.
Fig. 4 includes also the dashed line a factor 3 lower than the
full-drawn line, representing crack growth at low temperature in the
same way as in Figs. 1 and 3. It must be emphasized that this only
gives an indication of crack growth behaviour at low temperature.
There are not enough experimental data to justify model calculatlons
of crack growth in low temperature storage tanks. As discussed above,
SCC initiation is much more difficult at low temperature, and other
variables like oxygen content in the ammonia, residual welding
stresses and shrinkage stresses during filling are probably important
for SCC in low temperature ammonia storage tanks. Although stress
corrosion cracking has been found in several low temperature storage

tanks over the last few years, it should be noted that there are other
low temperature storage tanks operating satisfactorily without any
evidence of SCC, even after careful examination and NDT. Institutt for
energiteknikk is currently conducting a new ammonia SCC research
project aiming at determining the conditions for SCC initiation in
welds in low temperature ammonia storage tanks.
The crack growth model described here was developed from experi-
mental results from a carbon steel with yield point 380 MPa, which is
quite representative for steels used in ammonia storage tanks. The
model is not directly applicable for steels with different strength.
It has been shown previously for carbon steel in ammonia that SCC
susceptibility increases with the strength of the metal [~,i0].
A P P L I C A T I O N O F CRACK GROWTH M O D E L
Practical use of the crack growth model is associated with

considerable uncertainties. The most significant uncertainty in the
present crack growth model is probably the uncertainty in the stress
intensity dependence, as expressed in the exponent 2 in Equation 1 and
the slope of the line in Fig. 3 [11]. Another uncertainty in the model
is in the time dependence, as described above. Also important is the
geometry of the CT specimens used in the experiments, where the
absence of a fatigue precrack means that an initiation stage and early
crack growth in the notch bottom must take place before stress
intensity controlled crack growth takes over. This is probably a main
reason for the spread in crack growth results in the experiments [12].
Other uncertainties arise when the crack growth model is applied
for a specific storage tank. For old tanks all material properties may
not be known, especially concerning the welds where the cracking
occurs in practice. The stress distribution is usually quite complex,
and involves also large residual welding stresses. Procedures for
inspection, repair, recommissioning and operation of the tanks are
important both for the size of cracks left undetected and the proba-
bility for initiating new cracks.
The observed reduction in crack growth has been explained by
crevice corrosion for ammonia SCC, as discussed above, and by work
hardening of the crack tip in carbonate-bicarbonate SCC [13].
Inspection results with shallow cracks even after several years'
exposure indicate a reduction in crack growth with time as predicted
by the present model. The residual welding stresses are usually
tensile near the plate surface, but shift to compressive in the middle
of the plate. Thus, the stress corrosion cracks grow into a region
with low or compressive residual stresses, and this may also slow down
crack growth.
36 S E R V I C E LIFE P R E D I C T I O N O F M A T E R I A L S
Probabilistic Analvsis
The uncertainties and complexities discussed above makes it

difficult to obtain quantitative assessments of structural integrity
of ammonia storage tanks. An evaluation of a crack of uncertain size
growing at an uncertain rate towards some uncertain critical size
would seem to give results with such uncertainty that they would be of
little practical use. Applying conservative estimates all the way may
then give a final result which is unrealistically conservative, with
no indication of the probability of that result actually occurring. If
one instead assigns a statistical distribution to each parameter that
has some uncertainty incorporated, probabilistic techniques can supply
a tool to treat all these uncertainties together in a more realistic
manner. Probabilistics uses a statistical distribution in an equation
instead of a fixed value, as used in a deterministic approach. Instead
of calculating a single result based on fixed inputs, the probability
of a result is calculated based on the statistical distribution of the
input. The result will in this case be a probability of failure versus
time. With this type of approach it is possible to determine how the
different parameters affect the probability of failure. It is also
possible to evaluate the probability of detection of a crack using
different inspection techniques with different sensitivities, and how
this affects the continued operation of the tank [11,14].
.i
~
" o O ~ " *
I " " - ~ - " , . o
I 9 - Ion
Jo I" ' o- - Inspection year 3

