History of The Calendar
History of The Calendar
The purpose of the calendar is to reckon past or future time, to show how many days until a
certain event takes place—the harvest or a religious festival—or how long since something
important happened. The earliest calendars must have been strongly influenced by the
geographical location of the people who made them. In colder countries, the concept of the year
was determined by the seasons, specifically by the end of winter. But in warmer countries, where
the seasons are less pronounced, the Moon became the basic unit for time reckoning; an old
Jewish book says that “the Moon was created for the counting of the days.”
Most of the oldest calendars were lunar calendars, based on the time interval from one new moon
to the next—a socalled lunation. But even in a warm climate there are annual events that pay no
attention to the phases of the Moon. In some areas it was a rainy season; in Egypt it was the
annual flooding of the Nile River. The calendar had to account for these yearly events as well.
The Egyptians had calculated that the solar year was actually closer to 3651/4 days, but instead of
having a single leap day every four years to account for the fractional day (the way we do now),
they let the onequarter day accumulate. After 1,460 solar years, or four periods of 365 years,
1,461 Egyptian years had passed. This means that as the years passed, the Egyptian months fell
out of sync with the seasons, so that the summer months eventually fell during winter. Only once
every 1,460 years did their calendar year coincide precisely with the solar year?
In addition to the civic calendar, the Egyptians also had a religious calendar that was based on
the 291/2day lunar cycle and was more closely linked with agricultural cycles and the movements
of the stars.
1. The correct figures are lunation: 29 d, 12 h, 44 min, 2.8 sec (29.530585 d); solar year: 365 d, 5
h, 48 min, 46 sec (365.242216 d); 12 lunation’s: 354 d, 8 h, 48 min, 34 sec (354.3671 d).
Lunar Calendars
During antiquity the lunar calendar that best approximated a solaryear calendar was based on a
19year period, with 7 of these 19 years having 13 months. In all, the period contained 235
months. Still using the lunation value of 291/2 days, this made a total of 6,9321/2 days, while 19
solar years added up to 6,939.7 days, a difference of just one week per period and about five
weeks per century.
Even the 19year period required adjustment, but it became the basis of the calendars of the
ancient Chinese, Babylonians, Greeks, and Jews. This same calendar was also used by the
Arabs, but Muhammad later forbade shifting from 12 months to 13 months, so that the Islamic
calendar now has a lunar year of about 354 days. As a result, the months of the Islamic calendar,
as well as the Islamic religious festivals, migrate through all the seasons of the year.
Even with Mercedonius, the Roman calendar eventually became so far off that Julius Caesar,
advised by the astronomer Sosigenes, ordered a sweeping reform. 46 B.C. was made 445 days
long by imperial decree, bringing the calendar back in step with the seasons. Then the solar year
(with the value of 365 days and 6 hours) was made the basis of the calendar. The months were
30 or 31 days in length, and to take care of the 6 hours, every fourth year was made a 366day
year. Moreover, Caesar decreed the year began with the first of January, not with the vernal
equinox in late March.
This calendar was named the Julian calendar, after Julius Caesar, and it continues to be used by
Eastern Orthodox churches for holiday calculations to this day. However, despite the correction,
the Julian calendar is still 111/2 minutes longer than the actual solar year, and after a number of
centuries, even 111/2 minutes adds up.
The Gregorian Reform
By the 15th century the Julian calendar had drifted behind the solar calendar by about a week, so
that the vernal equinox was falling around March 12 instead of around March 20. Pope Sixtus IV
(who reigned from 1471 to 1484) decided that another reform was needed and called the German
astronomer Regiomontanus to Rome to advise him. Regiomontanus arrived in 1475, but
unfortunately he died shortly afterward, and the pope's plans for reform died with him.
Then in 1545, the Council of Trent authorized Pope Paul III to reform the calendar once more.
Most of the mathematical and astronomical work was done by Father Christopher Clavius, S.J.
The immediate correction, advised by Father Clavius and ordered by Pope Gregory XIII, was that
Thursday, Oct. 4, 1582, was to be the last day of the Julian calendar. The next day would be
Friday, Oct. 15. For longrange accuracy, a formula suggested by the Vatican librarian Aloysius
Giglio was adopted: every fourth year is a leap year unless it is a century year like 1700 or 1800.
Century years can be leaping years only when they are divisible by 400 (e.g., 1600 and 2000).
This rule eliminates three leap years in four centuries, making the calendar sufficiently accurate.
In spite of the revised leap year rule, an average calendar year is still about 26 seconds longer
than the Earth's orbital period. But this discrepancy will need 3,323 years to build up to a single
day.
Year Country
1582 Catholic states of Italy, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, Holland, and Poland
1584 German and Swiss Catholic states
1587 Hungary
1700 German, Swiss, and Dutch Protestant States, Denmark, and Norway
1752 Great Britain and its possessions (including the American colonies)
1873 Japan
1875 Egypt
1918 Russia
1924 Greece
1926 Turkey
1949 China
A Better Calendar?
Despite its widespread use, the Gregorian calendar has a number of weaknesses. It cannot be
divided into equal halves or quarters; the number of days per month is haphazard; and months
and years may begin on any day of the week. Holidays pegged to specific dates may also fall on
any day of the week, and few Americans can predict when Thanksgiving will occur next year.
Since Gregory XIII, many other proposals for calendar reform have been made, but none has
been permanently adopted. In the meantime, the Gregorian calendar keeps the calendar dates in
reasonable unison with astronomical events.