Chapter 7: Memory
  
 Memory: the storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.
Memory is the internal representation of learned experience.
 
Processes of Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval.

1.)Encoding: (putting information into mind)

The transforming of information so the nervous system can process it.

Process of encoding based on;
1. our senses ( hearing, sight, touch, taste, temperature) and others to encode
and establish a memory.
2. Selective attention: your ability to pick and choose among various inputs.
                       
Acoustic codes: are being used when you try to remember something by saying it
out loud, or to yourself, repeatedly.
 
Visual codes: are being used when you attempt to keep a mental picture of the of
object, person, situation or letters, you trying to remember.
 
Semantic codes: are being used when you try to remember things by making
sense of them or making them meaningful to you.
 
When encoding takes place: it enters information from sensory memory to short-
term memory (STM) and from STM into long-term memory (LTM).
 
2.)Storage: the process by which information is maintained over a period of
time.
 
Amount: How much information is stored depends on how much effort was put
into encoding the information and its importance.
 
3.)Retrieval: (pulling out information and bringing it into conscious mind)
It’s the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory.
 
Basis for ease of retrieval: It depends on how efficiently it was encoded and
stored as well as on other actors, such as background and mood.
 

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Types of memory
            1.) sensory memory
            2.) short-term memory
            3.) long-term memory
 
Sensory memory: very brief memory storage immediately following initial
stimulation of a receptor. Its duration is just fraction of a second
 
example:  "TV commercials" greatly influenced the viewers
iconic sensory memory: hold visual information for up to a second.
 
echoic memory: a type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1
or 2 seconds.
 
haptic memory: a type of sensory memory that holds tactile (touch) information
for a few seconds.
 
gustic memory: a type of sensory memory that holds taste information for a few
seconds.
 
olfactic memory: a type of sensory memory that holds smell information for a few
seconds.
 
Sensory memory serves three purposes:
1.) Sensory memory prevents you from being overwhelmed.
  Since the information in sensory memory is short-lived, anything that you do
not pay attention to vanishes in seconds.
2.) Sensory memory gives you some decision time. 
The information in sensory memory is there for only a few seconds, just long
enough for you to decide whether it is worth paying attention to this information.
 
  3.) Sensory memory allows for continuity and stability in your world.
 
Difference between short-term memory and sensory storage: 
The information held momentarily by the senses has not yet been narrowed down
or analyzed. It is short-lived, temporary, and fragile.  However, by the time
information gets to short-term memory, it has been analyzed, identified, and
simplified so that it can be conveniently stored and handled for a longer time.
 

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Short-term memory: memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and
in duration by the subject’s active rehearsal.

2 methods to improve STM: Rehearsal and chunking

 
Maintenance rehearsal: a system for remembering that involves repeating
information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it.
By using maintenance rehearsal, you can keep the information longer in short-
term memory. 
 
Without rehearsal, new information stays in short-term memory for
less than 30 seconds.

Chunking: the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember.

The most common example: a phone number (111-002-004)
Acronyms: initials that represent words and can be easily remembered.
 
ASAP: as soon as possible
UDCP: Understanding, Description, Control and prediction goals of psychology

Working memory: serves as a system for processing and working with current
information. 
 
What it includes: It includes both short-term memory (events that just occurred)
and information stored in long-term memory, now recalled for current
information.
           
          
Features of STM:
1.) The things you have in your conscious mind in any given moments are
being held in short-term memory.
2.)Short-term memory does not necessarily involve paying close attention.
3.) To keep information in short-term memory for more than a few seconds,
you usually have to repeat the information to yourself or out loud.
4.)Short-term memory is limited in capacity to only about seven unrelated
items.
5.) We may not notice this limited capacity because we usually do not have to
store so many unrelated items in our immediate memory. Either the items
are related (as when we listen to someone speak), or they are rehearsed and
placed in long-term memory.

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 6.)Each chunked item may consist of a collection of many other items but
since they are all packaged into one chunk, the brain views it as only one
item.
7.) Even with chunking, storage in short-term memory is only temporary.
8.)Information is available, generally, for less than 20 seconds and no more
than 30 seconds, assuming no rehearsal has occurred.
9.) Short-term memory contains information that is of possible interest.
    10.) Information worth holding on to must be rehearsed with the intent to
learn in order to transfer it to long-term memory.                                 
    11.) Rehearsal without intent to learn yields no transfer.

Long-term memory: refers to the storage of information over extended

periods of time. 
Types of Long-term Memory:

1.) Semantic memory: our knowledge of world, language, its rules, words, and
meanings.
 
2.) Episodic memory: our life's experiences/memories. Stored here are things
where time of occurrence is important.  Everyone’s episodic memory is
unique.
 
