INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CONTROL:

A Process control system can be defines as the functions and operations necessary to change a
material either physically or chemically.
The controlled (dynamic) variable is a variable we wish to keep constant.
A manipulated variable is a variable that we change to regulate the process. Specifically, the
manipulated variable enables us to keep the controlled variable constant.
Disturbances tend to change the controlled variable.
The function of process control system is to regulate the value of controlled variable when the
disturbance changes it.
The controller is that part of a process control system that decides how much adjustment the
system needs and implements the results of the system.

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MILK PASTEURIZING EXAMPLE:
The temperature of milk is Controlled variable.
The flow of steam controls the temperature of
the milk. Therefore, steam flow is the
manipulated variable.
The ambient temperature surrounding the tank
can be considered a disturbance.
If the temperature is changed from allowable
limits, the controller would make adjustments
to bring the temperature under control.
The valve is the final control element of this system.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PROCESS CONTROL:
Each automatic process makes a measurement of controlled variable. The measurement usually is made by
sensor or transducer.
Transducers change the controlled variable into another form usually electrical.
Controller compares the sensor measurement with a reference called the set point.
If the sensor measurement differs from the set point, an error condition occurs.
A final control element makes those adjustments that are necessary to bring the controlled variable back to the
set point value.

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS:
PROCESS LOAD:
Process load can be defined as the total amount of control agent needed to keep the process in a balanced
condition.
The process load is directly related to the setting of the final control element.
The final control elements adjustment is what keeps the process balanced.

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PROCESS LAG:
Process lag is the time it takes the controlled variable to reach a new value after a process load change.
This time lag is the function of the process and not the control system.
Process lags are caused by three properties of the process: Capacitance, Resistance and Transportation time.
Capacitance can be defined as the ability of the system to store a quantity of energy or material per unit
quantity of a reference.
A large capacitance in a process means that it takes more time for process load changes to occur.
A large capacitance is a desirable characteristic, because keeping the controlled variable constant is then easier.
And a large capacitance also means that it is more difficult to change the controlled variable back to the desired
point once it has been changed.
Resistance in a process can be defined as opposition to flow. Large resistances will, therefore, increases the
process lag by opposing the change in the controlled variable.
The capacitance and resistance of a system are combined into a factor called RC delay, or the RC time constant.
Transportation time or Dead time can be defined as the time it takes for a change to move from one place to
another in a process.

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 Or we can define transportation time as the time between the applications of the disturbance and the changing
of process load.
To find the time delay we use the equation:

t=

t = transportation time (in minutes)

d = distance (in centimeters)

r = flow rate (in centimeter per minute)

Suppose the fluid is flowing at a rate of 100 cm/min, and say the temperature sensor is located 50 cm from the
temperature change. Then transportation time is:

t= = = 0.5 min or 30 sec

The sensor itself has the thermal mass, which will slow down the sensor temperature change. This delay is called
transducer lag or measurement delay.

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STABILITY:
We say that a process control system is stable if it can return the controlled
variable to a steady state value.
An unstable system will cause the controlled variable to oscillate above and
below the desired value.
When the feedback is in phase with oscillations and the loop gain is greater
than 1, the strength of the oscillations will increase in amplitude by the
time.
When the feedback is in phase with oscillations and the loop gain is 1, the
oscillations will have constant amplitude.
If the loop gain is less than 1 and the feedback is out of phase with the
oscillations, then the oscillations will gradually die out.
The amount of time that it takes for the oscillations to die out, or damp is
called the settling time.
A good process control system will reduce settling time to a minimum.
As the amount of control is decreased to a loop gain of less than 1, this type
of response is called underdamped.
Damping in a control system is a force that opposes the change in the manipulated variable.
The overdamped response usually is chosen if close control is necessary and no oscillations are tolerable.
The underdamped response is chosen where fast dynamic variable response is required.
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TYPES OF PROCESS CONTROL:
Open-Loop Control:
Open-loop control involves a prediction of how much action is necessary to accomplish a process. That is, in an open-loop
system, no check is made during the process to see whether corrective action is necessary to accomplish the end result.

Open-loop control does not always provide perfect control.

Closed-Loop Control:
In a closed-loop system, a measurement is made of the variable to be controlled. The measurement is then compared with a
reference point called a set point.
If a difference or error exists between the actual and desired levels, an automatic controller will take the necessary corrective
action.

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Feedback Control:
In the open-loop system, no actual measurement is made
on the process, in contrast, in closed-loop control, the
variable to be controlled is measured and compared with a
reference (the set point), and corrective action is taken.

The measurement of dynamic variable is taken by the

sensor. The controller compares the information from the
set point and the measurement. It then decides whether or
not the corrective action on the basis of its evaluation.
The controller decides the action is to be taken and adjusts the final control element to bring the dynamic variable back under
control.

Disadvantages:
Feedback control is not satisfactory when there are large disturbances in the process load.
When there are large process loads.

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Feedforward Control:
Feedforward control is defined as a closed-loop control
system that feeds a correction signal forward to the
controller based on a measurement of disturbance.
Open-loop control makes an assumption about the
variables in the system. In contrast, feedforward control
makes a measurement of a disturbance from this
measurement. Also it does not rely on fixed program
like an open-loop control.

Difference between feedback control and

feedforward control:
In a feedback control, a measurement of dynamic variable is taken.
In a feedforward control, a measurement of disturbance is taken.

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ON-OFF CONTROL:
In on-off control, the final control element is either on
or off. This controller is also called bang-bang from the
speed of response of the on-off state.
This type of controller is sometimes also called two-
position control since the final control element is either
in the open or the closed position and the controller
will never keep the final control element in an
intermediate position.

As soon as the measured variable goes above the set

point, the final control element is turned off. It will stay
off until the measured variable goes below the set
point, then the final control element will turn on.
The measured variable will oscillate around the set
point at an amplitude and frequency that depend on
the processs capacity and time response.

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Example of ON-OFF Control:
Here the sensor is an LM335, a temperature to voltage converter.
The sensor is calibrated to give 2.98 V at 25 C and an output of 10 mV/K. thus, if
the temperature is 30 C, the of output of LM335 is

Vo = (temperature, in K)(10mV/K)

Or Vo = (303 K)(10mV/K) = 3.03 V

Comparator has reference voltage of 3.23 V (set point).

The output of comparator will go high when LM335 reaches a temperature of
323K or 50 C.
The simple ON-OFF conroller has main disadvantage. If the fan cools the sensor too quickly, the comparator and the relay will
turn on and off quickly, possibly damanging the relay.

Differential-Gap Control:
In this type of control a band or gap exists around the control point.
When the measured variable goes above the upper boundary of the gap, the
final control element closes. It will stay closed until the measured variable
drops below the lower boundary.
The gap in differential-gap control is often called a dead zone.

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PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL:
Some process control systems have errors that change very rapidly. This situation is especially true in processes that have a small
capacitance.

By adding derivative control to a proportional control, we get a

controller output that responds to the measurements rate of change
as well as to its size.

When the measurement changes, derivative action differentiate the

change and maintain a level as long as the measurement continues to
change at a given rate.

The step decrease in the controller output graph is proportional to the

slope of the dynamic-variable change.

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