Vol. 4(4), pp.

102-114, June, 2013

DOI: 10.5897/IJEL12.075
International Journal of English and
ISSN 1996-0816 2013 Academic Journals Literature
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJEL

Review

Reading kurunmi and ijaye as factual historical war

dramas: A genre and text
Tunji AZEEZ

Department of Theatre Arts and Music, Lagos State University, Lagos, Nigeria.
Accepted 6 July, 2012

The Nigerian dramatic stage has been greatly enriched by the twin concepts of war and insurgence.
Unlike the literatures derived from the Nigerian civil war that have been classified by critics as Nigerian
War Literatures, plays written on war and insurgence have been generally misclassified as tragedy,
historical plays, satire or any other popular genre. Such general classifications, definitely, do not
adequately represent plays on war and insurgence. For this reason, there is a need to re-question these
plays with a view to laying new criteria for their classification as war dramas. The study adopts the
genre theory in its content analysis of two plays that are derived from historical wars and written by two
Nigerian playwrights whose selection is informed by their generational and ideological position vis-a-
vis dramatic recreation of history. Rotimis and Ogunyemis Kurunmi and Ijaye plays on the 19th
century Yoruba war between Ijaye and Ibadan armies are studied in detail to arrive at a sub-genre of war
drama which this study delineates as Factual Historical War Drama. In arriving at this sub-genre of
drama, the paper examines such dramatic devices as theme, characterisation and style as well as the
faithfulness of the writers in utilizing actual historical materials and personalities of the war. It argues
that a conscious reading of the plays as war dramas would make the reader to have the privilege of
having a real sense of the war rather than seeing it as history in his/her understanding and
interpretation of the play.

Key words: Genre theory, factual historical, war, drama, insurgence.

INTRODUCTION

Since the beginning of literary drama which historians philosophically. By this position, genre theorists have
have, with ample evidence, traced to ancient Greece, the argued that the Aristotelian prescription has bedevilled
concept of genre has been a fundamental one in its any discussion of genre as readers/audiences, as the
appreciation and evaluation. In fact, this stance is writers have been given parameters for the creation,
supported by one of the leading genre theorists of the enjoyment and evaluation of works of art. This, they
20th century, Rick Altiman (1999). Altimans position is, argue, conditions the mind of the audience/reader when
of the entire concepts fundamental to literary theory, certain works are classified based on certain factors of
none has a longer and more distinguished lineage than genre. One of those who support this position is Kolker
the question of literary types or genre; this is also (2007) when he posits, genre helps us to classify and
supported by Grant (2007). prepare the viewers for what they will see. But, while it
Grant, like Altiman before him, contends that Aristotle, may seem simple to categorise literary works into
the first genre theorist known to us, identified two different genres and sub-genres, a critical look at the
problems in his discussion of genre when he set the rules parameters guiding our arrival at any classification is
for the writing of tragedy and comedy and went further to problematic.
place tragedy above comedy, both aesthetically and As Stam (2000) correctly observed:

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 Azeez 103

A number of perennial doubts plague genre From the aforementioned, we may then move to an
theory. Are genres really out there in the world, understanding of why people consciously or otherwise
or are they merely the constructions of analysts? categorise literary texts and the parameters employed in
Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in such categorisations. Surely, thematic thrust may be a
principle infinite? valid criterion to categorise texts but it is not sufficient.
The reason for this as advanced by a genre theorist,
The questions raised by Stam above are germane to this Bordwell (1989) is that any literary genre can treat any
paper, for this paper is predicated on the observation that theme and how the theme is treated is what is important.
existing generic classification of the works to be studied We may therefore conclude that theme, treatment and
does not adequately represent them. But before we go purpose are valid criteria to classify literary works into
on, what really do we mean by genre? The word genres/or sub-genres.
genre, Daniel Chandler (2000) argues: The above, therefore, leads us to the reason for
advancing a sub-genre of historical drama nominally
...comes from the French (and originally Latin) referred to as Factual Historical War Drama. The
word for kind or class. The term is widely used underlying factor behind this categorisation is that certain
in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and salient issues in the dramas could be overlooked if the
more recently, linguistics to refer to a distinctive plays under consideration are read basically as historical
type of text. ...for most of its 2,000 years, genre drama. This is because as Kolker (2007) points out, while
study has been primarily nominological and there are relatively stable genres such as tragedy and
typological in function. That is to say, it has taken comedy, from within these large groupings, subgenres
as its principal task the division of the world of emerge. He adds further, Genres, though born of
literature into types and the naming of those constraints, can be quite supple, stretching and moving
types, as much as the botanist divides the realm with cultural demands of the moment. Therefore, in an
of flora into varieties of plants. age where war and conflict of all sorts are rife, such as on
the African continent, a conscious reading of the works
As straight-forward as this definition seems, Chandler as war dramas, no doubt, will give the reader the
identifies a major problem in it when he contends that opportunity to see war in its reality and its attendant
while it may be easy for the botanist or any other scientist effects over and above any other issue in the drama as
to classify objects and phenomenon biologically, this is would be seen in the discussion of the plays. But before
not the case when we get to the realm of literature or the we do this, it is apt to give a brief background of the
mass media. The reason for this is that unlike in the writers whose works are studied below.
sciences where taxonomy follows defined and definite
criteria, literary genres overlap so much that what is From a common back cloth: background to Ola
considered a genre by one theorist may be considered as Rotimi and Wale Ogunyemi
a sub-genre or even a style by another theorist
depending on the point of view of such theorists. Ogunyemi and Rotimi are writers with keen interest in the
The ancestor of all genre theorists, Aristotle, in his Yoruba history and culture as evident in their works. They
Poetics classified drama into two namely, tragedy and employ such elements as song, music, dance and riddles
comedy. Aristotle, as mentioned earlier, went beyond the of the Yoruba people so much that their plays appeal to
merely nominal and typological to ascribe importance to all and sundry irrespective of academic background or
one genre over the other when he argues that tragedy is social class. It can be noted also, that both Rotimi and
a superior dramatic genre to comedy. However, genre Ogunyemi are contemporaries in age, with just one year
theorists after Aristotle have contended that difference in-between them, and that both of them are concerned
does not necessarily mean better or superior as genre with reaching out to the ordinary people of Nigeria as
also focuses on the taste and attraction of the reader or seen in their use and domestication of the English
audience. Chandler captures it very succinctly when he Language. Rotimi, for instance has this to say in this
submits that: regard, quoting Coker (1992):

