BASIC SURVEYING-1

Subject Code : 15CV34

Module -1: Introduction

Definition of surveying , Objectives and importance of surveying. Primary divisions of

surveying, Classification of surveys, Principles of surveying, Units of measurements, Surveying
measurements and errors, types of errors, precision and accuracy. Maps, classification of maps,
map scale, conventional symbols, topographic maps, map layout, Map numbering systems.

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Methods of Distance measurements, Measurement using tapes, Equipment for taping, Taping on
level ground and sloping ground, Systematic errors in taping and tape corrections, ranging of
lines, direct and indirect methods of ranging, Electronic distance measurement, basic principle.

I. INTRODUCTION:

Definition: - Surveying is the art of making measurements that will determine the relative
positions of points on the surface of the earth which may be delineated on a map or plan.
Hence Surveying is defined as taking a general view of land, estates, building, farms mines
etc. by observation and measurement determining the boundaries, size, position, quantity,
condition, and value and finally presenting the survey data in a suitable form. This covers
the work of the valuation surveyor, the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining
surveyor and so forth, as well as the land surveyor.

Object of surveying: primary object of a survey is the preparation of plan or map.

Plan - Representation of the ground to some scale, projected on the plane of the paper.
- Scale is large
Map - Representation of the ground to a larger scale.

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Primary Division of Surveying:

On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not, surveying can be
divided into two main categories:

(a) Plane surveying:

The mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane. All angles are considered to be
plane angles.
For small areas less than 250 km2 plane surveying can safely be used. For most
engineering projects such as canal, railway, highway, building, pipeline, etc
constructions, this type of surveying is used.
Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a spherical
triangle differ by 1second for a triangle on the earths surface having an area of 196 km2.

(b) Geodetic surveying:

Branch of surveying, which takes into account the true shape of the earth (spheroid).
Also called trigonometrical surveying
Since the shape of the earth is spheroidal, the line connecting any two points on the
surface of the earth is curved.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used,
purpose, the area surveyed and the method used.

(a) Classification based on the nature of field of survey

1) LAND SURVEY
Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be subdivided into:
Topographic survey: This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains, rivers, etc)
and manmade features (roads, houses, settlements) on the surface of the earth.

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Cadastral survey: - used to determining property boundaries including those of fields,

houses, plots of land, etc.
Engineering survey :- used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and
execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings,
etc .
City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and development of towns
including roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally
referred to as city survey.
(2) MARINE OR HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY:- Those are surveys of large water bodies for
navigation, tidal monitoring, the construction of harbours etc.
(3) ASTRONOMICAL SURVEY:
Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies (sun, moon, stars etc)
to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.
(b) Classification based on the Instruments Used.
Based on the instrument used; surveys can be classified into;
i) Chain- tape surveys
ii) Compass surveys
iii) Plane table surveys
iv) Theodelite surveys
v) Tacheometric surveys
vi) Photographic and Aerial Surveys
(c) Classification based on the Purpose/Object of Survey.
i) Engineering survey
ii) Control Survey: -Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced
vertical and horizontal control points.
iii) Geological Survey: - Geological survey is used to determine the structure and
arrangement of rock strata. Generally, it enables to know the composition of the earth.
iv) Military or Defence Survey: - carried out to map places of military and strategic
importance
v) Archeological survey is carried out to discover and map ancient/relies of antiquity.

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(d) Classification based on the methods employed in Survey.

Triangulation Survey:- In order to make the survey, manageable, the area to be
surveyed is first covered with series of triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of
the plot, then the details fixed in relation to the established lines. This process is called
triangulation. The triangle is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely over an
irregularly shaped area with minimum space left.
Traverse survey: - If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known, it is
possible to establish the position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing
and distances of other surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of
points linked with lines linking them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing
these lines, is called traversing, while the connecting lines joining two points on the
ground. Joining two while bearing and distance is known as traverse. Traverses may
either be open or closed.
a) Closed Traverse: When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the
finishing point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called as a closed
traverse; here ABCDEA represents a closed traverse.

B E

C D

b) Open Traverse: When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction
and does not return to the starting point, it is known as open traverse or (unclosed
traverse). Here ABCDE represents an open traverse.

B D

A
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III. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be taken into
consideration to enable good results.
a) Working from the whole to the part
b) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points.