2
Q.
~,- - Inspection year 9
- - o- - Inspection year 19
o
Repeated Inspections
i i
10 20 30
Time years
FIG. 5--Probability of failure for a new stress-relieved

anunonia storage tank with inspection in years 3,
9 and 19 without detection of cracks.
A probabilistio analysis has been performed for some selected

ammonia storage tanks [11]. This analysis uses the crack growth
equation and fracture mechanics calculations with the tank geometry,
wall thickness, probable size of undetected fabrication defects and
residual and operating stress values for each tank. A statistical
distribution has been assigned to each parameter with some uncertainty
involved, and the probability of fracture of the tank up to any point
in time has been calculated.
The result of a probabilistic analysis of a new ammonia storage
tank is shown in Fig. 5 [11]. The probability of failure is shown on a
logarithmic scale, but without actual values for the probability as
requested by the tank owner. This tank was made from high toughness
steel and was stress relieved, 100 % radiographed and acoustic emis-
sion tested for fabrication defects. SCC problems would not be expec-
ted in such a tank. The calculated probability of failure is indeed
very low and remains low even without inspection during a 30 year
period. Without periodical inspection the probability of failure
increases over time as a result of the crack growth predicted by the
crack growth model. The probability of failure will decrease every
time the tank is inspected without detecting any cracks. Even with
regular inspections the probability of failure will increase during
the 30 year period, as indicated by the full-drawn line in the figure.
This is because the predicted crack sizes are so small that they would
probably not be detected even with a sensitive test technique.
The result of a probabilistic analysis of an old ammonia storage
tank is shown in Fig. 6. This tank was not stress relieved, and was
inspected after nearly 30 years of operation. At this inspection a
_=
'5
"R
,.ci
2
B.
10 20 30 40
Time years
FIG. 6--Probability of failure for an old ammonia storage

tank with a 4 ~ deep crack detected at inspection
in year 30.
4 mm deep crack was found, but the crack was smaller than predicted by
the crack growth model. This means that the detection of a crack
reduced the probability of failure, as shown in the figure. The model
could be revised to reflect the lower crack growth actually observed,
but a more conservative approach is to assume continued crack growth
after inspection with the higher crack growth rate of the original
model. If a crack was found to be larger than predicted by the model,
the model could be revised to reflect the higher crack growth rate.
Fig. 7 shows the crack growth that would have to occur in the
new storage tank represented in Fig. 5 for the tank to fail in ten
years [11]. This is an event with very low probability, only ix10 -6.
The curve shows a reduction in crack growth rate during the first
years, where the square root of time dependence is the controlling
factor. Later, as the crack grows deeper, the square of the stress
intensity factor controls. The crack grows exponentially near the end
of the vessel life. This implies that the fracture toughness of the
steel has very little effect on the lifetime of the tank. For
instance, if the fracture toughness was improved and the critical
crack depth was increased from 17 to 20 mm, the life of the tank would
only be increased by a few months. On the other hand, the initial
defect size has a very large influence on the probability of failure.
Increasing the initial defect size shifts the entire curve in Fig. 7
to the left, and the crack growth starts at a higher rate, closer to
the part of the curve where K 2 is the controlling factor. A 1 mm
increase in initial defect size increases the probability of failure
in year 10 by almost one order of magnitude [11]. This illustrates
that inspection for fabrication defects is an important first step in
the prevention of failures.
20
Crack depth mm
Critical
15
10
r~llnltlal crack size

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time years
FIG. ?--Crack growth curve resulting in failure of the tank in

Fig. 5 in ten years. Probability of occurrence lx10 -6.
CONCLUSIONS
Stress corrosion crack growth studies of carbon steel in liquid

