MODULE IV MCA-301 COMPUTER GRAPHICS ADMN 2009-10

4.5 VISIBLE SURFACE DETECTION METHODES

A major consideration in the generation of realistic graphics displays is
identifying those parts of a scene that are visible from a chosen viewing position. There
are many approaches we can take to solve this problem, and numerous algorithms have
been devised for efficient identification of visible objects for different types of
applications. Some methods require more memory, some involve more processing time,
and some apply only to special types of objects. Deciding upon a method for a
particular application can depend on such factors as the complexity of the scene, type of
objects to be displayed, available equipment, and whether static or animated displays
are to be generated. The various algorithms are referred to as visible-surface detection
methods. Sometimes these methods are also referred to as hidden-surface elimination
methods, although there can be subtle differences between identifying visible surfaces
and eliminating hidden surfaces. For wireframe displays, for example, we may not want
to actually eliminate the hidden surfaces, but rather to display them with dashed
boundaries or in some other way to retain information about their shape. In this chapter,
we explore some of the most commonly used methods for detecting visible surfaces in a
three-dimensional scene.

4.5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF VISIBLE-SURFACE DETECTION

ALGORITHMS
Visible-surface detection algorithms are broadly classified according to whether
they deal with object definitions directly or with their projected images. These two
approaches are called object-space methods and image-space methods, respectively.

An object-space method compares objects and parts of objects to each other

within the scene definition to determine which surfaces, as a whole, we should label as
visible. In an image-space algorithm, visibility is decided point by point at each pixel
position on the projection plane. Most visible-surface algorithms use image-space
methods, although object space methods can be used effectively to locate visible
surfaces in some cases. Line display algorithms, on the other hand, generally use
object-space methods to identify visible lines in wireframe displays, but many image-
space visible-surface algorithms can be adapted easily to visible-line detection.

Although there are major differences in the basic approach taken by the various
visible-surface detection algorithms, most use sorting and coherence methods to
improve performance. Sorting is used to facilitate depth comparisons by ordering the
individual surfaces in a scene according to their distance from the view plane.
Coherence methods are used to take advantage of regularities in a scene. An individual
scan line can be expected to contain intervals (runs) of constant pixel intensities, and
scan-line patterns often change little from one line to the next. Animation frames

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contain changes only in the vicinity of moving objects. And constant relationships often
can be established between objects and surfaces in a scene.

4.5.2 BACK-FACE DETECTION

A fast and simple object-space method for identifying the back faces of a
polyhedron is based on the "inside-outside" tests. A point (x, y, z) is "inside" a polygon
surface with plane parameters A, B, C, and D if When an inside point is along the line
of sight to the surface, the polygon must be a back face (we are inside that face and
cannot see the front of it from our viewing position).

We can simplify this test by considering the normal vector N to a polygon

surface, which has Cartesian components (A, B, C). In general, if V is a vector in the
viewing direction from the eye (or "camera") position, then this polygon is a back face
if
V.N>0
Furthermore, if object descriptions have been converted to projection
coordinates and our viewing direction is parallel to the viewing z-axis, then V = (0, 0,
Vz) and
V.N=VZC
So that we only need to consider the sign of C, the ; component of the normal
vector N

In a right-handed viewing system with viewing direction along the negative zV

axis, the polygon is a back face if C < 0. AIso, we cannot see any face whose normal
has z component C = 0, since our viewing direction is grazing that polygon. Thus, in
general, we can label any polygon as a back face if its normal vector has a z component
value:
C<=0

Similar methods can be used in packages that employ a left-handed viewing

system. In these packages, plane parameters A, B, C and D can be calculated from
polygon vertex coordinates specified in a clockwise direction (instead of the
counterclockwise direction used in a right-handed system). Also, back faces have

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normal vectors that point away from the viewing position and are identified by C >= 0
when the viewing direction is along the positive zv axis. By examining parameter C for
the different planes defining an object, we can immediately identify all the back faces.

4.5.3 DEPTH-BUFFER METHOD

A commonly used image-space approach to detecting visible surfaces is the
depth-buffer method, which compares surface depths at each pixel position on the
projection plane. This procedure is also referred to as the z-buffer method, since object
depth is usually measured from the view plane along the z axis of a viewing system.
Each surface of a scene is processed separately, one point at a time across the surface.
The method is usually applied to scenes containing only polygon surfaces, because
depth values can be computed very quickly and the method is easy to implement. But
the method can be applied to nonplanar surfaces With object descriptions converted to
projection coordinates, each (x, y, 2) position on a polygon surface corresponds to the
orthographic projection point (x, y) on the view plane. Therefore, for each pixel
position (x, y) on the view plane, object depths can be compared by comparing z values.
Figure: 4.12 shows three surfaces at varying distances along the orthographic
projection line from position (x, y) in a view plane taken as the xvyv plane. Surface S1, is
closest at this position, so its surface intensity value at (x, y) is saved.

