1

Visual Grammar: Semiotic Approach

Introduction
Visual communication, as a subject, can be complex; as a practice, it is dynamic
nonetheless. Its influence can be far-reaching, affecting consciousness, beliefs,
behaviour, taste, among others. The skills required for its practice is broad-ranging.
But with the accessibility of graphics and editing softwares, the profession in visual
communication has become competitive in terms of "over supply", though not
necessarily in terms of quality. This accessibility to editing softwares brought forth
scores of visual designs that are found wanting in terms of visual grammar and
meaningful design aesthetics. On the other hand, the availability of skills training in
visual design did not necessarily address the need for students to understand visual
communication as a practice that requires a load of meaning-making.
The last statement has caused the author of this module to develop a module in
basic semiotics. This is also motivated by the idea that images in visual
communication could only have their linguistic and communicative function when
their use and development is informed by some fundamental degree of
understanding and knowledge of semiotics. Semiotic skills, therefore, should begin
the journeys visual designers must undertake in discovering their potential in the
good command of visual vocabulary, part of the totality that is visual communication.
The author, thus, thought that, prior to plunging students to the more technical parts
of design thinking, a short course on semiotics is in order. However, as semiotics is
a highly and technically academic field of study, this module is uniquely developed
for students with little interest in academic jargons and engagements. As such,
many of the terms and demonstrations in semiotics are replaced in this module with
the use of more popularly understood vocabulary. Nonetheless, extra care have
been observed by the author so as not to trivialise the theories developed by
semioticians, mostly coming from the field of academics.

Being an introductory to a short course in visual design, this module is meant to be

the first in a three part training on visual communication:
a. Visual Communication 1: Semiotic Approach
b. Visual Communication 2:The Language and Writing of Images
c. Visual Communication 3: Writing for Visual Design

As the first of the series, it contains instructions and exercises aimed to enhance the
semiotic skills of visual practitioners. It covers basic semiotic theories that could be
used as basis for meaning-making and, as such, the resulting knowledge and
learning can be applied to a broader field of visual practice including film, graphics
design, painting, writing, etc.
The creation of this material is also motivated by the authors resolve to help
students inform their work thereby infusing credibility to it with a deeper
understanding of signs and their meaning.
 2

Prospective Clients/ Beneficiaries

1. Creative industries practitioners (e.g. advertising creatives, copywriters, visualisers,
graphic designers and artists)
2. Corporate visual communicators (i.e. in-house corporate communication officers,
internal communication officers)
4. Digital writers and visualisers (e.g. web designers, bloggers, photographers, game
developers)

Objectives
1. Provide semiotic instruction on some theoretical basis in the creation of visual design.
2. Establish a systematic process in meaning-making.
3. Instruct students on the rudiments of meaning- and sign-making in the visual medium
whether digital or print.
4. Provide a preparatory manual for the design, creation, and production of visual
communication materials.

After this course, students are expected to:

1. Understand fundamental principles in meaning - and sign-making in preparation to the
practice of visual design and communication.
2. Articulate visual language in proper visual imagery in either print or digital medium.
3. Demonstrate a higher skill in imagery and visualisation.

Methodology
Students are provided instruction through:
1. Lectures on theories and concepts in visual meaning making through basic principles in
visual semiotics.
2. Basic art workshop and critical exercises.

I. Overview

Semiotics can be an exhaustively theoretical subject to study; thus, highly academic. However, this
module tries to draw the subject to an audience who have little academic inclination, if not totally
lacking. They must be made to understand that semiotics can be a survival kit in life, since life is
made of signs. The ability to read signs can contribute in making life a bit lighter to understand,
comprehend, and deal with. However, as the audience are composed of communicators, they must
be made to understand the importance of semiotics in their practice as meaning-makers. They
must not only be able to read signs, but also create signs where there is none, or manipulate
existing signs for their own communicative purpose.

Start by presenting three, out of the many, categories of need in life.

 3

Biological : food, air, water, etc.

Social : companion, family, school, etc.
Psychological : emotional care, being loved, pride of ownership, etc.

