Cooking oil

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Plant oils

Olive oil

Types

Vegetable oil (list)

Macerated oil (list)
Essential oil (list)

Uses

Drying oil
Oil paint
Cooking oil
Fuel
Biodiesel

Components

Saturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
Polyunsaturated fat
Trans fat

v
 t
e

Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in
food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense
might be more accurately termed edible oil.
Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such
as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.[1]
There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola
oil (rapeseed oil), corn oil, peanut oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal-based oils like butter and lard.
Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic.

Contents
[hide]

1Health and nutrition

o 1.1Trans fats
o 1.2Cooking with oil
o 1.3Storing and keeping oil
2Types and characteristics
o 2.1Smoke point
o 2.2Comparison to other types of food
3Cooking oil extraction and refinement
o 3.1Extraction
o 3.2Refinement
4Waste cooking oil
o 4.1Recycling
o 4.2Adulteration
5Notes
6References
7Further reading
8External links

Health and nutrition[edit]

Olive oil
Sunflower seed oil

A guideline for the appropriate amount of fata component of daily food consumptionis established by
regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of
daily calories should be from saturated fat, and 20-35% of total daily calories should come
from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.[2]
While consumption of small amounts of saturated fats is common in diets, [3] meta-analyses found a significant
correlation between high consumption of saturated fats and blood LDL concentration,[4] a risk
factor for cardiovascular diseases.[5] Other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled,
randomized trials found a positive,[6] or neutral,[7] effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of
saturated fats (a 10% lower risk for 5% replacement).[7]
Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and palm
kernel oil. Those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably
monounsaturated) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier.[8] The
US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute[9] urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats, listing olive and canola oils as sources of healthier monounsaturated oils while soybean
and sunflower oils as good sources of polyunsaturated fats. One study showed that consumption of non-
hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower are preferable to the consumption of palm oil for
lowering the risk of heart disease.[10]
Peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy.

Trans fats[edit]
Main article: trans fat
Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health.[11] The consumption
of trans fats increases one's risk of coronary heart disease[12] by raising levels of "bad" LDL cholesterol and
lowering levels of "good" HDL cholesterol.[13] Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than
naturally occurring oils.[14]
Several large studies[15][16][17][18] indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and
coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and the American Heart Association (AHA) all have
recommended limiting the intake of trans fats.

Cooking with oil[edit]

Heating an oil changes its characteristics. Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy
when heated above certain temperatures, so when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's heat
tolerance with the temperature which will be used.[19] Deep-fat frying temperatures are commonly in the range of
170190 C (338374 F), less commonly, lower temperatures 130 C (266 F) are used.[20]
Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and
sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand deep frying at higher temperatures and is resistant
to oxidation compared to high-polyunsaturated vegetable oils.[21] Since about 1900, palm oil has been
increasingly incorporated into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep
frying, or in baking at very high temperatures,[22][23] and for its high levels of natural antioxidants.[24]
The following oils are suitable for high-temperature frying due to their high smoke point above 230 C (446 F):

Avocado oil
Mustard oil
 Palm oil
Peanut oil (marketed as "groundnut oil" in the UK and India)
Rice bran oil
Safflower oil
Semi-refined sesame oil
Semi-refined sunflower oil[25]
Less aggressive frying temperatures are frequently used.[26] A quality frying oil has a bland flavor, at least
200 C (392 F) smoke and 315 C (599 F) flash points, with maximums of 0.1% free fatty acids and 3%
linolenic acid.[27] Those oils with higher linolenic fractions are avoided due to polymerization or gumming marked
by increases in viscosity with age.[26]Olive oil resists thermal degradation and has been used as a frying oil for
thousands of years.[26]

Olive oil
Storing and keeping oil[edit]
All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen.[28] To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert
gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production a
process called tank blanketing.
In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if
they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed
from cold storage just long enough for use.
Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as macadamia oil,[28] keep up to a year, while those high in
polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil, keep about six months. Rancidity tests have shown that the shelf life
of walnut oil is about 3 months, a period considerably shorter than the best before date shown on labels.[28]
By contrast, oils high in saturated fats, such as avocado oil, have relatively long shelf lives and can be safely
stored at room temperature, as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability.[28]

Types and characteristics[edit]

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Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids.[29] For the purpose of frying food, oils high in
monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less
desirable.[20] High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of
safflower and sunflower.[30]
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Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1
 Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1

69. 17.
Almond[31] 6.5 1.7 0.6
4 4

Almond[32] 1 5 77 17

Apricot 58. 29.