How we define genre depends on our purposes; When I was coming on the scene in 1966, the
if we are studying the way in which genre frames atmosphere toward the theatre in English was
the readers interpretation of a text then we one of ambivalence. This was understandable
would do well to focus on how readers identify because foreign language in the expression of
genres rather than on theoretical distinctions. our theatrical thoughts exposes us to doubts in
Defining genre may be problematic, but even if the minds of our targets, the spectators. It
theorists were to abandon the concept, in diminishes our credibility.
everyday life people will continue to categorise
texts. The quote above perhaps reflects Ogunyemis view too
104 Int. J. English Lit.

on the need to bring their plays closer to the people by a deconstruct existing colonial accounts of the war as well
deliberate domestication of the English Language to as foreground the fact that the 19th century wars with their
sound like what Adelugba (1975) refers to as Yoruba intrigues and consequent resolutions have a place in
English. contemporary dialogue towards the achievement and
The writers also came onto the Nigerian dramatic understanding of the postcolonial discourse on war and
space the same year, 1966. In addition, both of them are peace generally in Africa and particularly in Nigeria. This
fascinated by the dramatic materials that history offers to approach and belief is not peculiar to Nigerian dramatists,
willing dramatists. No wonder, then, that in form and historians, political scientists and politicians but to their
content as well as in performance style, the two are the counterparts in Africa specifically and the world at large.
closest allies. Olu Obafemi (1996:89) says: Niyi (2001), looking at how African writers generally and
Ngugi and Mugo specifically have deconstructed
Ola Rotimi and wale Ogunyemi are perhaps the Eurocentric historical accounts to give privilege to the
closest dramatists in English to the traditional margin, says:
performing arts in Nigeria in terms of the use of
oral tradition and history. They are both It is common knowledge that the history of the
concerned, primarily, with reaching the Nigerian colonised -which was written by the colonisers
audience at whatever levels of competence in and considered objective and authoritative
English Language in which they operate. during the colonial era projects the outlook of
the colonising powers: their biases and their
On performance style, he goes further: deliberate misrepresentation of the colonised.
And through the reconstruction of history in this
Owing to their strong commitment to the need to context by indigenous historians and leading
gain rapport with the audience in the mode of nationalists, the intervention of writers in the
traditional drama, they both prefer to produce interrogation of historical distortions underscores
their plays in the round (close to the open air or the urgency of retrieving and rehabilitating
village square performance tradition), rather than marginalized perspectives in the representation
the proscenium stage. of historical experiences.

It is little wonder, then, that both of them have written on

the 19th century Yoruba wars in particular and generally The Ibadan-Ijaye war is derived from the rivalry of the
on other events, myths and legends of the African different successor powers of the Old Oyo Empire, an
people. Perhaps, one thing that Obafemi did not mention empire trying to fill the power vacuum created by the
is the fact that both writers, Rotimi and Ogunyemi began collapse of the empire due to its sack by the Fulani army
their careers as staff of their various institutions, Institute in 1831. Before the sack of the Old Oyo or Katunga as it
of African Studies. While Rotimi was at the Institute of was then called, the empire had become the most
African Studies, Ife, Ogunyemi was holding a similar important power with its territory spreading from South-
position at Ibadan. It is no doubt that both of them were western Nigeria to Dahomey. Its capital was well situated
first and foremost researchers into African culture and in the Savannah near the River Niger.
tradition, a job which definitely impacted on their creative After its collapse, Atiba moved with some of the
geniuses. Rotimi wrote several plays based on history refugees to establish a new Oyo and by the middle of the
th
Kurunmi, Ovonramwen Nogbaisi and Hopes of the Living 19 century, Oyo has bounced back as a major political
Dead (1971, 1974) while Ogunyemi (1997, 1976), on force as it was now secure from the threat of the Fulani.
the other hand, also draws extensively from history and As Smith and Ajayi (1971) noted:
myth as revealed in Ijaye, Kiriji, Esu Elegbara, Obaluaye,
Be Mighty, Be Mine and Langbodo At the new capital also named Oyo, he worked
This paper discusses these plays not just as historical patiently to regain the power of his ancestors. He
drama as other writers such as Obafemi (1996), had been a wild dissolute young prince but as
Olaniyan (1997), Ebewo (2005) and Adeniyi (2007) etc Alafin, he returned to tradition as the only
have done, but to see these plays as war dramas. This possible restorer of order.
is because not all plays drawn from history are war
dramas just as not all war dramas are historical dramas. Atiba succeeded in building a new capital but for military
strength, he depended on two major warrior towns;
Ibadan and Ijaye. He therefore, cleverly, gave titles to the
Factual historical war drama: A study of Kurunmi and leaders of these towns the leader of Ibadan, a fierce
Ijaye warrior; Ibikunle was given the title of Balogun or War
general, while the leader of Ijaye, Kurunmi, was invested
It is important to state that the two writers, Rotimi and with the title of Are-Ona-Kankanfo or Generalissimo. Of
Ogunyemi are writing as postcolonial dramatists both to these two towns, Ibadan and Ijaye,
 Azeez 105