Following Aristotles idea that man is a rational animal, human beings achieve, acquire, learn and
satisfy their need by rationalising. This rationalising involves a lot of sign reading. Example:

Satisfy biological need: cook food to eat. It means that food is cooked when it has the
following sign - soft, bloodless, aromatic, burnt brown.
Satisfy social need: interact with somebody in order to gain a companion. A person does
this by interacting without offense. That person tries to be pleasant and endearing following certain
mannerism learnt from social conventions. People's action towards their object of companionship
must be pleasant enough to result to an equally pleasant reaction; example, a smile.
Satisfy psychological need: people, as consumers, usually feel good by owning the latest
gadget. They buy branded gadgets with the most advanced features; example, a smart phone.
Having owned these coveted gadgets feeds their self-esteem.

The signs are: soft, bloodless, aroma, colour, smart phone, smile, etc.

These are general introductory example of signs and meaning we encounter in life. To
understand how signs work, make the students consider the following:

Go is walk
Apple is fruit
Car is transportation

Now consider:

Go means Safe
Apple means Snack
Car means Wealth

At this point, the students can be made to understand that signs are important because
they mean something other than themselves. In fact, they are tools of survival; they are means to
make sense (i.e. guide) about the world.
Ask students to fill the blanks with what the items mean for them:

1. Spots on the chest means _______________.

2. A white hair means _______________.
3. Rooster crowing means _______________.
 4

4. A blip on the radar means _______________.

5. An X on a map means _______________.

Draw further ideas from the students by allowing them to contextualise an item. Example, a
white hair at the age of 12; a rooster crowing at 11 AM. Contextualising each items brings the
discussion to another characteristics of signs:
Signs are not isolated; they are dependent for their meaning on the structures in which
they are read and understood.
Then it can be emphasised in the discussion another use of semiotics:
Semiotics, then, is (among other things) about the tools, processes, structure, and
contexts that human beings have for creating, interpreting, and understanding meaning in a variety
of different ways.
From this understanding of semiotics, give the academic definition of the theory:
Semiotics is defined as the theory and study of signs. The word came from the Greek
semiotikos; meaning, an interpreter of signs. It deals with a diverse number of signs: facial
expression, gestures, medical symptoms, photography, drawings, sculpture, food, clothing, rites
and rituals, tattoo symbols, book cover designs, music, etc.

Exercise: Start a discussion on meaning existing in anything and everything. Below is a point of
discussion by drawing attention to the items below.
1. A cup. What does it's design means?
2. A cup on a saucer. What is the relationship of the cup with the saucer in terms of
purpose and utility?
3. A cup and saucer on the table. What is the relationship of the cup, saucer, and table?
What could be said about the context of this relationship? Is there a significant meaning if the cloth
on the table is white or floral? Where is the table located? Does this ensemble tell us about the
personality of the people using the cup? If we have the freedom to alter the details of the ensemble
(e.g. cup design, table shape, kitchen or dining area, a cake or roasted chicken in the picture), how
can it be shown that it is a cup of coffee or tea? What other details can be added (or taken away)
so as to tell different kinds of stories involving the cup, the saucer, the table, etc.?

II. Signifier and Signified

The two most basic elements of semiotics is the the signifier and the signified. The signifier
is the one being sensed (e.g. touch, see, smell, hear). The signified is the meaning of what is
being sensed. Example:

Signifier Signified

Apple nourishment

Green light safe to walk

Smoke Fire
 5

Signifier Signified

Red rose love

Ways of Meaning. There are three ways by which meaning is understood:

Literal. Literal meaning are good in technical instructional materials such as electrical or
mechanical books. These instructional books cannot use analogical or metaphorical meanings so
as to avoid confusion. Misinterpreting signs used in these books can put the reader into danger. In
other words, meaning in these materials is what you see, is what you get.

Analogy. Meanings from analogies can be obvious or surprising. Nonetheless, they help
map out one set of meaning from one object to another by drawing out likeness between such
things as people, situations, images, texts, objects, ideas, or thoughts. An example of an obvious
analogy: a delicious bite of apple means the whole apple is delicious. In other words, the part of
the apple is like its whole. On the other hand, buying a badly manufactured smart phone can be a
sign that the rest of the smart phones in the same brand is not good. However, some analogies
can be surprising that the connection can be less obvious. In such case, the analogy can only work
in a certain given example. Example: a caricature drawing of a person. The facial features are
distorted and exaggerated in order to impart a meaning. See Fig. 1.