5.8 0.5 1.5
kernel[31] 5 3

10. 67. 12.

Avocado[31] 0.7 2.7 1
9 9 5

24. 54.
Basil[33] 8.5 11
5 5

13. 11. 0. 29. 0. 42.

Brazil nut[34] 0.1 0.3 0.2
5 8 5 1 2 8

5. 2. 1. 3. 10. 28. 10. 20. 0.

Butter[35] 3.4 1.4 2
3 8 6 1 8 1 6 8 3

Butter, anhydr 3. 1. 1. 2. 26. 12.

2.8 10 2.2 25 2.2 1.4
ous[31] 2 9 1 5 2 1

0. 0. 61. 1.
Canola[31] 4.3 2.1 0.2 19 9.1
7 3 7 3

0. 0. 0. 64. 18.
Canola[36] 3.9 1.9 0.2 1 9.2
6 2 2 1 7
 Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1

11.
Cashew[33] 9 61 17
5

Cocoa 25. 33. 32.

0.1 0.2 2.8 0.1
butter[31] 4 2 6

0. 7. 6. 47. 18. 0.
Coconut[37] 8.9 2.7 6.4 1.6
4 3 6 8 1 1

10. 0. 27. 0. 53.

Corn[31] 1.8 0.1 1.2
6 4 3 1 5

25. 0. 0. 17. 52.

Cottonseed[38] 0.9 2.5 0.6 0.1
5 3 2 7 2

15. 69.
Grapeseed[31] 0.1 6.7 2.7 0.3 0.1
8 6

0. 79. 0. 10.
Hazelnut[34] 0.1 5.8 2.7 0.3 0.5
2 3 2 4

11. 56.
Hemp[33] 6.5 3 20
5 5

0. 24. 14. 43. 10.

Lard[39] 0.2 1.4 2.8 1
1 9 1 1 7

Macadamia 2. 17. 65. 2.

1 8.4 3.2 2.3 0.1
nut[34] 3 3 1 2
 Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1

11. 6. 41. 15.

Mustard[31] 1.4 3.8 1.1 0.2 5.9
6 2 2 3

11. 0. 0. 71. 0.
Olive[31] 2 1.3 9.8 0.8
3 4 1 3 3

13. 0. 12.
Olive, Virgin[40] 2.8 1.9 69
8 1 2

0. 3. 3. 16. 14.
Palm kernel[41] 48 8.5 2.1 2.5
3 6 3 7 9

43. 0. 39. 10.

Palm[42] 0.3 1.1 4.3 0.2 0.3
5 2 8 2

43. 36. 0.
Palm[31] 0.1 1 4.3 0.3 9.1 0.2
5 6 1

11. 1. 46. 1. 31.

Peanut[36] 0.1 3.1 3 1 0.2
6 5 5 4 4

Rapeseed[29] 31 23 19

60. 22.
Rapeseed[40] 4.8 1.9 9.5
5 5

19. 0. 0. 42. 0. 31.

Rice bran[43] 0.4 1.9 0.2 1.2
8 9 3 3 5 9
 Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1

Safflower, hig 0. 0. 0. 74. 0. 12.

4.9 1.9 0.1 0.1
h oleic[31] 1 4 3 8 3 7

13. 75.
Safflower[44] 7.3 2.5 0.5
6 7

0. 0. 40. 0. 42.
Sesame[45] 0.1 9.2 5.8 0.1 0.3
7 2 6 2 6

10. 0. 0. 22. 0.
Soybean[31] 4.4 51 6.8
5 4 4 6 2

0. 0. 23. 53.
Soybean[36] 0.1 11 4 0.1 7.8
3 1 4 2

Soybean, low 10. 0. 0. 26. 55.

linolenic[38]
4.5 2
8 4 4 1 4

Soybean, high 0. 0. 85.