We can implement the depth-buffer algorithm in normalized coordinates, so that

z values range from 0 at the back clipping plane to Zmax at the front clipping plane. The
value of Zmax can be set either to 1 (for a unit cube) or to the largest value that can be
stored on the system.

As implied by the name of this method, two buffer areas are required. A depth
buffer is used to store depth values for each (x, y) position as surfaces are processed,
and the refresh buffer stores the intensity values for each position. Initially, all positions
in the depth buffer are set to 0 (minimum depth), and the refresh buffer is initialized to
the background intensity. Each surface listed in the polygon tables is then processed,
one scan line at a time, calculating the depth (z value) at each (x, y) pixel position. The
calculated depth is compared to the value previously stored in the depth buffer at that
position. If the calculated depth is greater than the value stored in the depth buffer, the

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new depth value is stored, and the surface intensity at that position is determined and in
the same xy location in the refresh buffer.

(Figure 4 - 12)

We summarize the steps of a depth-buffer algorithm as follows:

Depth values for a surface position (x, y) are calculated from the plane
equation for each surface:

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(Fig. 4-13)

For any scan line (Fig. 4-13), adjacent horizontal positions across the line differ
by 1, and a vertical y value on an adjacent scan line differs by 1. If the depth of position
(x, y) has been determined to be z, then the depth z' of the next position (x + 1, y) along
the scan line is obtained from Equation of (x, y) as Y - 1

The ratio -A/C is constant for each surface, so succeeding depth values across a
scan line are obtained from preceding values with a single addition. On each scan line,
we start by calculating the depth on a left edge of the polygon that intersects that scan
line (Fig. 4-14). Depth values at each successive position across the scan line are then
calculated by the previous equations. We first determine the y-coordinate extents of
each polygon, and process the surface from the topmost scan line to the bottom scan
line, as shown in Fig. 4-14. Starting at a top vertex, we can recursively calculate x
positions down a left edge of the polygon as x' = x - l/m, where m is the slope of the
edge (Fig. 4-15). Depth values down the edge are then obtained recursively as
A B
z' z m
C
Top scan line

y scan line

Left edge
Intersection

Bottom scan line

(Fig. 4-14)

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If we are processing down a vertical edge, the slope is infinite and the recursive
calculations reduce to
B
z' z
C
An alternate approach is to use a midpoint method or Bresenham-type algorithm
for determining x values on left edges for each scan line. Also the method can be
applied to curved surfaces by determining depth and intensity values at each surface
projection point.

(Fig. 4-15)

For polygon surfaces, the depth-buffer method is very easy to implement, and it
requires no sorting of the surfaces in a scene. But it does require the availability of a
second buffer in addition to the refresh buffer. A system with a resolution of 1024 by
1024, for example, would require over a million positions in the depth buffer, with each
position containing enough bits to represent the number of depth increments needed.
One way to reduce storage requirements is to process one section of the scene at a time,
using a smaller depth buffer. After each view section is processed, the buffer is reused
for the next section.

4.5.4 A-BUFFER METHOD

The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer method.The A-buffer
method is visibility detection method developed at Lucas film Studios for the rendering
system REYES (Renders Everything You Ever Saw) The A-buffer expands on the
depth buffer method to allow transparencies The key data structure in the A-buffer is
the accumulation buffer.

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(Fig. 4-16)
Each position in the A-buffer has two fields
Depth field- stores a positive or negative real number
Intensity field--stores surface-intensity information or a pointer value

If depth is >= 0, the number stored at that position is the depth of a single surface
overlapping the corresponding pixel area.
The intensity field then stores the RGB components of the surface
color at that point and the percent of pixel coverage.
If depth < 0 this indicates multiple-surface contributions to the pixel intensity.
The intensity field then stores a pointer to a linked List of surface data
Surface information in the A-buffer includes:
a. RGB intensity components
b. Opacity parameter
c. Depth
d. Percept of area coverage
e. Surface identifier
f. Other surface rendering parameters
The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm.The depth and
opacity values are used to determine the final colour of a pixel

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4.5.5 SCAN-LINE METHOD

An image space method for identifying visible surfaces. Computes and compares
depth values along the various scan-lines for a scene
Two important tables are maintained:
The edge table
The POLYGON table
The edge table contains:
Coordinate end points of each line in the scene
The inverse slope of each line
Pointers into the POLYGON table to connect edges to surfaces
The POLYGON table contains:
The plane coefficients
Surface material properties
Other surface data
Maybe pointers into the edge table
To facilitate the search for surfaces crossing a given scan-line an active list of
edges is formed for each scan-line as it is processed. The active list stores only those
edges that cross the scan-line in order of increasing x. Also a flag is set for each surface
to indicate whether a position along a scan-line is either inside or outside the surface
Pixel positions across each scan-line are processed from left to right. At the left
intersection with a surface the surface flag is turned on. At the right intersection point
the flag is turned off. We only need to perform depth calculations when more than one
surface has its flag turned on at a certain scan-line position