Metaphors. This is a different way of meaning as it draws out connections between ideas,
concepts, objects, etc. that are quite simple and literal in the surface. Unlike analogy (where it can
be said that one thing is like another), a metaphor creates meaning by saying that one thing is
another. Metaphor is highly contextual. In a Western setting, a metaphor can be mechanistic or
consumerist. They can be concrete or abstract. Example:

Concrete Abstract

Mechanistic War against AIDS

Battle against diseases.

(This is mechanistic because the

meaning of fight AIDS is taken
from the mechanism of war. Being
mechanistic, it is concrete.)

Consumerist Save time.

Wasting time.

(This is consumerist as it is based

on the idea of consumption. Time
being consumed by spending it.
Time is also an intangible idea.
Therefore, abstract.)

Structure of Meaning (Framing of Message). There are two ways to frame meaning in a
structure:
 6

Surface Structure. This can be illustrated in storytelling where the elements of the story that
are obvious to the reader are the surface structures. These features can be easily identified by
the reader and can be understood quite literally. Some example:

Character - villain, antagonist, protagonist, damsel in distress

Themes - ethnic war, love and peace, adventure
Plot - voyage, quest, rebirth
Genre - thriller, horror, fantasy, romance

Deep Structure. These are the elements in the story that may not be readily apparent to
the audience. Though they are not immediately detectable, they are important because they can
reveal the underlying meaning and significance of what the audience are being told. Example, an
element in the story that persuades the reader regarding traditional values (or questions it), such
as language, discursive value of the text, view of the character regarding the world and his
relationships to other characters and his environment, etc.
One example of how surface and deep structure highlight the faming of message is the
difference between the classic and original story of Sleeping Beauty and the one portrayed in the
animation Shrek.

Help students discuss the difference using this guide:

Classic Sleeping Beauty Shrek

Surface Structure Characters: Prince Characters: Ogre

Theme: Adventure Theme: __________
Plot: ________ Plot: _________
Genre: Fantasy romance Genre: Fantasy comedy

Deep Structure How does the Prince see the How does the ogre see the world?
world? What kind of language do the
How do the characters speak or characters use?
move (e.g. gesture, facial General message of the story.
expression, manner of speaking)?
General message of the story.

Exercise:
In the movie Maleficent, an adaptation from the classic Sleeping Beauty, the enchantress and the
princess take a different turn in terms of characterization. This different turn is linked to the
message of the movie, vis a vis that of the classic tale. Using the chart above, identify the 'surface
meaning' and the 'deep meaning' of the characters in each versions - the movie adaptation and the
classic tale.
Note: Instructor may give more examples related to the above given study for added exercises.

Types of Meaning. Basically, there are two types of meaning in terms of how they are
understood:
 7

Rational (cognitive). This type of sign appeal to the human understanding through
intellection. It is quite analytic and involves a great deal of logical reasoning in order to be
understood. Abstract concepts are usually of this type. Numbers are specific to this type as they
involve calculations in order to be understood.
Emotional (non-cognitive). This type of sign appeals to human understanding through the
emotion. Communication situations that are concrete often embody this type of signs as they make
us feel things in the deeper level. Politicians, for instance, know much about this type of signs as
they make people feel things in order to gain their votes. People do not necessarily relate with
statistics.
The images below (Fig. 2 and 3) exemplifies the power of the rational against the power of
the emotional, vice versa, communicating the realities of death.

III. Signs and Signing: Understanding Icon, Index, and Symbol

There are several ways by which human beings comprehend and define the world. The
reality is that there is an independently existing world and it depends on humans to come up with
signs and ways of communication to understand it. Basically, this idea tells that it is possible to
describe the world with the use of imitations or representations. It is called language.
Below is a table that roughly illustrates, thought simplistically and naively, how the world
and the language we use to describe it coincide with each other.

Human System of Communication Forms of Correspondence The World

Language pictures reality.

Propositions, statements, and match thoughts.

sentences

Words exemplify facts and values.

Speech mirrors opinions and feelings.

Gestures echo beliefs and emotions.

Concepts label concrete or abstract ideas.

Symbols embody meanings.

Images represent things.

Maps describe spatial relationships.

Diagrams chart viewpoints.

Mathematical formulae and equations model relationships.

Statistics measure qualities.