7.3 3.4 1.3 2
oleic[note 1] 4 4 1

0. 18. 68.
Sunflower[36] 0.5 0.2 6.8 4.7 0.1 0.5
4 6 2

Sunflower, hig 19. 65.

h linoleic[31]
5.9 4.5
5 7

Sunflower, lin 45. 39.

5.4 3.5 0.2 0.2
oleic[31] 3 8
 Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA

Oils and 10: 20: 22: 24: 20:

4:0 6:0 8:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 16:1 18:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
fats 0 0 0 0 1

Sunflower, mi 0. 0. 0. 28.
0.1 4.2 3.6 0.1 57
d-oleic[31] 3 8 2 9

Sunflower, hig 82.

0.1 3.7 4.3 1 0.1 1 3.6 0.2
h oleic[31] 6

Sunflower, hig 5 3 82 9
h oleic I[46]

Sunflower, hig 5 4 90 1
h oleic II[46]

Tallow, 24. 18. 0.

0.9 3.7 4.2 36 3.1 0.6
beef[31] 9 9 3

Tallow, 21. 19. 37.

3.8 2.3 5.5 2.3
mutton[31] 5 5 6

0. 0. 57. 11.
Walnut[34] 0.1 6.7 2.3 0.2 21
1 2 5 6

[47] Parts per hundred

1. Jump up^ Warner and Gupta reported fishy and stale flavors in potato chips fried in this oil and attributed them to
the unusual linoleic:linolenic acids ratio.[38]

Smoke point[edit]
The smoke point is marked by "a continuous wisp of smoke."[48] It is the temperature at which an oil starts to
burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation
of nutrients and phytochemicals characteristic of the oil.[49]
Above the smoke point are flash and fire points.[48] The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will
ignite but aren't produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about 275
 330 C (527626 F).[50] The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will
catch on fire and burn.[50] As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease.[50] They depend more
on an oil's acidity than fatty-acid profile.[51]
The smoke point of cooking oils varies generally in association with how an oil is refined: a higher smoke point
results from removal of impurities and free fatty acids.[49] Residual solvent remaining from the refining process
may decrease the smoke point.[51] It has been reported to increase with the inclusion of antioxidants (BHA,
BHT, and TBHQ). For these reasons, the published smoke points of oils may vary.[51]
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Fat Quality Smoke Point

Almond oil 221C 430F[52]

Avocado oil Refined 270C 520F[53][54]

Mustard oil 250C 480F[55]

Butter 150C 302F[56]

Canola oil 220-230C[57] 428446F

Canola oil (Rapeseed) Expeller press 190-232C 375-450F[58]

Canola oil (Rapeseed) Refined 204C 400F

Canola oil (Rapeseed) Unrefined 107C 225F

Castor oil Refined 200C[59] 392F

Coconut oil Refined, dry 204C 400F[60]

Coconut oil Unrefined, dry expeller pressed, virgin 177C 350F[60]

Fat Quality Smoke Point

Corn oil 230-238C[61] 446-460F

Corn oil Unrefined 178C[59] 352F

Cottonseed oil Refined, bleached, deodorized 220-230C[62] 428446 F

Flaxseed oil Unrefined 107C 225F[54]

Lard 190C 374F[56]

Olive oil Refined 199-243C 390-470F[63]

Olive oil Virgin 210C[59] 410F

Olive oil Extra virgin, low acidity, high quality 207C 405F[54][64]

Olive oil Extra virgin 190C 374F[64]

Olive oil Extra virgin 160C 320F[54]

Palm oil Difractionated 235C[65] 455F

Peanut oil Refined 232C[54] 450F

Peanut oil 229C[66] 445F

Peanut oil 227C[54] 441F

 Fat Quality Smoke Point

Peanut oil Unrefined 160C[54] 320F

Rice bran oil Refined 213C[43] 415F

Sesame oil Unrefined 177C 350F[54]

Sesame oil Semirefined 232C 450F[54]

Soybean oil 234C[67] 453F

Sunflower oil Neutralized, dewaxed, bleached & deodorized 252-254C[68] 486489F

Sunflower oil Semirefined 232C[54] 450F

Sunflower oil 227C[54] 441F

Sunflower oil Unrefined, first cold-pressed, raw 107C[69] 225F

Sunflower oil, high oleic Refined 232C 450F[54]