Smith and Ajayi have this to say of Ibadan: of the bodies of the living, bodies that have
warmth, and blood, and sweat.
though Ibadan continued to recognise the
suzerainty of the Alafin, it was largely an The opening scene tells a lot about the personality of
autonomous republic ruled by a military the master of the agbole, Kurunmi. Abogunrin, semi
oligarchy. The class of chiefs trained their young drunk pours libation to the gods. The mere fact that
men in war and set their slaves and prisoners of several gods, Ogun, Sango, Esu etc are present in this
war to cultivate their farms. Agriculture was a compound shows the arrogance of the lord of Ijaye,
lowly and war a noble profession. Kurunmi. He has domesticated all the gods, turned them
into captives whom he alone has the right to consult. This
On Ijaye they write: scene also prepares the audience for the grand arrival of
Aare Kurunmi as drummers, dancers, villagers, praise
At Ijaye, Kurunmi, the greatest Yoruba general singers all perform and announce his coming. All of a
established a personal ascendancy. He was sudden, the dancing and drumming stop; everybody
king, judge, general, entertainer, sometimes also prostrates himself, in ready deference to Kurunmi
executioner. All refugees in the town had to entrance. In fact, Asunraras praise-chant of Kurunmi
submit to his will or quit. foreshadows the awesome nature and personality of
Kurunmi:
Thus, there was rivalry between these towns established.
Therefore, when Atiba sensed that he was soon to die, Kurunmi, the unfathomable.
he called his leading chiefs, notably amongst them, Granite.
Kurunmi and Ibikunle to accept the crowned Prince Lord that must be obeyed.
Adelu, as his successor. This is contrary to the Like a thief demander of absolutes.
constitution of Oyo, which stipulates that at the death of The lion himself, prowling,
an Alafin, his eldest son, the crowned Prince has to die unrushed in the mysteries of night.
with him. Ibadan accepted Atibas plea while Ijaye, under
Kurunmi, rejected it as a violation of tradition. The There is no gainsaying that a character portrayed in
outcome of their respective stance is the source of drama this way will definitely not be reasonable but be stubborn,
for Rotimi and Ogunyemi. The plays bring to the fore the arrogant and abrasive, in fact, a perfect war-monger. So,
intricacies, manipulations, joys and sorrows of war. when Kurunmi storms in, closely followed by his five
In Kurunmi and Ijaye, based on what is revealed above, sons, we hear the entire crowd pay homage to him, ka
we see two parties: Ibadan warriors, especially biyesi! Are-ona-kankanfo.
Ogunmola and Kurunmi of Ijaye demonstrating It is important to understand the eternal truth that in the
aggression and the urge for war, while Ibikunle, an older Yoruba world of that era and even to the present, only a
warrior and the Balogun of Ibadan, a man who has seen king, say the Alafin, is addressed as kabiyesi or he-who-
more wars than Ogunmola and perhaps Kurunmi himself must-not be-questioned. The mere fact that Kurunmi has
walking the path of peace; but the two aggressors, turned himself into a king and a demander of absolutes
Kurunmi and Ogunmola would have none of it. This in a portrays him as a man who is perfectly arrogant.
way negates what Rice (1990) says, it takes two to Ogunyemi, also in Ijaye opens his play in the
make peace, but only one to make war, and because compound of Aare Kurunmi. Like Rotimi, he describes
pride inhibits the admission of gross error, wars are the compound in the following lines:
understandings from which extrication is peculiarly
difficult. This is because here, two people- Ogunmola Effigy of Sango and Ogun adore his palace.
and Kurunmi- and not one are war prone. Kurunmis sword is beside Oguns effigy. In the
Ola Rotimis play opens with the feast of Ororun, a distance, the sound of drums is heard, irregular,
feast where Kurunmi, the lord and master of Ijaye is chief suggestive of a tense ensemble of drums. Aare
priest. At this feast which takes place every five days, KURUNMI storms the stage a robust man,
Kurunmi feeds all his children, the people of Ijaye. It is a strong in personality, though old, smart in
merry occasion. The play opens on Kurunmis agbo le appearance (1).
or compound, a place, which Rotimi says of in the
opening stage direction as: In these ways, Rotimi and Ogunyemi put before us a
character that will do all things but listen to any dissenting
In this particular agbo le, for instance, the gods voice, any voice of reason. They present to us a perfect
of the tribe are present in varying images of victim of the Yoruba god of war, Ogun.
earth, granite and wood. Here also exists, or are As mentioned above, we are not concerned with the
believed to exist the spirits of departed historical accurateness of the plays, so we need not
ancestors: ethereal, invisible eternal guardians bother whether the historical Kurunmi attended the
106 Int. J. English Lit.

meeting where Atiba persuaded his top chiefs to accept Timi: No need.
his son, Adelu as king as presented by Rotimi or that Kurunmi: Move back for them.
Kurunmi sent some of his chiefs to attend the meeting - Oluyole: Dont bother.
as presented by Ogunyemi. The important thing, here, is Kurunmi: (to Oluyole) Go hang! (18-19)
that Atiba has made his proposal to his chiefs and
Kurunmi has rejected it, while the other chiefs accepted Despite the insult, Oluyole and Timi patiently plead with
it. It is his rejection of the Atibas proposal that the two Kurunmi to accept Adelu as king now that Atiba is dead
writers present us with. The two writers present Kurunmi but characteristically, Kurunmi will not budge. So, after
as a man without respect for constituted authority as Atibas death and Adelus ascension to his throne,
represented by Alafin Atiba. It is then ironical that Kurunmi alone of all the chiefs of Oyo and its surrounding
Kurunmi, a defender of tradition, would also, in defending towns and villages refuses to accept him as king. While
tradition, step on tradition. In reporting the meeting, Rotimi does not begin the war early, Ogunyemi presents
Kurunmi in Ola Rotimis Kurunmi tells his subjects: Kurunmi as a man who courts war at the slightest
excuse. As his warrior, messenger Oje brings him news
Oba Atiba came down from his high throne; in of Asipa of Oyos arrival to see him, he is quick to see
his right hand, the sword of Ogun; in his left him knowing that Asipa is the son of Oja, the founder of
hand, the bolt of Sango. He came towards us: Old Oyo and a claimant to the throne of Oyo. The Asipas
swear my people, said he. Swear to Ogun and news for Kurunmi is that two vassal towns under Ijaye,
to my forebear, Sango that my son, Adelu will be Okeho and Saki have sworn their allegiance to Oyo and
king after me Clown: I yelled, out of my despised Ijaye. Kurunmi, swiftly, pounces on these towns
cursed sight (spits) I shall be no party to taking captives:
perversion. I picked my staff and walked out.
Asipa: We had a delegation from Saki this
It is worthy to note that calling Atiba, the Alafin of Oyo, morning, and another from Okeho pledging their
the very man who made Kurunmi a chief in Ijaye a clown loyalty to Adelu and denouncing you.
to his face and before the other chiefs is a slap on Kurunmi: Now the Ibadan degenerates are
tradition, that very sacred order which he is supposed to playing with fire.
defend. Asipa: Adelu has now started a campaign
Of the same proposal, Ogunyemi, in Ijaye, has Kurunmi to contest your claim to supremacy over Oke-
bellow: Ogun.
Kurunmi: He is finished! He has set fire on his
A slap on my face! An effrontery against my own roof. I shall destroy his entire kingdom and
person and my chieftaincy! This is a challenge, bring you back on your ancestors throne Oje,
and we shall meet force with force. They are the go and get your men together immediately and
people who speak of peace in public but injure march on Okeho and Saki. Destroy their
us in private (My emphasis). buildings, seize everything you can and capture
slaves (5).
From this point, we know that peace cannot be achieved
as Kurunmi is bent on war. So, when Rotimi and By this singular act, apart from the public effrontery
Ogunyemi allow Kurunmi, the lord of Ijaye to choose against Atiba and his rejection of Adelu, Kurunmi has
between war and peace as we find in the peace move of drawn the battle line with Ibadan, a strong force behind
Oluyole and Timi, two prominent Yoruba chiefs, nothing Oyo. We also note, here, that Kurunmi swears that he
is achieved. Indeed, he has so indoctrinated his subjects would destroy Adelus kingdom. But the question is, why
that they show no respect for the chiefs as tradition would a reasonable man see a kingdom that he is
demands. And when the chiefs ask if they have fallen so expected to defend, a kingdom that gave him the title
low that even slaves will slight them, the following Are- Ona Kankanfo as Adelus kingdom? Had Kurunmi
ensues: seen Oyo as his kingdom and not as Adelus, the war,
surely, would have been averted.
Kurunmi indeed low you have fallen. Despite these acts of disregard for constituted
Does the aged he-goat have to be told that his authority, however, both Rotimi and Ogunyemi explore
present long beard is no more proof of sexual the possibility of peace as against Kurunmis choice of
strength? war. Ogunyemi, for instance, presents the message of
Oluyole: We thank you. Ibikunle of Ibadan and Alafin Adelu over Kurunmis attack
Kurunmi: (to townsfolk) Now prostrate of Okeho and Saki thus:
yourselves to them.
Oluyole: No use. Samu: We heard news of the incidence of
Kurunmi: Bring them chairs. Okeho and Saki and I am sent to ask you, for the
 Azeez 107