This is a rough estimate on how the relationships between the world and communication
work. What it shows though is that, in semiotics, the system of communication humans utilise can
frame, or somewhat dictate, how they see the world. However, the world is not accessed through
this system; rather, it is mediated through it. The systems used may change how the world is seen,
sometimes very differently.
 8

Here are three applied examples involving three semiotic fields of communication:
1. Object-Based Communication

Communication Trajectory Key Semiotic Concept

A designer Sender (who)

wishes to design a vacuum cleaner. Intention (aim)

The design is very efficient. Message (what)

The design is manufactured in plastic and metal. Transmission (by which means)

It is sold in a store without the instructions. Noise (interference)

A buyer purchased it. Receiver (to whom)

The buyer tries to use the product unsuccessfully. Destination (effect)

The buyer requests for the instruction, which Feedback (reaction)

enabled him to use the appliance.

2. Image-Based Communication

Communication Trajectory Key Semiotic Concept

A painter Sender (who)

wants to paint a portrait. Intention (aim)

Repaints a portrait that resembles the sitter. Message (what)

It is painted on paper using watercolour. Transmission (by which means)

It is hung in a gallery under the artificial light which Noise (interference)

changes its colour.

A viewer sees it. Receiver (to whom)

He hangs it over the fireplace where it looks dull. Destination (effect)

The picture has too little light, so the viewer hangs it Feedback (reaction)
near a window where there is more light.

3. Text-Based Communication

Communication Trajectory Key Semiotic Concepts

A writer Sender (who)

aims to produce a text on semiotics. Intention (aim)

He writes a book explaining the complexities of the Message (what)

subject.

It is printed. Transmission (by which means)

A printing error occurs. Noise (interference)

 9

Communication Trajectory Key Semiotic Concepts

A reader reads it. Receiver (to whom)

A reader, not detecting the printing error, is Destination (effect)

confused.

The error is corrected and the reader is no longer Feedback (reaction)

confused.

Exercise:
Think of a communication situation and use the chart above to map out the "communication
trajectories" and "key semiotic concepts".

According to Charles Sanders Pierce, an American semiotician, there are three categories of signs
in terms of how they denote their objects: symbol, icon, and index.

A. Icon: Map the Object.

Any sign that resembles the thing it represents is an icon. They may look, feel, smell, or
taste like the objects they represent. The semblance can be deciphered no matter the style they
are rendered as representations. A pictograph of a man or woman on a door indicates the sexes to
which the room is intended to serve male or female. See Fig. 4.
Exercise:
 10

What do you think of the image below? What is it? What made you say what you think it is? Point
out the features of the image that supports your claim.

"The Inuit have used. [...] Tactile maps of the coastline, carved out of wood. They can be carried
inside your mittens, so your hands stay warm. They have infinite battery life, and can be read, even
in the six months of the year that it is dark. And, if they are accidentally dropped into the water, they
float. What you and I might see as a stick, for the Inuit can be an elegant design solution that is
appropriate for their particular environment."Bill Buxton, Sketching User Experiences

Note: Instructor may give more examples related to the item below for added exercises.

B. Index: The Woman in the Photograph.

An index has a direct relationship logically established between an object being read and its
meaning. Smoke is an index of fire; a tail, an index of a dog. Street signs are index in as much as
they directly represent the reality of their placement, say, a junction or a foot of a hill.
See Fig. 5. When physical or causal relationships can be established between the signifier
and the signified, the non arbitrary relationship between the two can be said as indexical. In the
example PSA, the black eye is caused by a punch and could mean the occurrence of a physical
abuse, the very message of the material. Other examples are listed below:

Signifier Signified

A wagging tail is caused by a happy dog.

Ticking is caused by a clock running.

A defensive gesture (posture) is caused by emotional attitude (fear).

Handwriting is caused by a person writing.

Smell of bacon is caused by breakfast being prepared.

Sweat is caused by heat.

Tears is caused by emotional attitude (sadness).