3.) Declarative memory: both semantic and episodic memory. The knowledge
you call forth consciously and use when needed. Face, date, names in
particular.
 
4.) Procedural memory: does not require conscious recollection to have past
learning or experiences impact our performance.
 
Include Skills; easy and complex activities.  Examples: tying shoes or driving a
car. Fears, habits and behaviors learned through conditioning.

Flash bulb memory: is centered on a specific, important, traumatic or surprising

event.  The memory is so vivid that it represents a mental snapshot. Example: the
assassination of Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, death of Princess Diana, 9/11,
blast in Karachi.
 
Features of LTM:
                        1.) You reconstruct what you must recall when you need it.
                        2.) LTM's capacity appears to be limitless.
                        3.) LTM contains representations of countless facts, experiences,

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 and sensations.
                        4.) Long-term memory involves all the processes of memory.
                        5.) The least important information is dropped and only the
essentials are retained.
                        6.) More recently stored items block access to earlier memories or
may even replace them.
 
Retrieval: Stored information is useless unless it can be retrieved from memory
Types of retrieval: recognition and recall.
 
Recognition:  memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or
situation as one he or she has or has not experienced before. Recognition is the
easiest type of memory retrieval.
Examples: name of your first-grade teacher, a multiple choice test, songs on the
radio, sound of a particular musical or a person’s features. 

Recall: memory retrieval in which a person actively reconstructs previously

learned material. It involves our knowledge, attitudes, and expectations.
Remembering is an active process guided by our experience, knowledge, and cues
we receive from the environment.
 
The alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified, enriched, or
distorted, depending on an individual’s experiences, attitudes, or inferences.
 
State-dependent memory: occurs when you recall information easily when you
are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting as you were when you
originally encoded the information.

Context-dependent memory: occurs when you recall information easily when you
are in the same environment or situation as you were when you originally
encoded the information.

3 ways to retrieve "lost" memories: through meditation, hypnosis, or

brain stimulation.

Forgetting:  when information that once entered long-term memory is unable

to be retrieved. Both memory and forgetting are necessary functions win the
human brain.
 Four types of forgetfulness:
1) Decay
2) Interference
3) Repression

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 4) Amnesia

Decay: fading away of memory over time if it’s not in use.

1.) Items quickly decay in sensory storage and short-term memory.
2.) Long-term memories may never decay.
 3.) A blow to the head or electrical stimulation of certain parts of the brain can
cause loss of memory.
 4.) The memories lost are the most recent ones - older memories seem to remain.
 5.) The fact that apparently forgotten information can be recovered through
meditation, hypnosis, or brain stimulation suggests that at least some
memories never decay.
6.) Interference or repression causes people to lose track of memories.
 
Interference: blockage of a memory by previous or subsequent memories. It’s
of two types: proactive and retroactive
 
 Proactive interference: occurs when an earlier memory blocks you from
remembering related new information. (when a earlier memory does the
blocking)
 
Retroactive interference: occurs when a later memory or new information blocks
you from remembering information learned earlier. (when a later memory does
the blocking).
  
Repression: occurs when a person may subconsciously block memories of an
embarrassing or frightening experience. The material still exists in person’s
memory, but it has been made inaccessible because it is so disturbing. Often
abusive events during their childhood are repressed.
 
Amnesia: is a loss of memory. It is caused by factors like:
                        1.) a blow to the head
                        2.) brain damage
                        3.) as the result of drug use
                        4.) severe psychological stress
 
                                               
Tips for students to improve memory
 
 Sort Information: Help your retrieval system by putting new information into
categories. You can group by dates, people, formulas, etc. It may help to make a
chart as you study.
 

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Frequent review: Studying new information the same day you heard or read it
will improve memory significantly. A small review each day is essential if you
have memory problems.
 
Use humor or exaggeration: Information stays in memory longer if it is
related to something novel and interesting. Make up something funny or
exaggerated that ties into what needs to be memorized.

Explore the senses: Try learning the information visually, verbally, and
kinesthetically and find which sense works best for you. Some people need to
combine two or more senses.

Color code: By using colored pens, highlighters, post-it notes and flags, index
cards, etc. you can make an impression on your memory.
This is a way of sorting information for storage as you assign colors.
 
Make visual aids: Draw pictures or cartoon characters, graphs, tables, charts,
time lines, etc. to aid memory. Even simple stick figures and drawings are useful
if you are a visual learner. Pay attention to pictures, charts, etc. in textbooks.

Rehearse aloud: Verbal rehearsal is an effective memory tool. Study with

someone or use a tape recorder to say what needs to be memorized aloud.

Make it physical: Adding a physical activity such as pacing, jumping, throwing

a ball, or writing enhances the memory for many people. Typing or rewriting
notes is a very effective memory device for people who need to learn
kinesthetically.
 
 
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