Hardenability and Casting

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Hardenability and Casting
Fabian Zacipa Pinilla.

November 2017.
Los Libertadores University Foundation

Faculty of Engineering
Plastic engineering
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Hardenability
Most heat treatments for steels begin by heating the specimen into the austenite
phase field. The resulting austenite is then cooled continuously to room temperature. This
is achieved by plunging the specimen into a bath of water or oil, or by removing it from
the furnace to cool in air ("normalising"). If very slow cooling is required then the sample
is left in the furnace which is switched off. The actual cooling rates may vary in different
regions of the sample. These variations may be large since steels are relatively poor
conductors of heat.
The properties of steels are sensitive to microstructure. It is useful to know how the
microstructure develops in different parts of a specimen during heat treatment. For a
given steel composition, a Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagram can be
constructed from experimental data, allowing the microstructural development to be
followed as a function of the cooling conditions. Fig.1 shows a CCT diagram for a
eutectoid
(Fe-0.8 wt %C) steel. Curves are plotted for the onset and completion of reactions to
form pearlite, bainite and martensite. The former two have the "C" shape because the
driving force is small at high temperatures whereas diffusion becomes sluggish at low
temperatures. Martensitic transformation is represented by a line parallel to the time axis,

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since no diffusion is involved and because of the very high rate of growth, the fraction
transformed depends only on the temperature.
CCT diagrams are usually plotted with a linear temperature axis and a logarithmic time
axis. A constant cooling rate therefore plots as having a continuously increasing gradient.
In analysing real experimental results the true thermal history can be plotted even when
the cooling rate is not constant.
The dotted cooling line represents critical cooling conditions. Cooling faster than this
avoids all transformations other than martensite. Since this will normally produce a
specimen having the highest hardness, the critical cooling rate is a measure of the
hardenability of the steel. The hardness generally decreases with decreasing cooling rate,
even for microstructures without martensite.

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A steel with a high hardenability is one which has a low critical cooling rate, so that even
slow cooling will lead to a martensitic structure. This has the advantage that hard material
can be generated without the risk of "quench cracking" due to high thermal gradients
associated with rapid cooling. On the other hand, it means that hard (and brittle) material
may inadvertently be produced in finished artefacts, notably as a result of welding
operations.
The jominy end quench test
The hardenability is measured by quenching one end of a hot bar (Fig.2). The bar is
heated to the austenitising temperature, placed on a support and directionally cooled with
a water jet. When cold, the specimen is sectioned and hardness measurements are made at
intervals along its length. A wide variety of cooling rates and corresponding hardness
data are revealed in a single and spectacular test.
The hardenability may be represented by the critical cooling rate, or the critical distance
along the bar at which the hardness (martensite content) starts to drop. It is useful to
examine the microstructure and correlate it with the hardness as a function of position
along the Jominy bar.

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Factors affecting hardenability
The alloying elements in steel have a big influence on hardenability. This is particularly
so for diffusional transformations such as ferrite and pearlite, where the solutes not only
influence the thermodynamic stability of the austenite but can slow the reactions by
diffusion since their solubility in ferrite will be different from that in austenite. Displacive
transformations such as bainite and martensite are less affected. Elements (Mn, Ni, C)
which retard the transformation of austenite and hence shift the C curves to longer times
and vice versa (Co, Al).
Hardenability is also affected by the austenite grain size. A finer grain size gives a larger
number density of heterogeneous nucleation sites and hence reduces hardenability.

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Tempering and secondary hardening
Martensite in steel can be hard but brittle because of its excessive carbon content.
Tempering involves a heat treatment which allows the carbon to precipitate as carbides
(e.g. cementite). This, and the annealing of defects, causes the martensite to become
softer but tougher. If the tempering temperature is sufficiently high (500 C) then
substitutional elements such as Mo and Cr become mobile. Fine carbides such as Mo2C
then precipitate at the expense of cementite and lead to secondary hardening.

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Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold
to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting
materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy,
concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that
would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.[1]
Plaster
Plaster and other chemical curing materials such as concrete and plastic resin may be cast
using single-use waste molds as noted above, multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made
of small rigid pieces or of flexible material such as latex rubber (which is in turn
supported by an exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete, the material surface is
flat and lacks transparency. Often topical treatments are applied to the surface. For
example, painting and etching can be used in a way that give the appearance of metal or
stone. Alternatively, the material is altered in its initial casting process and may contain
colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete, rather than
plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A
simulation of high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins
(for example epoxy or polyester which are thermosetting polymers) with powdered stone
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added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked in. The latter is a common means
of making washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with the skilled working of
multiple colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural marble
or travertine.
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Bibliography
1. R.W.K Honeycombe and H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, "Steels", 2nd edition, Edward Arnold
(1995) [De88].
2. D.A. Porter & K.E. Easterling, "Phase Transformations in Metals & Alloys",
Chapters 5 and 6, Van Nostrand Rheinhold, (1981) [Ln30].
3. R.E. Reed-Hill, "Physical Metallurgical Principles", Chapter 18, Van Nostrand

Rheinhold, (1973) [A108]
4. Recovered: https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/2000/practicals/AP3/AP3.html
5. Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, p. 277, ISBN 0-471-65653-4
6. Recovered: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting

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1

Hardenability and Casting

Fabian Zacipa Pinilla.

Los Libertadores University Foundation

microstructure develops in different parts of a specimen during heat treatment. For a

given steel composition, a Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagram can be

constructed from experimental data, allowing the microstructural development to be

temperatures. Martensitic transformation is represented by a line parallel to the time axis,

transformed depends only on the temperature.

the cooling rate is not constant.

even for microstructures without martensite.

may inadvertently be produced in finished artefacts, notably as a result of welding

The jominy end quench test

data are revealed in a single and spectacular test.

along the Jominy bar.

Factors affecting hardenability

and vice versa (Co, Al).

number density of heterogeneous nucleation sites and hence reduces hardenability.

Tempering and secondary hardening

then precipitate at the expense of cementite and lead to secondary hardening.

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a

would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.[1]

colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete, rather than

plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A

3. R.E. Reed-Hill, "Physical Metallurgical Principles", Chapter 18, Van Nostrand

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