A) Working from the whole to the part:-

The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the errors as
working the other way round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the
survey.
In partial terms, this principle involve covering the area to be surveyed with large
triangles. These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until
the area has been sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed
surveys to be made in a local level.
Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using higher
precision instruments.

B) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points.

Given two point whose length and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can
be drawn to join them hence surveying has control reference points.
The locations of various other points and the lines joining them can be fixed by
measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them.
For an example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be
performed to fix other points.
i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).
ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C.
iii) To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure angle ABC.

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iv) To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of the sides AC
and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle.

A A
A
A C
(i) ( ii) (iii) (iv)

B
B C
B B

IV. ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers when quoting
specifications for their equipments and on site by surveyors to describe resultsobtained from
field work.
Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a measurement, while;
Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an absolutely exact
measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small deviations
from the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.

V. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

There are 4 kinds of measurements used in plane surveying:

1) Horizontal distance (metre, yard etc)
2) Vertical Distance

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3) Horizontal Angle (radians, degrees etc)and

4) Vertical Angle
SI Units: Systeme International consists of seven base units(Length , mass, time , temperature etc) i.e
MKS system included.

Derived Units: Units that are a combination of two or more quantities (Force, work, power, pressure etc)

VI. SOURCES OF ERRORS

Errors may arise from three sources:

Instrumental errors imperfection or faulty adjustments

Personal errors human mistakes, instrumental manipulation
Natural errors due to various natural phenomena such as humidity, temperature etc.

VII. KINDS/TYPES OF ERRORS

A) Mistakes:-

These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his assistants due to
carelessness or incompetence.
On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by in experienced Engineers or
surveyors who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are using.
These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, wrong booking,
sighting wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly,
displacement of arrows or station marks etc.
Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or
plotting and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected.
Gross errors can be eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking and
constantly checking both operations.
B) Systematic or Cumulative errors:-

These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted instrument and the
physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect.

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Expansion of steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring

instrument, etc are just some of these errors.
Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of measurements that
are repeated under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or positively to the
reading hence, makes the readings shorter or longer. This type of error can be eliminated
from a measurement using corrections (e.g.effect of tension and temperature on steel
tape).
C) Random or Compensating Errors

Although every precaution may be taken , certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments.
Random errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be adopted to
ensure that they are kept within acceptable limits.
In order to analyze random errors or variable, statistical principles must be used and in
surveying their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of observations and
finding their mean.

I. MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES:

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two
points on the earths surface for use in fixing position, set out and in scaling.
In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their equivalent horizontal distance
either by the procedures used to make the measurement or by applying numerical corrections for
the slope distance (spatial distance). The method to be employed in measuring distance depends
on the required accuracy of the measurement, and this in turn depends on purpose for which the
measurement is intended.
Various methods to measure the distance directly:
a) Pacing
b) Measurements with Passometer
c) Measurements with Pedometer
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d) Measurements with Pedometer

e) Measurements by Odometer and Speedometer
f) Chaining
Pacing: where approximate results are satisfactory, distance can be obtained by pacing
(The number of paces can be counted by tally or pedometer registry attached to one leg).
Average pace length has to be known by pacing a known distance several times and taking
the average. It is used in reconnaissance surveys& in small scale mapping.
Passometer:- instrument shaped like a watch. The instrument automatically registers the
no. of paces when the surveyor is in motion. Pedometer is similar to Passometer where it
is adjusted to length of the pace.
Odometer of a vehicle: - based on diameter of tires (no of revolutions X wheel diameter);
this method gives a fairly reliable result provided a check is done periodically on a
known length. During each measurement a constant tyre pressure has to be maintained.
Taping (chaining): - this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or
chain. Steel tapes are most commonly used .It is available in lengths varying from 15m to
100m. Formerly on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured with
chains.
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): - are indirect distance measuring instruments
that work using the invariant velocity of light or electromagnetic waves in vacuum. They
have high degree of accuracy and are effectively used for long distances for modern
surveying operations.

I. CHAIN SURVEYING
This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements only.
It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a
Chain.

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EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

These equipments can be divided into three, namely
(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)
(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg.Abney level
,clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).
1. Chain:-
The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links. It is
designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets of
small surveys.