sake of peace and goodwill, to release those foolishness of his action. This shows that Kurunmi is like
captives in your grip. most men who lust after war, personalize all issues with
Kurunmi: What a request! Tell your people the sole aim of testing their might against any real or
that a fowl on a journey with the kite never perceived contender. As Rice (1999) says:
return (14).
Any conflict, whether it involves firepower or not,
After a while, Oje, Kurunmis warrior who marched on the is a psychological contest. It must be waged
two towns confers with Kurunmi and Kurunmi demands a against the opponents mind and ones own. But
ransom of seventy acres of yam, one thousand bags of one will never learn what one needs to know
yam flour and twenty horses. All to be brought before sun without first being aware that such a job needs to
set, otherwise the captives die. be done.
From the above, we note a strategy of war-peace-talk
or negotiation. In modern times, as in the old, talks The correctness of Rices position can be seen in the two
usually come before war for it is when dialogue fails that warring towns in Kurunmi and Ijaye. To tell his opponents
war becomes imminent and unavoidable. In essence, the that he is formidable, that he is the lion who must not be
Yoruba wars of the 19th century were not waged dared, Kurunmi in Ogunyemis Ijaye attacks Okeho and
senselessly without recourse to military strategies of Saki to imprint in the mind of the Ibadan warrior and their
averting or prosecuting them. They follow the pattern of Oyo monarch, Adelu, the fear of his awesome powers.
wars in every clime. The need for dialogue as a means to Rotimi does the same by making him smear a white cloth
preventing war is pushed further by Rotimi and with okra in derision of Adelu and by making him choose
Ogunyemi. Ogunyemi once again shows Samu and the calabash containing gun powder. Rotimis description
Aijenku, messengers from Ibadan with an Ogboni staff; of Kurunmis eagerness for war is succinctly reflected in
symbol of authority and of peace to Kurunmi to release the stage direction: Grabs the bowls containing
the captives but Kurunmi will have none of this. Instead, gunpowder and bullets. Kurunmi does not accept or
he demands the ransom and when Samu tells him that take the bowls; he GRABS them! It was at this time that
Balogun Ibikunle begs him in the name of Ogboni Kurunmi remembers Ogun, the Yoruba god of war and
fraternity- a traditional and sacred fraternity respected by iron: for the first time, Ogun, war has come. Bullets and
all for an easier condition- Kurunmi orders one of his gunpowder, Adelu sends the challenge to a fight. He
men, Jongban to go and kill the captives. He even goes does not tell Ogun that accompanying the gun and bullets
further to snatch the Ogboni staff from Aijenku and is also the Ogboni staff, a symbol of peace. Therefore,
smashes it on the floor. We see him do the same in we want to believe that the Ijaye war, a war that further
Rotimis Kurunmi. When presented with another weakened the Yoruba nation was predicated on personal,
opportunity to choose peace, he mocks Adelu and calls egocentric reasons, with Kurunmi not being the only
him a child by soiling his white apron with okra soup and guilty one but also the young and equally war hungry
gives the Oyo messengers the soiled apron to give to Ogunmola.
their king. This act is an absolute act of derision of the Ogunmola, the Bashorun of Ibadan, like Kurunmi, is
authority of the Alafin. presented by Ogunyemi and Rotimi as irascible, war
At last, when the path of peace and reason seems drunk and without regard for constituted authority or age.
closed, the messengers present him with two bowls: one All that Kurunmi needs as an excuse to wage war against
contains gunpowder, the other contains the sacred twins Ibadan is the kingship of Adelu, while what Ogunmola
of the Ogboni cult: needs is another form of preservation of tradition and
kingship, the defence of Adelu. However, Ogunmola as
Obagbori: The Alafin asks you to choose presented by Ola Rotimi has a score to settle with
between peace and war. Kurunmi. This is evident in Rotimis Kurunmi:
Kurunmi: (Grabs the bowl containing
gunpowder and bullets): Now return those twins Ogunmola: Let me finish. I must talk. Cactus is
to that squit. On his back he may carry them and bitter to him who has tasted it. I, Ogunmola, have
dance about, if he wishes. Out! tasted Kurunmis cactus of respect for his fellow
man, and I know how bitter it is to the mouth.
In this way, Kurunmi has chosen war without consulting Bale Olugbode: The matter before our council is
with his soldiers and chiefs. This act of Kurunmi, his one that concerns the life or death of our race;
decision to choose war without consulting with those who my brother, so I pray, let us not bring personal
will fight for him will later have an effect on him. The pains into it.
effect was such that, if he had not wisely dealt with it, the Ogunmola: I thank you. It was my personal fight
war would have consumed him before it actually began. that I was fighting before Kurunmi made me
The soldiers, acting consciously, conscious of their prisoner. Is that it! It was my wife I went to get
importance in Kurunmis battle, confront him on the from under his bosom in Ijaye when he caught
108 Int. J. English Lit.