(Fig. 4-17)

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Figure 4-17 illustrates the scan-line method for locating visible portions of surfaces for
pixel positions along the line. The active list for line 1 contains information from the
edge table for edges AB, BC, EH, and FG. For positions along this scan line between
edges AB and BC, only the flag for surface S1 is on. Therefore no depth calculations are
necessary, and intensity information for surface S1, is entered from the polygon table
into the refresh buffer. Similarly, between edges EH and FG, only the flag for surface
S2 is on. NO other positions along scan line 1 intersect surfaces, so the intensity values
in the other areas are set to the background intensity. The background intensity can be
loaded throughout the buffer in an initialization routine.
For scan lines 2 and 3 in Fig. 4-17, the active edge list contains edges AD,
EH, BC, and FG. Along scan line 2 from edge AD to edge EH, only the flag for surface
S1 is on. But between edges EH and BC, the flags for both surfaces are on. In this
interval, depth calculations must be made using the plane coefficients for the two
surfaces. For this example, the depth of surface S1 is assumed to be less than that of S2,
so intensities for surface S1 are loaded into the refresh buffer until boundary BC is
encountered. Then the flag for surface S1 goes off, and intensities for surface S2 are
stored until edge FG is passed.
We can take advantage of-coherence along the scan lines as we pass from
one scan line to the next. In Fig. 4-17, scan line 3 has the same active list of edges as
scan line 2. Since no changes have occurred in line intersections, it is unnecessary again
to make depth calculations between edges EH and BC. The two surfaces must be in the
same orientation as determined on scan line 2, so the intensities for surface S1 can be
entered without further calculations.

4.5.6 DEPTH SORTING METHOD

Using both image space and object-space operations. The depth-sorting method
performs the following basic functions:
Surfaces are sorted in order of decreasing depth.
Surfaces are scan converted in order, starting with the surface of greatest depth.
Sorting operations are carried out in both image and object space.
The scan conversion of the polygon surfaces is performed in image space.
This method for solving the hidden-surface problem is often referred to as the
painter's algorithm

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(Fig. 4-18)

First sort surfaces according to their distance from the view plane. The intensity
values for the farthest surface are then entered into the refresh buffer. Taking each
succeeding surface in turn (in decreasing depth order), we "paint" the surface intensities
onto the frame buffer over the intensities of the previously processed surfaces.

If a depth overlap is detected at any point in the list, we need to make some
additional comparisons to determine whether any of the surfaces should be reordered.

We make the following tests for each surface that overlaps with S. If any one of
these tests is true, no reordering is necessary for that surface. The tests are listed in
order of increasing difficulty.

1) The bounding rectangles in the xy plane for the two surfaces do not overlap
2) Surface S is completely behind the overlapping surface relative to the viewing
position.
3) The overlapping surface is completely in front of S relative to the viewing
position.

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4) The projections of the two surfaces onto the view plane do not overlap.

The coordinates for all vertices of S into the plane equation for the overlapping
surface and check the sign of the result. If the plane equations are set up so that the
outside of the surface is toward the viewing position, then S is behind S' if all vertices
of S are "inside" S.

S' is completely in front of S if all vertices of S are "outside" of S'.

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If tests 1 through 3 have all failed, we try test 4 by checking for intersections
between the bounding edges of the two surfaces using line equations in the xy plane.

4.5.7 AREA-SUBDIVISION METHOD

The area-subdivision method takes advantage of area coherence in a scene by
locating those view areas that represent part of a single surface. We apply this method
by successively dividing the total viewing area into smaller and smaller rectangles until
each small area is the projection of part of a single visible surface or no surface at all.
We continue this process until the subdivisions are easily analyzed as belonging to a
single surface or until they are reduced to the size of a single pixel.

An easy way to do this is to successively divide the area into four equal parts at
each step. There are four possible relationships that a surface can have with a specified
area boundary
Surrounding surface-One that completely encloses the area.
Overlapping surface-One that is partly inside and partly outside the area.

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Inside surface-One that is completely inside the area.

Outside surface-One that is completely outside the area.

The tests for determining surface visibility within an area can be stated in terms
of these four classifications.
No further subdivisions of a specified area are needed if one of the following
conditions is true:
All surfaces are outside surfaces with respect to the area.
Only one inside, overlapping, or surrounding surface is in the area.
A surrounding surface obscures all other surfaces within the area boundaries.

Example for Area-Subdivision Method

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