Sunflower oil, high oleic Unrefined 160C 320F[54]

Vegetable oil blend Refined 220C[64] 428F

Oils are extracted from nuts, seeds, olives, grains or legumes by extraction using industrial chemicals or by
mechanical processes. Expeller pressing is a chemical-free process that collects oils from a source using a
mechanical press with minimal heat. Cold-pressed oils are extracted under a controlled temperature setting
usually below 105 C (221 F) intended to preserve naturally occurring phytochemicals, such
as polyphenols, plant sterols and vitamin E which collectively affect color, flavor, aroma and nutrient value.[49]
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 SFA MUFA PUFA Omega- Smoke
Type of point Uses
oil or fat
[70][71]
3 6

221 C
Almond 8% 66% 26% 0 17% Baking, sauces, flavoring
(430 F)
271 C Frying, sauting, dipping oil,
Avocado oil 12% 74% 14% 0.95% 12%
(520 F) salad oil
150 C Cooking, baking, condiment,
Butter 66% 30% 4% 0.3% 2.7%
(302 F) sauces, flavoring
190250 C Deep frying,
Butter,
65% 32% 3% 0 0 (374 cooking, sauting,
clarified, Ghee
482 F) condiment, flavoring
225 C Frying, baking, salad
Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 9.1% 18%
(437 F)[57] dressings
177 C Cooking, tropical cuisine,
Coconut oil (virgin) 92% 6% 2% 0 1.8%
(351 F) beauty products
Frying, baking, salad
235 C
Corn oil 13% 25% 62% 1.1% 53% dressings, margarine,
(455 F)[72]
shortening
Margarine, shortening,
216 C
Cottonseed oil 24% 26% 50% 0.2% 50% salad dressings,
(421 F)
commercially fried products
Diacylglycerol (DAG) 215 C
3.05% 37.95% 59% 0 - Frying, baking, salad oil
oil (419 F)
Flaxseed 107 C Salad dressings, nutritional
11% 21% 68% 53% 13%
oil, Linseed oil[73] (225 F) supplement
204 C Cooking, salad dressings,
Grapeseed oil 12% 17% 71% 0.1% 69%
(399 F) margarine
165 C
Hemp oil 9% 12% 79% 18% 55% Cooking, salad dressings
(329 F)
138201 C
Lard 41% 47% 2% 1% 10% (280 Baking, frying
394 F)
Cooking, frying, deep frying,
210 C
Macadamia oil 12.5% 84% 3.5% 0 2.8% salads, dressings. A slightly
(410 F)
nutty odour.
150 C
Margarine (hard) 80% 14% 6% 2% 22% Cooking, baking, condiment
(302 F)
150160 C
Margarine (soft) 20% 47% 33% 2.4% 23% (302 Cooking, baking, condiment
320 F)
Cooking, frying, deep frying,
254 C
Mustard oil 13% 60% 21% 5.9% 15% salads, dressings. Very
(489 F)
clean flavoured & palatable.
Olive oil (extra 190 C Cooking, salad oils,
14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8%
virgin) (374 F) margarine
 SFA MUFA PUFA Omega- Smoke
Type of point Uses
oil or fat
[70][71]
3 6