me and tied me to a post in his backyard. unlike other wars that he has fought in defence of Oyo
Personal problems, he tells me. For fourteen and her people or for Ibadan, his home town. Rotimi
days Kurunmi kept me prisoner and fed me on captures it when Ogunmola calls Ibikunle coward:
white dry ashes in his backyard.
Ibikunle: Battles I have seen many, my
With Kurunmi and Ogunmola poised for war, the voice of brothers. Ogunmola calls me coward! As
reason symbolized and personalized in Bashorun Balogun of this land of Ibadan, I know too well
Ibikunle made no headway. Thus, war became the the horrors of battle, my brothers. And I know too
means of restoring order in the polity as well as a means that, of all battles, the battle against ones own
of proving supremacy of town and personality. This blood brothers, the agony of war brought upon
certainly would have been unnecessary or even ones own brothers, is most horrid and heart-
impossible had the Fulani army not sacked Old Oyo, breaking. Ogunmola calls me coward? Marriages
render the populace fleeing and making small and festivals which we here in Ibadan have had
communities under Oyo thirsty for freedom from their in common with out brothers, the people of Ijaye,
former master. Smith and Ajayi (1971) capture it: have made us of one blood who here in
Ibadan has no brother in Ijaye either by direct
The break-up of Old Oyo Empire had posed the line of blood or by marriage? Osi, son of
question of what was to take its place. With the Osundina! How many blood-branches do you
central authority gone, and no one single leader have in Ijaye?
gaining dominance from units of local Osi Osundina: If it is less than one hundred and
government, each taking its place within a twenty, then my head is not well.
monarchical structure, the major towns were
seeking to become capitals of rival states with Despite this sound argument, war has to be waged, as
rival loyalties and patriotisms. In this way, the Ogunmola and Kurunmi have personal scores to settle,
love of town came to supplant the love for which takes pre-eminence over the collective interest.
country. This is exactly what has happened in other cultures. It
has led to the destruction of friendship and alliances.
With the stage set and the actors of war on their cue, no Funny enough, it has also led to the creation of new
one could prevent the war. The major obstacle between friendships and alliances.
war and peace, Ibikunle, was ridiculed by Ogunmola who The war began with both sides well prepared. In this
calls him a coward, an old crow. To press home his point context, we may agree with Clausewitz (1968) that, war
that Ibikunle is old and spent, Ogunmola ties a crow, a is only a part of political intercourse. What dialogue and
dead black crow to Ibikunles house. This was the height reason could not achieve, war becomes a means of
of humiliation. Rotimi and Ogunyemi dramatize the achieving it.
Ibikunle, Ogunmola face-off differently. While they both One interesting thing about the Ijaye war is that both
agree that Ogunmola derided his superior Ibikunle, both parties exercised shrewd military intelligence. Before the
converge on the fact that Ogunmola, the younger man war breaks out, Kurunmi mends fences with his soldiers,
had the young warriors on his side; they differ on whether giving them gifts, praising their valour, suppressing his
Ogunmola waged the war without Ibikunles forced ego all in a bid, like a good general, to go to war with an
consent. In Kurunmi, both Ibikunle and Ogunmola are at army that is loyal to his command. He realized that it is
the war front at the same time with Ibikunles supremacy only in unity that strength lies. Before this time, that is,
being recognized by Ogunmola when the Egbas join before the warriors confront him with his excessiveness,
forces with Kurunmi; Ogunyemi, on the other hand, Kurunmi sees himself as the almighty, a man who has
presents Ibikunle joining Ogunmola much later in the achieved all his fame and wealth alone, without his
battle but at the same time (the point where the Egbas soldiers. But, one of his soldiers, Asegbe tells him, no
arrive) in the course of the war. A word on Ibikunles mouse fights for you, unless you show us regard while
position for caution is important. another warrior, Amodu, tells him, that the reason they
Before the break-up of Old Oyo and the dispersion of have come to confront him is that his power chokes
its people to various towns, the Yoruba people were one. them.
This oneness stems from the mythic claim to one So, Kurunmi, the lion is humbled by his soldiers. From
ancestor, Oduduwa, whose home is Ile-Ife. For this this point on, we see the reason why Kurunmi was given
reason, all Yoruba saw themselves as one; they inter- the title of Aare Ona-Kankanfo. He begins to give
married, had same social, religious and cultural practices; strategic commands; he realizes wisely that once war
they recognized the supremacy of the Alafin politically. starts, no one knows how it will end. Rotimis Kurunmi,
Therefore, Ibikunle cautions that a war against Ijaye is like that of Wale Ogunyemi prepares his soldiers for war
not just another war and not also a war against the first by performing a ritual of protection on them at the
irascible and arrogant Kurunmi. To him, it is a difficult war shrine of Ogun, the god of war and of Sango his personal
 Azeez 109