There are three different types of chains used in taking measurement namely:
Engineers Chain: - 100 ft long, consists of 100 links. At every 10 links, brass tags are
fastened. Distances recorded in feet and decimals.
Revenue Chain:- 33 ft long, consists of 16 links. Mainly used to measure fields in
Cadastal survey.
Gunters chain or Surveyors chain:- 66ft long, consists of 100 links. .
Steel tapes: 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13 mm wide. It has handles similar to those on
the chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate but less robust than the chain.

2. Tapes:
Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the setting out of
buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in metres, centimeter and millimeters.
Tapes are classified into three types;
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Linen or Linen with steel wire woven into the fabric: - These tapes are liable to stretch
in use and should be frequently tested for length. They should never be used on work for
which great accuracy is required. These are 12-15mm wide and are available in length
10m, 20m 25m and 30metc.
Metallic Tape: These are made of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven with
brass, copper or bronze wires and which does not stretch easily. Not easily broken
Steel tapes: These are much more accurate, and are usually used for setting out buildings
and structural steel works. Steel tapes are available in various lengths up to 100m (20m
and 30m being the most common) encased in steel or plastic boxes with a recessed
winding lever or mounted on open frames with a folding winding lever.
Invar Tapes: used mainly for linear measurements of very high degree of precision.
Advantage: bands and wires made of invar enables base lines to be measured much
rapidly. Invar tapes are more expensive and are more easily deformed.
Disadvantage: it is subjected to creep due to which it undergoes a small increase in
length
(Refer text for more details)

3. Arrows: Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and is used for marking
temporary stations. A piece of colored cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached or tied to the
end of the arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

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4. Pegs: - Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used
for points which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey
lines. Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.

Pegs and Ranging Rods

5. Ranging Rod: - These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with
characteristic red and white bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed steel
shoe to enable them to be driven into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with
the tape, and for marking any points which need to be seen.

6. Optical Square: - This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain
line. It is used where greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one
using two mirrors and the other a prism.
The mirror method is constructed based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from a
mirror at the same angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.
The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single
prism. It is used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.

Optical Square

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7. Cross Staff: - This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a
wide and narrow slit in each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set
up it is at normal eye level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain
line.

8. Clinometer: - This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle).
They are of several form, the common form is the WATKINGS CLINOMETER, which
consist of a small disc of about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made to
hang free and by sighting across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less
accurate than abney level.

9. Abney Level: - This instrument is generally used to obtain roughly the slope angle of the
ground. It consists of a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a
graduated arc attached. A small bubble is fixed to the vernier arm, once the image of the bubble

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is seen reflected in the eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the
reading glass.

II. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A SURVEY LINES/OFFSETS

a. Few survey lines: the number of survey lines should be kept to a minimum but must be
sufficient for the survey to be plotted and checked.
b. Long base line: A long line should be positioned right across the site to form a base on which
to build the triangles.
c. Well conditioned triangle with angles greater than 30o and not exceeding 150o: It is
preferable that the arcs used for plotting should intersect as close as 90 o in order to provide sharp
definition of the stations point.
d. Check lines: Every part of the survey should be provided with check lines that are positioned
in such a way that they can be used for off- setting too, in order to save any unnecessary
duplication of lines.
e. Obstacles such as steep slopes and rough ground should be avoided as far as possible.
f. Short offsets to survey lines (close feature preferably 2m) should be selected: So that
measuring operated by one person can be used instead of tape which needs two people.
g. Stations should be positioned on the extension of a check line or triangle. Such points can be
plotted without the need for intersecting arcs.

III. RANGING: -
Method of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two fixed point
or two survey stations is called as ranging.
There are two methods of ranging

Direct Method (Two ends of survey line or stations are inter-visible)

Indirect Method (Two ends of survey line or stations are not inter-visible)
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DIRECT METHOD: This method is used when two ends of survey stations or survey lines are
inter-visible.
Direct ranging can be done by 2 methods:
1) RANGING BY EYE: Consider two pints X and Y which are inter-visible to each other. In
this method ranging rod is fixed at station X and Y. Suppose if we want to locate a point Z on
ground which is in line with XY. The surveyor stands half a metre back side of ranging rod at X
in line with XY. Assistant then moves another ranging rod under the guidance of surveyor in
such a way that ranging rod hold by assistant is in the line XY at point Z between X AND Y.
Similarly other points can be located by similar way. Surveyor has to guide assistant by using
some hand signals so that ranging rod comes in the line.