Exercise:
1. The World Wildlife Fund uses the Panda in its logo. Why is the Panda being used? Can we
use other animals in place of the Panda? Based on what WWF is all about, can we use a poodle in
place of a Panda? But if you WWF wants you to redesign its logo using a dog, what could have
been done to the image of the dog so as to embody the meaning of what WWF is advocating?
2. The PSA below has its image removed. Based on its message (copy), what could have been a
good visual image to support the written text?
 11

Now see the original image and compare with what you have in mind.
 12

Note: Instructor may give more examples related to the items above for added exercises.
 13

C. Symbol: What Does the Apple Mean?

A symbol has no logical resemblance to the thing it represents. The relationships between
the symbol (object) and its meaning must be learned in order to understand the relationships
between them.
In a painting by Lucas Cranach (1472-1553), Adam is depicted as receiving an apple from
Eve. The apple represents the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. The apple is used by Satan, in
the form of a serpent, to tempt Eve. Eve picks it up and hands it to Adam. This led to both of them
falling from Gods grace. See Fig. 6.
The story reflects the one popularly told in the Bible. However, the Bible did not mention an
apple; instead, there was a mention of a fruit. It must have been a pear or banana.
What is clear in this painting is that the fruit (signifier) was used to represent temptation
(signified). Nonetheless, any fruit could have been used but the human mind is conditioned to
connect an apple with temptation. There was no direct connection, either cause or effect, between
fruits and attitudes enough for an apple to symbolise temptation.
There are a number of ways to establish the relationships between signifier and signified.
Two important realisations about the relationships are realised though. Consider the following:

1. Same signifier can have different signifieds:

Signifier Signified

Apple Temptation

Apple Healthy

Apple Fruit

2. Several signifiers can have one signified:

Signifier Signified

Apple (English) Apple

Pomme (French) Apple

Apfel (German) Apple

Symbols can have arbitrary meaning. Somewhere, somehow, and somebody has defined
the meaning for it to be read as such. Thus, in some instances, the meaning may be different for
some group, culture, or society. Alphabets and numbers are symbols of this kind. But alphabets
and numbers, though arbitrarily decided upon in terms of meaning, are absolute and definite. Little,
if not totally nothing, can be done to alter their meaning. However, some arbitrarily defined
symbols can be altered significantly.
Take for example the Nazi swastika. Before it became a disturbing symbol used by the
Nazis, it was an Indian symbol. The Hindus and Buddhists believe it to stand for good luck.
However, note that the Indian swastika has an inverted L in contrast to the Nazi swastika.
The word symbol comes from the Greek that means to throw together. In the field of
semiotics, one thing can be thrown together with another; thus, the first is symbolised by the
second. Below are some examples where the symbolism is quite obvious:
 14

Symbol Meaning

Scale Justice

Dove Peace

Rose Beauty

Lion Strength

In these examples, the relationships between symbol and meaning is established by the
use of the nature of the object: balance, established by a scale, is necessary in justice; roses are
beautiful; the strength of the lions.
However, there are symbols that have less obvious meanings. Examples:

Symbol Meaning

Sword Truth

Lily Purity

Goat Lust

Inverted five point star Satanism

In these examples, the arbitrariness of symbols are demonstrated. It can be realised then
that humans need to learn the meaning of symbols in advance in order to affix the precise meaning
to them. This principle of symbolism sets symbols apart from its semiotic difference from the
preceding categories of signs, also referred to generally (but not technically in semiotics) as
symbols.

Fig. 1
 15

Fig. 2

Fig. 3
 16

Fig. 4

Fig. 5
 17

Fig. 6

General Instruction:

The instructor may opt to supplement the topics with exercises depending on available multimedia
materials.
 18

Bibliography

Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics: The Basics. New York, NY, USA: Routledge.

Crow, D. (2010). Visible Signs: An Introduction to Semiotics in the Visual Arts

(Second ed.). Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Publishing SA.

Hall, S. (2014). This Means This, This Means That: A User's Guide to Semiotics
(Second ed.). London, UK: Laurence King Publishing

Image Sources:
artklosterwald.wordpress.com
www.adforum.com
http://blogs.cfr.org/lindsay/2011/09/09/friday-file-remembering-911/global-terrorism-deaths/
http://www.clker.com/cliparts/b/c/d/d/
13161189651764016734Male%20and%20Female%20Bathroom.svg.med.png
https://philanthropy.com/article/Salvation-Army-s/228349
http://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/what-on/exhibitions-displays/archive/temptation-in-eden-lucas-
cranachs-adam-and-eve
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/450500768947181086/
http://www.coloribus.com/adsarchive/prints/iapa-adoption-9612005/

Prepared by

Gregg S. Lloren
College of Communication, Arts, and Design
University of the Philippines Cebu

Edinburgh College of Art, University of Edinburgh