god. This phase over, he realizes that wars are not won warring factions get to know the strength and weakness
through prayer but through ones might and shrewd of their opponents. Ogunyemi, in Ijaye, demonstrates the
strategizing. He realizes that despite the fact that soldiers clever use of spies during war as we see in his use of
are made up of mainly men, husbands and sons are Alami on the Ijaye side:
going to the war front, women, the old and children must
be protected. Rotimis Kurunmi deserves to be quoted at Alami: They are on the banks of Ose River. They
some length here: fear to cross (an arrow is shot at Aare Kurunmi
but luckily misses him. He quickly comes down
Kurunmi: War has begun. Like conversation and joins the troops down the plain).
that starts casually, it has begun. And like Kurunmi: They are near!
conversation, no one knows how it will end. One Balogun: On the other side of the river, expecting
thing leads on to another. Fight we must, but our us first to cross.
soldiers must not starve because of fighting. Nor, Kurunmi: Amodu, go with Alami and provoke
must wives and children thirst because we are them Edun, hide there. You, over there;
fighting. Therefore, to the land of Iwawun, where others, scatter. Abogunrin, stay with me. Luck
food and water come to Ijaye shall we give full stay with you.
defence defend Iwawun or die there. Here, we chance upon another strategy of war,
that of provocation of ones enemy, employed by
It is interesting to note that, Kurunmi realises the Kurunmi. This proves that he is truly a war
importance of Iwawun to the survival of Ijaye and so, he strategist deserving of the title, Are- ona-
chooses no other than his five sons to defend it. It is kankanfo or generalissimo.
possible for one, at this juncture to hypothesize that the He does the same with Alore in the Ibadan
choice of his five sons as those to defend Iwawun could camp:
be as a result of his distrust for his soldiers and the Alore: They are coming!
unflinching faith he has in his sons, to do the bidding of Balogun Ibikunle: How many in all?
their father without thinking. Bashorun Ogunmola: Over two hundred. I can
However, it is clear from the above that Kurunmi is truly see Arawole (To ALORE). You know their war
a war strategist. He understands that there is every need tune; you heard them play it at Abeokuta, didnt
to defend the civilian populace made up mainly of the you?
aged, women and children, in a time of war. He, Alore: I know the tune, Bashorun
therefore, pays great attention to the defence of Iwawun, Bashorun Ogunmola: Then play the tune. The
Ijayes source of food and water. It is worthy to note that fools will rush down thinking we are their men.
Kurunmis opponents also realise the centrality and Now, everybody hide and be ready to take them
importance of Iwawun to Ijayes survival so, they attack it unawares (ALORE picks up a bata drum and
with equal seriousness and determination. This war imitates the Ijaye war tune) (45)
strategy, knowledge of ones strength and weakness, is
still employed in contemporary wars both in Africa and The spies do not carry arms, they are armed with the
the world over. For Ibadan to starve the entire people of skill and weapon of deception, for they are usually people
Ijaye without considering those multitudes who may who, like the chameleon, disguise to be of one colour or
suffer, that multitude that were never part of the decision character one minute and another the next minute. Alore
that led to the war is horrendous. But despite its of the Ibadan camp, for example, is able to mingle so
horrendousness, it is a legitimate war strategy. So, when much with the Ijaye camp that he knows their war tune.
Ibadan took possession of Iwawun, Ijaye suffers from One can imagine the risk involved in this for him. But,
hunger and disease, which triggers off the primordial surely, he must be a dissembler of the very high rank to
instinct to survive as the people begin to run to strangers succeed in his given task. It is interesting that such a
to beg for food. This is reminiscent of the refugee strategy used even in modern war, has been perfected by
problem in war torn Africa where millions of families, old the Yoruba warriors of the 19th century. So, Alore is
and young run to refugee camps and neighbouring asked to play the war tune in order to deceive the Ijaye
countries for food rations. We will talk more on this issue warriors into thinking that it was their comrades who are
later. Let us now turn to Ogunyemis Ijaye for other summoning them!
strategies of war. Of course, the trick works on the Ijaye warriors as they
Wars are fought at different levels but at whatever do exactly what the Ibadan warriors expect them to do!
level, knowledge of ones opponent is important. Several of them are mercilessly killed, including
Therefore, Ogunyemi creates the characters of Alore and Kurunmis eldest son Arawole. In the same way,
Alami as war spies for Ibadan and Ijaye, respectively. Ogunyemis Ogunmola gets Kurunmis magic cloth by
This is in consonance with all wars from primordial times bribing Edun, Kurunmis diviner. Kurunmi thus loses his
to the present. It is through their various spies that magic cloth as well as his sons who he wants to protect
110 Int. J. English Lit.

by sacrificing the cloth. These acts show the treachery This shows that spies know the risks involved in their
inherent in all wars generally and the Ijaye war vocation and they accept them with a stoic disposition.
specifically. Even at the point of death, Alami endures the pain of a
But in warfare, treachery is a serious crime and dagger sticking to his back because he has to let his
whosoever is found to be treacherous pays dearly. general know that he has been betrayed by Edun, his
Kurunmi trusts his diviner, Edun, and gives him his magic priest and diviner. This, in my view, is what gives him
cloth as a sacrifice so he can be victorious in the war but strength to run through the forest as he must not die
when he discovers that Edun has betrayed him, Edun without alerting Kurunmi of this act of treason. His
pays the supreme price: mission fulfilled, he dies gracefully and Kurunmi orders
that he be buried properly. As we can see, Alami dies in
KURUNMI: Where is my magic cloth? Give it to active service of his fatherland, Ijaye. So, both patriotism
me now! and treason are adequately rewarded for, while Alami is
EDUN: You sacrificed it, General. to be buried, Kurunmi himself kills Edun, uncere-
KURUNMI: (Laughs dryly) You sacrificed it? moniously.
You sacrificed my strength to Ogunmola and his In the same way that patriotism and treason are
men? What a big sacrifice. Now give it to me rewarded is military disobedience or insubordination
(He draws his sword) rewarded. In Kurunmi, we see Ogunkoroju command his
EDUN: I dont have it. soldiers not to chase the Ibadan warriors but to remain
KURUNMI: Give it to me now!! (He runs his where they are till his return. No sooner does he leave
dagger through EDUNS stomach than 3rd Warrior, give a counter command, which the
(EDUN groans and collapses). other soldiers obey. They give chase only to their peril as
KURUNMI throws down the sword they find out later that the so-called retreat of the Ibadan
and violently picks soldiers was only a trick. Ijaye, by this act of
EDUN from the floor giving him a disobedience on the part of 3rd warrior lost a lot of men.
piercing look. I trusted you, you In fact, out of a whole army of five hundred, only three
betrayed me. You sold me cheaply return. Kurunmi, as a general has to address this to instil
to Ogunmola, to my enemies. You discipline in the other soldiers:
sold the whole of Ijaye into slavery
and killed my five sons Somoye, KURUNMI: Who ordered the chase!
he was bought, bribed to capture 3RD WARRIOR: I did, my lord. They were
me without strain. running back
SOMOYE: Hes paid the price for it. KURUNMI: Your leader warned you not
to pursue but you did! My boy, it is a foolish
The above shows that the Yoruba wars of the 19th daughter who thinks she knows so much that
century follow the ethics of wars in other climes. In any she can teach her own mother how to bear
society, treason is a serious offence punishable, in most children (He turns about, flips the back of his
cases by death. It is the same among the Yoruba and so, hand downwards. Instantly, his bodyguards
Edun pays the supreme price of treason. pounce on 3rd Warrior and whisk him off)
Before we go on to discuss how Kurunmi falls to
Ibadan, let us examine the risk involved in spying. As The above shows that the men who prosecuted the
mentioned earlier, spies do not carry arms but they are th
Yoruba wars of the 19 century understood what military
protected with the skill of deception. Sometimes, ethics meant and that they abided with them to the letter.
however, they fall victim to the opposition as is the case This loss of men by Ijaye foreshadows her defeat at the
of Alami of Ijaye. Ogunyemi presents us with a character end of the day. In scene after scene, Rotimi and
that is so patriotic that he goes through great pains to Ogunyemi present us with the superior strength of Ibadan
perform his duties to his fatherland: over Ijaye. Rev. Mann and his wife reveal this in Kurunmi:

(Alami rushes in with a dagger deep in his back) REV. MANN: Tomorrow came.
ALAMI: We ran into them into them The beginning of the agony.
unawares. Ijaye is no match for Ibadan,
KURUNMI: Then what happened? either in human resources or in war material.
ALAMI: Our soldiers were killed, except me. Ibadan won.
SOMOYE: All of them? Another tomorrow came.
ALAMI: All- all of them. May 5.
KURUNMI: And my sons? Arawole, too? Ijaye arms are fast running short.
Arawole killed? Food too is running short.
ALAMI: I saw your magic cloth in
Ogunmolas hand Despite these loses, Kurunmi still believes that he
 Azeez 111

would win the war. The last straw that breaks Kurunmi in Ogunmola: So why are the dirty noses of Egba
both plays, however, is Kurunmis acceptance of the armies. Besides, white men now fight
Egba chiefs advice to cross the River Ose to finish their for Ijaye. I saw them, three white men, with my
Ibadan opponent. Before we go into this, however, let us own eyes shooting at us.
have a word on the role of the Egba in the Ijaye-Ibadan Ibikunle: That is war, brother. You prepare for
war. As mentioned by some scholars, wars bring about anything. Fair play, foul play,
new friendships and alliances. This is also true of the Anything, that is what war means.
Ijaye war. As Smith and Ajayi (1971) remark:
In Rotimis Kurunmi, this is the time when Balogun
The importance of the war can be judged from Ibikunle proves that he is really the Balogun. Swiftly, he
the ramification of alliances which came to calls on Kujenyo, his diviner; this is because among the
involve practically all the Yoruba states including Yoruba as it is in almost all parts of Africa, wars are
Ilorin and, to a lesser or greater extent Borgu, waged at both the physical and spiritual planes, to tell
Dahomey, Benin, Nupe and Ashanti. European him what must be done if Ibadan is to win the war. The
powers also became involved, the British directly solution is in sacrifice. The power of spiritual forces
and the French indirectly. among the Yoruba in a time like this as found in Kurunmi
and Ijaye is underscored very succinctly by Obafemi
While we shall leave British involvement in the war out, it (1996):
is hereby pertinent to look at the roles of the Egbas and
Dahomeys in the drama of the war. The historical note to When he says that Throughout his plays, Rotimi
Rotimis play explains why the Egbas are interested in employs to great effect the use of incantation
the Ijaye war with the Egbas coming on the side of which is the most esoteric and cultic genre in
Ijaye to fish in the troubled waters of the politics of its traditional oral literature.
former master, Oyo. As mentioned earlier, several
towns under Old Oyo began with the sack of the empire In addition to incantation, however, Kujenyo consults Ifa
by the Fulani to seek independence. Therefore, the and tells Ibikunle what to do to make Kurunmi and his
Egbas see an opportunity in this war to be completely soldiers cross the River Ose. So, while to an outsider,
free should Ibadan representing Oyo monarchy fall. They Kurunmi crosses the river due to pressure from the
also, implicitly, would depend on Ijaye after the war, to Egbas, it is believed by insiders that is, traditional Yoruba
run on Dahomey, their perennial rival. So their coming to people, that Kurunmi was charmed into accepting the
fight on the side of Ijaye is not borne out of love but a Egbas advice due to the sacrifice performed by Ibikunle.
calculated attempt at self determination and freedom. This point to the fact that for Yoruba warriors, charm,
And to achieve this, they had to betray Ibadan or deceive incantation and sacrifices are as important as arms and
them that they would either fight on the side of Ibadan or physical strength. Kurunmi, in both plays as in all
be neutral in the war. This shows that in war, emotional historical accounts on the war crosses the River Ose. By
attachment give way to practical considerations. this action, he loses all his sons and countless soldiers.
Interestingly, Ogunmola has been told, in Kurunmi that The Egbas take to their heels leaving Ijaye to count and
the Egbas will support Ibadan against Ijaye or they would mourn her loss. Rotimi captures it succinctly:
be neutral. So Ogunmola is so shocked to see the Egbas
on the side of Ijaye that he exclaims to Ibikunle that the Kurunmi: We lost thousands in that game.
Egbas have come with a 40,000 strong army to support Thousands our best warriors too.
Ijaye: Ogunkoroju: My lord must rest, and leave
the watch to us.
Ogunmola: Perfidy, thats what! They deceived Kurunmi: Am I in the wrong in this war?
us. The Egba rogues promised to fight for us.
Either that or they would take no side in the war. Despite his loss, Kurunmi remains a warrior who has no
Now what happens? Thousands of them, over regrets except that he became mortal asking whether he
40 000, I tell you, they have come to join Ijaye has waged a just war. When news come that the Egbas
troops. are fleeing and one of his soldiers curses them, Kurunmi
warns him sternly, Enough of that talk, when a one-
The shock of the Egba armys betrayal of their agreement legged man needs help he must not say that the friend
with Ibadan on Ogunmola, a younger and less who carries him on his back stinks; even if that leper
experienced warrior contrasts sharply with the calmness does stink.
of the older warrior, Balogun Ibikunle. After Ibikunle
proves to him that he is no coward as Ogunmola accused
before the war, he gives him courage that they must fight The effects of war on the society
on no matter the force(s) behind Ijaye. This is an example
in bravery: It is at this moment that the horrors of the war on the
112 Int. J. English Lit.