INDIRECT RANGING OR RECIPROCAL RANGING: This method is used when

two ends of survey stations or survey line are not inter-visible.

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Let X and Y be the 2 stations which are not inter-visible. So to proceed in straight line between
X and Y process of indirect ranging is applied.
Two intermediate points M1 and M2 are located in such a way that person standing with ranging
rod at M2 can see M1 and X whereas person with ranging rod at M1 can see M2 and Y.
Now person at M2 will guide the person at M1 to come in line with M2 and X on a new position
M3. Now the person at M3 will guide the person at M2 to come to a new position M4 such that
M3, M4 and Y are on same line. Ranging rod is fixed at M3 & M4 and chaining is continued
along the hill.

2) RANGING BY LINE RANGER: Line ranger is a light and easy to use instrument which can
be used for ranging. It consists of 2 plane mirrors or 2 right-angled isosceles prism placed one
above the other. Diagonals of two prisms are silvered so as to reflect light. Lower prism is fixed
while the upper prism is moveable. Instrument is provided with handle at bottom which gives
ease to the user for using the instrument.
Two ranging rods are fixed at inter-visible points. Then surveyor moves with the line ranger. The
point where two images coincide in line ranger is the point in line with two fixed ranging rods.
At this point a pebble is dropped from the handle of line ranger and point is traced on ground.

IV. CHAINING ON UNEVEN OR SLOPING GROUND:-

If the ground is sloping there are two methods to get horizontal distances:
-Direct method
-Indirect method.
Direct method: This method is known as method of stepping also, since the line is
measured in smaller step length. In this method, sloping ground is divided into no. of
horizontal and vertical strips. It is convenient to measure down-hill than uphill.
Indirect method:
If the slope of the ground is gentle these methods may be employed. In these methods
linear measurement is along the sloping ground and it involves angular measurement
also. The following three methods are in common use:

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a) First method (Measured Angle Method) : -Total length to be divide into each
segment having particular slope. D=l Cos
b) Second method ( Difference in Level Method): The difference in level 'h' is
measured by knowing the sloping ground length 'l' and the equivalent horizontal length L
can be calculated . D= (l-h)
c) Third method (Hypotenusal allowance): This method is useful when intermediate
points on a line are to be used for taking offsets. Sloping distances are measured by
stretching the chain on slope.
Refer textbook for Examples and figures..

V. Survey Station:
Survey stations are of two kinds: -
1. Main Stations
2. Subsidiary or tie Main Stations:
Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the
survey, and the lines joining the main stations re called the main survey line or the
chain lines.
Subsidiary or the tie stations: Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected
on the main survey lines, where it is necessary to locate the interior detail such as
fences, hedges, building etc.
Tie or subsidiary lines: A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey
lines. It helps to checking the accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior
details. The position of each tie line should be close to some features, such as
paths, building etc.
Base Lines: It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the
centre of the field. All the other measurements to show the details of the work are
taken with respect of this line.
Check Line: A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining the apex of
a triangle to some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. A check line is

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measured to check the accuracy of the framework. The length of a check line, as
measured on the ground should agree with its length on the plan.
Offsets: These are the lateral measurements from the base line to fix the positions
of the different objects of the work with respect to base line. These are generally
set at right angle offsets. It can also be drawn with the help of a tape.
There are two kinds of offsets:
1) Perpendicular offsets, and
2) Oblique offsets.
The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular
or right angled offsets. The measurements which are not made at right angles to
the survey line are called oblique offsets or tie line offsets.

VI. PROCEDURE IN CHAIN SURVEY:

1. Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called

reconnaissance. The surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, survey or prepares index
sketch or key plan.
2. Marking Station: Surveyor fixes up the required no stations at places from where
maximum possible stations are possible.
3. Then he selects the way for passing the main line, which should be horizontal and
clean as possible and should pass approximately through the centre of work.
4. Then ranging roads are fixed on the stations.
5. After fixing the stations, chaining could be started.
6. Make ranging wherever necessary.
7. Measure the change and offset.
8. Enter in the field the book.