ammonia showed that the crack growth rate increases markedly with the
s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y factor and decreases with time. A model for stress
corrosion crack growth of carbon steel in liquid ammonia was developed
based on the laboratory results. According to this model, the maximum
stress corrosion crack depth is proportional to the square of the
stress intensity factor and the square root of the time. Crack growth
rates predicted with this model are in good harmony with practical
experience.
Initiation of SCC in carbon steel in anm~nia is much more diffi-
cult at a low temperature of -33 "C than at ambient temperature.
Stress corrosion crack growth is also slower at low temperature. The
largest crack depths at -33 ~ were about one third of the maximum
crack depth in comparable specimens tested at ambient temperature.
Both laboratory experiments and inspections of ammonia storage tanks
have shown that SCC can also occur in low temperature storage tanks,
but it is evident that the tendency to cracking is lower in low
temperature storage tanks operating at -33 ~ and atmospheric pressure
than in ambient temperature storage spheres. Several anunonia producers
have moved away from spheres to large low temperature ammonia storage
tanks.
The model for stress corrosion crack growth in carbon steel in
ammonia has been used together with field inspection results and
probabilistic methods to obtain a quantitative measure for the prob-
ability of tank failure as function of time. Application of this
approach for some ammonia storage tanks has produced results consis-
tent with observed service cracks, and has demonstrated how such
results can be used for evaluation of inspection results, inspection
methods and frequency and continued safe operation of storage tanks.
This approach can be used by the ammonia storage tank operators in
order to optimize the inspection intervals and procedures while assur-
ing the safety of the tank.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The crack growth experiments were carried out in two research

projects sponsored by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Agricultural
Minerals Corporation (USA), BASF AG (Federal Republic of Germany), DSM
Research B.V. (The Netherlands), ICI plc and Health & Safety Executive
(United Kingdom), Kemira OY (Finland), and Norsk Hydro a.s (Norway).
The application of the crack growth model with probabilistic methods
has been done by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Det Norske Veritas
Industry Inc. (USA).
REFERENCES
[i] Lunde, L., Nyborg, R.z "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Different

Steels in Liquid and Vaporous Ammonia," Corrosion, Vol. 43, No.
11, November 1987, pp 680-686.
[2) Lunde, L., Nyborg, R.z "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon

Steels in Ammonia," Materials Performance, Vol. 28, No. 12,
December 1989,pp 29-32.
[~) Lunde, L. and Nyborg, R., "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon

Steel Storage Tanks for Anhydrous Ammonia", Proceedinus no. 307,
The Fertiliser Society, London, 1991.
[]] Byrne, J.R., Moir, F.E., Williams, R.D., "Stress Corrosion in a

12 ktonnes Fully Refrigerated Ammonia Storage Tank," SvmDosium
Safetv in Ammonia Plants and R e l a t e d Faciliti@s, Paper No. 47e,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY, 1988.
[.5) Appl, M., F~ssler, K., Fromm, D., Gebhard, H., Portl, H., "New
Cases of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Large Atmospheric An~nonia
Storage Tanks", SvmDosium Safety in Ammonia Plants and Related
Facilities, Paper No. 237d, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, New York, NY, 1989.
[~) Selva, R.A., Heuser, A.H., "Structural Integrity of a 12

000-Tonne Refrigerated Ammonia Storage Tank in the Presence of
Stress Corrosion Cracks", Symposium Safetv in Ammonia Plants and
Related Facilities, Paper No. 238a, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, New York, NY, 1989.
[.7_] Ali, S.B., Smallwood, R.E., "Inspection of an Anhydrous Ammonia

Atmospheric Pressure Storage Tank", SvmDosium Safety in Ammonia
Plants and Related Facilities, Paper No. 98g, American Institute
of Chemiaal Engineers, New York, NY, 1990.
[8] Jones, D.A., Kim, C.D., Wilde, B.E., "The Electrochemistry and
Mechanism of Stress Corrosion Cracking of Constructional Steels
in Liquid Ammonia", Corrosion, Vol. 33, No. 2, February 1977,
pp 50-55.
[9) Nyborg, R., Lunde, L., "The Effect of Welding Electrode

Composition and Storage Temperature on SCC of Carbon Steels in
Liquid Ammonia," CORROSION/91, Paper No. 478, National Associa-
tion of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1991.
[I0] Lunde, L., Nyborg, R., "SCC of Carbon Steels in Ammonia - Crack
Growth Studies and Means to Prevent Cracking," CORROSION/89,
Paper No. 98, National Association of Corrosion Engineers,
Houston, TX, 1989.
[11] Conley, M.J., Angelsen, S., Williams, D., "A Modern Approach to
Equipment Integrity Solutions," CORROSION/91, Paper No. 169,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX, 1991.
[12] Nyborg, R., Lunde, L., Conley, M.J., "Integrity of Ammonia