populace begin to manifest. Food supply has been cut off is not yet ended for as this goes on, a warrior rushes in:
by Ibadan with the fall of Iwawun. A pregnant woman
runs in, crying. Rotimis paints the picture sadly in the 1st Warrior: My lord, the people are all over the
following: town stealing food?
2nd Warrior: Some have gone to the Whitemans
Enter a pregnant woman carrying a baby. house to beg?
Kurunmi takes the baby from her, holds it close Ogunkoroju: Stop them, you
to his bosom, regaining as it were, and if Kurunmi: (Raising a hand to stop Ogunkoroju):
fleetingly, a sense of humanity long lost in the Let them. They are hungry. It is our fault. The
grim distraction of war. war drags on too long.
Woman: (Impatiently): My husband where is
my husband! What happened to him? My We see this also in Ijaye:
husband, Lejofi?
Kurunmi: (dreamily): We lost thousands most ABOGUNRIN: People are deserting the town in
of our best soldiers. masses, going different directions in fear. Many
Woman: Lejofi is not one of your best soldiers, are on their way to Abeokuta following the Egba
he is only a boy. army who are in flight.
Kurunmi: I did not notice him, then. KURUNMI: Let them go. I am also in bits and
Woman: Why not? Was he not fighting for you? pieces. My blood is becoming colder. The
How could you not have noticed him? nerves itch less for war: every hope is lost.
Kurunmi: Where elephants were being ABOGUNRIN: Have courage, my general.
slaughtered by the thousands, how would a man KURUNMI: They need food, disease dont bar
take notice of a house rat? (84) the people. They are starving. They need
protection which I no more can offer them. If I
It is important to underscore that since the beginning of had known Id be fighting a useless battle, I
the play and apart from Mosadiwin, Kurunmis wife, who wouldnt have provoked this war. And if
does the biding of her lord and master in Rotimis provoked, I would have had some restraint.
Kurunmi and Abu his mother in-law who brings warriors Now, the gods to whom my aim is clear have let
to support him in Ogunyemis Ijaye, this is the first time me down and driven my sons to their death
that we hear the voice of a woman about the war. This is screaming.
because like in most phallocentric societies, women and ABOGUNRIN: General, you are shedding tears.
children are not considered in decision making. This is in KURUNMI: Come. Relieve me of this garment
spite of the fact that the decision by the dominant male for I no longer need it In the past the fun of
players affects them more. This point has been made by sieges and adventures of war made me blind to
numerous feminists such as Arneil (1999), Evioierhoma the fact that one day the cock will crow when the
(2002), Cutrifelli (1983) and a host of others. We see in brave shall be no more (Abogunrin sits down
the excerpt above that in war everybody suffers, beside him). The cloud is thick in the sky (52).
especially women who become widows and childless. In
the case of the woman above, she is pregnant while
nursing a child and, to make matters worse for her, she Ogunyemi captures Kurunmi just as Rotimi does, in a
is, no thanks to Kurunmi and his war, left to bring up her state of total despondency. Here was a man who would
children alone. Such is the fate of women in war across listen to anything but the talk of peace. Here was a man
cultures. For this woman in Kurunmi, she has lost who would pounce on his enemies, real or imagined at
someone dear to her, her pillar and support. When she the slightest excuse of provocation, reduced to nothing.
persists that she wants to know if her husband is truly This is an admission of defeat. Iwawun has fallen; Ijaye
dead, Kurunmi only muttered, I dont know woman, only has lost a good number of her warriors. Kurunmi knows
the river Ose can tell it flows on, deep red with the that the end is near. As he himself notes from the
blood of our men beginning, no one knows the end of a war. It is tragic that
The response of Kurunmi carries a tragic tone. One can it is only at the end when thousands have been sent to
imagine how many young men like Lejofi, have been their graves prematurely including Kurunmis sons, does
killed in this war. One can only imagine also, how many the priest of war ask the same question, am I in the
widows there would be at the end of the war. No one, not wrong in this war? again and again. But this question, as
even Kurunmi, the lion of Ijaye can predict how many innocent and emotion laden as it is ought to have been
children would be fatherless by his decision to wage war asked before the war and not after. However, since the
of personal aggrandisement. Such is the horror of war, a war is based on ego right from the onset, Kurunmi would
phenomenon that begins like dialogue but whose end, stop at nothing to go to war. Brown (1987) captures it
unlike dialogue ends in bloodshed. But the tragic picture brilliantly when he says:
 Azeez 113

At times human violence appears to be primarily should know that. But whether men living in the 21st
an intense expression of emotions: anger, hate, century and even men who lived in Kurunmis time have
fear, rivalry, revenge: at times it seems to be a learnt this lesson can be seen in the various wars fought
product of irrational impulses to dominate, hurt, after the Ijaye war.
or destroy.

Thus, we find almost all the emotional conditions listed by Conclusion

Brown in abundance in the character of both Kurunmi
and Ogunmola for while Kurunmi feels threatened by The preceding discussion has been devoted to the
Ibadans military rivalry, Ogunmola seeks revenge of the analysis of two texts, Kurunmi and Ijaye. The plays have
hurt he suffers at Kurunmis hand in the past. The two of been discussed as war dramas. In doing this, the author
them have to test their power against each other and has presented the historical background to the plays, as
thereby satisfy their claim of superiority. As Possony well as, analysed the wars, not from the historians point
(1996) captures it: of view but as the dramatists presented them. While very
sparingly references have been made to historical
Power, until tested on the battlefield, is accounts, such references are made merely to buttress
perception or deception; victory on the battlefield the views of the dramatists about their chosen materials.
is a function of firepower plus mobility multiplied The author has in this way shown how the writers, Rotimi
by psychological strength factors and of and Ogunyemi, dramatise the nature, effects and
surprise. strategies of war in the plays. The plays discussed in this
Kurunmi, thus, learns at the end of the day that he only paper, it must be emphasised, fall under what the author
knows his own powers, without knowing fully the power of classifies as factual historical war dramas. This
his opponent. It is in this much reduced physical, moral classification is based on the fact that the dramatists, in
and economic state, a state where Kurunmi sees his writing their plays attempted to be faithful, as much as
citizens whom he used to feed every five days at the possible, to historical accounts of the wars, as well as in
feast of Ororun, go begging that he actually understands their use of historical characters to tell their story.
how bitter war can be! Ola Rotimi paints this picture
gruesomely in his stage direction where Kurunmi is given
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