215 C Cooking, salad oils,

Olive oil (virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8%
(419 F) margarine
Sautee, stir frying, deep
225 C
Olive oil (refined) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 frying, cooking, salad oils,
(437 F)
margarine
Sautee, stir frying, frying,
242 C
Olive oil (extra light) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 deep frying, cooking, salad
(468 F)
oils, margarine
230 C Frying,[74] cooking, flavoring,
Palm oil 52% 38% 10% 0.2% 9.1%
(446 F) vegetable oil, shortening
Peanut 231 C Frying, cooking, salad oils,
18% 49% 33% 0 31%
oil (groundnut) (448 F) margarine
121 C
Pumpkin seed oil 8% 36% 57% 0% 64% Salad oils
(250 F)
Cooking, frying, deep frying,
213 C
Rice bran oil 20% 47% 33% 1.6% 33% salads, dressings. Very
(415 F)[43]
clean flavoured & palatable.
Safflower oil (high 242 C
6% 75% 13% Frying, cooking
oleic)[75][76] (468 F)[72]
Safflower 242 C Cooking, salad dressings,
6% 14% 75%
oil (linoleic)[77] (468 F)[72] margarine
Sesame 177 C
14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% Cooking
oil (unrefined) (351 F)
Sesame oil (semi- 232 C
14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% Cooking, deep frying
refined) (450 F)
Cooking, salad dressings,
240 C
Soybean oil 15% 24% 61% 6.7% 50% vegetable oil, margarine,
(464 F)[72]
shortening
Sunflower oil (high 244 C
9% 82% 9% 0.2% 3.6% Frying, cooking[79]
oleic, refined)[78] (471 F)[72]
Sunflower
240 C Cooking, salad dressings,
oil (linoleic, 11% 20% 69% 0% 56%
(464 F)[72] margarine, shortening
refined)[78]
Sunflower oil (mid-
211 C Commercial food
oleic, refined, 9% 65% 26%
(412 F)[72] manufacturing
NuSun)[78]
252 C Cooking, salad dressings,
Tea seed oil[80] 22% 60% 18% 0.7% 22%
(486 F) stir frying, frying, margarine
Salad dressings, added to
Walnut oil (semi- 204 C
9% 23% 63% 10% 53% cold dishes to enhance
refined) (399 F)[81]
flavor
[82]

Comparison to other types of food[edit]

 [show]
Fat composition in different foods

Cooking oil extraction and refinement[edit]

Olive oil production in Croatia

Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a
seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet
buyer expectations.

Extraction[edit]
There are three broad types of oil extraction:

Chemical solvent extraction, most commonly using hexane.

Pressing, using an expeller press or cold press (pressing at low temperatures to prevent oil heating).
Decanter centrifuge.
In large-scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction
and/or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible.[93]

Refinement[edit]
Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any
combination):

Distilling, which heats the oil to evaporate off chemical solvents from the extraction process.
Degumming, by passing hot water through the oil to precipitate out gums and proteins that are soluble in
water but not in oil, then discarding the water along with the impurities.
Neutralization,[94] or deacidification, which treats the oil with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to pull
out free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes.
Bleaching, which removes "off-colored" components by treatment with fuller's earth, activated carbon, or
activated clays, followed by heating, filtering, then drying to recoup the oil.
Dewaxing, or winterizing, improves clarity of oils intended for refrigeration by dropping them to low
temperatures and removing any solids that form.
Deodorizing, by treating with high-heat pressurized steam to evaporate less stable compounds that might
cause "unusual" odors or tastes.
Preservative addition, such as BHA and BHT to help preserve oils that have been made less stable due to
high-temperature processing.
Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement,
although it doesn't alter the state of the oil.
Most large-scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product
that's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life.[93] Cooking oil intended for the health
food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high
temperatures and chemical processing.

Waste cooking oil[edit]

A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, USA, managed by a recycling company.

Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste-management concern. Oil can congeal on pipes
provoking blockages.[95]
Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to
dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage.[96] Placing the
container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.

Recycling[edit]
Main article: Vegetable oil recycling
Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used as animal feed, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel,[97] soap,
and other industrial products.
In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically
from deep fryers or griddles) is called recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable
oil (WVO), or yellow grease.[98]
Yellow grease is used to feed livestock, and to make soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents,
and biodiesel fuel.[99][100]
Used cooking oil, besides being converted to biodiesel, can be used directly in modified diesel engines and for
heating.
Grease traps or interceptors collect fats and oils from kitchen sinks and floor drains which would othewise
clog sewer lines and interfere with septic systems and sewage treatment. The collected product is
called brown grease in the recycling industry.[98] Brown grease is contaminated with rotted food solids and
considered unsuitable for re-use in most applications.

Adulteration[edit]
Gutter oil and trench oil are terms used in China to describe recycled oil processed to resemble virgin oil, but
containing toxic contaminants and sold illegally for cooking; its origin is frequently brown grease
from garbage.[101]
In Kenya, thieves sell transformer oil stolen from electric transformers to operators of roadside food stalls for
use in deep frying, suitable for prolonged use longer than regular cooking oil, but a threat to consumer health
due to the presence of PCBs.[102]