Storage Vessels - Life Prediction Based on SCC Experience,"
Materlals Performance, Vol. 30, NO. 11, November 1991, pp 61-65.
[13] Parkins, R.N., "The Application of Stress Corrosion Crack Growth

Kinetics to Predicting Lifetimes of Structures," Corrosion
Science, Vol. 29, No. 8, 1989, pp 1019-1038.
[14] Saugerud, O.T., Angelsen, S.O., "Probabilistic Lifetime Analysis

of Ammonia Pressure Vessels," Life Prediction of Corrodible
Structures, Paper No. 67, National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Houston, TX, 1991.

Life Prediction of Ammonia Storage Tanks Based On Laboratory Stress Corrosion Crack Data

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Prediction of Ammonia Storage Tanks Based On Laboratory Stress Corrosion Crack Data

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Prediction of Ammonia Storage Tanks Based On Laboratory Stress Corrosion Crack Data

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rolf Nyborg I and Liv Lunde I

LIFE PREDICTION OF AMMONIA STORAGE TANKS

REFERENCE: N y b o r g , R. a n d L u n d e , L . , " L i f e P r e d i c t i o n o f Ammonia

ABSTRACTt Stress corrosion crack growth of carbon steel in anhydro~

KEYWORDS~ stress corrosion cracking, carbon steel, ammonia, storage

Storage tanks for anhydrous ammonia suffer stress corrosion

ISenior Research Scientist and Department Head, respectively,

The tendency for stress corrosion cracking of ammonia storage

CRACK GROWTH EXPERIMENTS

The experiments were performed with 25 m wide compact tension

Crack Growth At Ambient Temperature

A series of experiments was performed with constant load and

0.1 .~ 9 9 a 3 ppm oxygen, 18 ~

9 3 pprn oxygen, -33 ~

necessary to maintain a galvanic cell between an unfilmed surface at

Crack Growth At Low Temperature

Experiments with CT specimens at a low temperature of -33 =C

FIG. 2--Transgranular SCC at 18 ~ (top) followed by

In order to be able to study crack growth at -33 ~ it was

The results from crack growth experiments with stress intensity

According to this model the maximum stress corrosion crack depth is

9 3 ppm oxygen, -33 ~

"A~" 9 9:~ A 3 ppm oxygen, 18 ~

,,, .~ - " " o 10 ppm oxygen, 18 ~

9 3 ppm oxygen, -33 ~

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

FIG. 4--Stress corrosion crack depth divided by square of

years' exposure, with a few instances of 7 to 10 nun deep cracks [10].

corrosion cracking has been found in several low temperature storage

Practical use of the crack growth model is associated with

The uncertainties and complexities discussed above makes it

I " " - ~ - " , . o

Jo I" ' o- - Inspection year 3

FIG. 5--Probability of failure for a new stress-relieved

A probabilistio analysis has been performed for some selected

FIG. 6--Probability of failure for an old ammonia storage

r~llnltlal crack size

FIG. ?--Crack growth curve resulting in failure of the tank in

Stress corrosion crack growth studies of carbon steel in liquid

The crack growth experiments were carried out in two research

[i] Lunde, L., Nyborg, R.z "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Different

[2) Lunde, L., Nyborg, R.z "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon

[~) Lunde, L. and Nyborg, R., "Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon

[]] Byrne, J.R., Moir, F.E., Williams, R.D., "Stress Corrosion in a

[~) Selva, R.A., Heuser, A.H., "Structural Integrity of a 12

[.7_] Ali, S.B., Smallwood, R.E., "Inspection of an Anhydrous Ammonia

[9) Nyborg, R., Lunde, L., "The Effect of Welding Electrode

[12] Nyborg, R., Lunde, L., Conley, M.J., "Integrity of Ammonia

[13] Parkins, R.N., "The Application of Stress Corrosion Crack Growth

[14] Saugerud, O.T., Angelsen, S.O., "Probabilistic Lifetime Analysis

You might also like