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VII. ERRORS IN CHAINING

Erroneous Length of Chain or Tape (Cumulative + or -): - Length of chain is
more, measured distance is less and hence the error will be negative and vice
versa.
Bad Ranging (Cumulative +): - If chain is stretched out of the line, measured
distance will be always more and hence error will be positive.
Careless Holding and Marking (Compensating + or -)
Bad Straightening (Cumulative +): - if the chain is lying in horizontal irregular
curve, measured distance will always be too great.
Non- Horizontality (Cumulative +): - If the chain is not horizontal, measured
distance will be always too late.
Sag in Chain (Cumulative +): - when the distance is measure by stepping or
when the chain is stretched at irregular ground, the chain sags. The measured
distance is therefore too great.
Variation in Temperature (Cumulative + or -): - Due to rise in temperature, the
length of chain increases and measured distance is less and vice versa.
Variation in Pull (Compensating + or -, Cumulative + or -): - if the pull applied
is not measured but is irregular, the error tends to compensate.
Personal Mistakes: -Displacement of Arrows, Miscounting chain length,
misreading values and erroneous booking

TAPE CORRECTIONS:-
1. Correction For Absolute Length: - if the absolue length of the tape is not equal to its
nominated or designated length, a correction will have to be applied to measure the line length.
Thus,
Ca = L.c / l

Where, Ca= correction applied for absolute length

l = designated tape length
L = measured length of line
c = correction per tape length

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2. Correction For Temperature: - if the temperature is more, the length of the tape increases,
measured distance becomes less and correction is therefore additive.
Thus,
Ct = (Tm To) L

Where, = coefficient for thermal expansion

Tm = mean temperature during measurement
To = temperature during standardization of tape
L = measured length
3. Correction For Pull or Tension: if pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at
which the tape is standardized, the length of the tape increases, measured distance becomes less
and correction is positive.
Thus,
Cp = (P Po) L/AE

A = Cross-sectional area of the tape (cm)

P = Pull Applied during measurement
Po = Pull during standardization of tape
L = measured length(m)
E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity(N/cm)
4. Correction For Sag: - Steel tapes provide direct measurement only when they are fully
supported along their length. As a result, when only end supports are provided, the tape sag in
the form of a catenary and always produces a shorter tape length (hence the negative). This
shorting produces measurements longer than actual distances.

Thus, Cs = lW/24P

where , Cs = the sag tape correction (m)

P = the tape tension/pull applied during measurement (N)
W = the weight of tape per unit length (N/m)
l = the tape reading including sag (m)

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5. Correction For Slope or Vertical Alignment: - the distance measured along the slope is
always greater than the horizontal distance and hence the correction is always subtractive.
Thus,
Cal = h/2L

Where, h = difference in elevation between the ends

L = Inclined length measure

VIII. OBSTACLES DURING CHAINING

(a) Obstacles which obstruct ranging but not chaining
(b) Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging
(c) Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining
Obstacles that obstruct ranging but not chaining
Such a problem arises when a rising ground or a jungle area interrupts the chain line.
Here the end stations are not intervisible.
There may be two cases:-
Case I:
The end stations may be visible from some intermediate points on the rising ground. In
this case, reciprocal ranging is resorted to and the chaining is done by the stepping
method.
Case II:
The end stations are not visible from intermediate points when a jungle area comes across
the chain line. In this case the obstacle may be crossed over using a random line as
explained below:

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Distance PE1 = (PE + EE)

Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging: Water bodies like lakes, ponds
and rivers are typical examples of obstacles in this category. It is possible to chain around
these obstacles by using the following methods.

i) By constructing rectangles: Chaining had reached A and encountered an

obstacle. To get to B, mark A and B with an arrow. Set of perpendiculars AC and
BD high enough to clear the obstacles. Join and measure DC which now equals
AB. This allows chaining to continue from B.

D
C

POND

A B
D

DIVYA NAIR
ASST. PROF,
CIVIL DEPT
 BASIC SURVEYING-1

ii) By constructing similar triangles: To continue chaining from B, fix a point C

away from the obstacle. Range a pole at D to align with AC hence AC = CD. In
line with BC range another point E in line with BC. Hence BC= CE. Measure ED
which equals AB hence chaining can continue from B.

Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining: A building is a typical example.

H
G

C
Building B
C D E

GD/FC = GA/FA
HE/FC = HA/FA

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DIVYA NAIR
ASST. PROF,
CIVIL DEPT