Sampling Techniques in Quantitative and

Qualitative Research
When we are interested in a population, we typically study a sample of that population rather
than attempt to study the whole population The purpose of sampling techniques is to help you
select units to be included in your sample.

Broadly speaking, there are two groups of sampling technique: probability sampling
techniques and non-probability sampling techniques.

Probability sampling techniques

Probability sampling techniques use random selection to help you select units from your
sampling frame to be included in your sample. These procedures are very clearly defined,
making it easy to follow them.

In probability Samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of
being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and
stratified sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling and disproportional sampling The advantage
of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.

In probability sampling, every individual in the population have equal chance of being
selected as a subject for the research.

This method guarantees that the selection process is completely randomized and without bias.

The most basic example of probability sampling is listing all the names of the individuals in
the population in separate pieces of paper, and then drawing a number of papers one by one
from the complete collection of names.

The advantage of using probability sampling is the accuracy of the statistical methods after
the experiment. It can also be used to estimate the population parameters since it is
representative of the entire population. It is also a reliable method to eliminate sampling bias.

These types of probability sampling technique include simple random sampling, systematic
random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling.

Random sampling

The random sample is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the
population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large
populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so
the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known
probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. This is the type of sampling that is used
in lotteries and raffles.
Types of random Samples

A Simple Random Sample-A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary

units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A
simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to
choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person
untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made
improperly.

A systematic random sample-Systematic sampling is often used instead of random

sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size
has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long
as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random
sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity.
Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a
computer file

A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and
choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of
units is obtained.

A Stratified Sample-Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is

superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the
population that share at least one common characteristic. . The researcher first identifies the
relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then
used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. Sufficient refers to a
sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the
population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the
population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample

from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be
based on some characteristic or variable .

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the
entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.

Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population
into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, the strata are formed
based on members shared attributes or characteristics. A random sample from each stratum
is taken in a number proportional to the stratums size when compared to the population.
These subsets of the strata are then pooled to form a random sample.

The main advantage with stratified sampling is how it captures key population characteristics
in the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling produces
characteristics in the sample that are proportional to the overall population. Stratified
sampling works well for populations with a variety of attributes, but is otherwise ineffective,
as subgroups cannot be formed.
It is important to note that a random sample is not necessarily an identical representation of
the population. Characteristics of successive random samples drawn from the same
population may differ to some degree, but it is possible to estimate their variation from the
population characteristics and from each other. The variation, known as sampling error, does
not suggest that a mistake has been made in the sampling process. Rather, sampling error
refers to the chance variations that occur in sampling; with randomization these variations are
predictable and taken into account in data-analysis techniques.

It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping subgroups
will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This completely
negates the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling. Equally
important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling within the
different strata.

The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, socioeconomic
status, religion, nationality and educational attainment. Stratified random sampling is used
when the researcher wants to highlight a specific subgroup within the population. This
technique is useful in such researches because it ensures the presence of the key subgroup
within the sample.

Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random sampling technique, the
researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he wants to observe are represented equally
or proportionately within the sample.

With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest and
most inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the researcher to sample the rare
extremes of the given population.

With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling. This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the
variations when dealing with the entire population.

Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a small
sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.

Types of Stratified Sampling

A-Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of
the stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the each stratum has
the same sampling fraction.

For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively. And the
researcher chose a sampling fraction of . Then, the researcher must randomly sample 50,
100 and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.

Stratum A B C
Population Size 100 200 300

Sampling Fraction

Final Sample Size 50 100 150

The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling fraction for
each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata. It is much like
assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative proportions of the subgroups
within the population.

B- Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling is
their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have different
sampling fractions.

precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation of the
researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling fractions, a stratum may
either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in skewed results.

A Cluster Sample

-A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple
random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. Cluster
sampling is a method used to enable random sampling to occur while limiting the time and
costs that would otherwise be required to sample from either a very large population or one
that is geographically diverse. Using this method, a one- or two-level randomization process
is used the important element in this process is that each one of the criteria have an equal
opportunity to be chosen, with no researcher or facility bias.

The area or cluster sample is a variation of the simple random sample that is particularly
appropriate when the population of interest is infinite, when a list of the members of the
population does not exist, or when the geographic distribution of the individuals is widely
scattered.

Non-probability sampling techniques

In this type of population sampling, members of the population do not have equal chance of
being selected. Due to this, it is not safe to assume that the sample fully represents the target
population. It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the individuals that will
participate in the study.

Non-probability sampling techniques refer on the subjective judgement of the researcher

when selecting units from the population to be included in the sample. For some of the
different types of non-probability sampling technique, the procedures for selecting units to be
included in the sample are very clearly defined, just like probability sampling techniques.
However, in others (e.g., purposive sampling), the subjective judgement required to select
units from the population, which involves a combination of theory, experience and insight
from the research process, makes selecting units more complicated. Overall, the types of non-
probability sampling technique include quota sampling, purposive sampling, convenience
sampling, snowball sampling and self-section sampling.

Non-probability population sampling method is useful for pilot studies, case studies,
qualitative research, and for hypothesis development.

Non-Probability Sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom
manner. Non-probability sampling includes convenience sampling, consecutive sampling,
judgmental sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. In non-probability sampling,
the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown

Convenience Sampling

In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases, the
population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the reason
why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling, the most
common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique
because it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected

because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire population.

-Convenience sampling is probably the most commonly used technique in research today .
With convenience sampling, subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility to
the researcher. These subjects are chosen simply because they are the easiest to obtain for the
study. This technique is easy, fast and usually the least expensive and troublesome
convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a
population for observation. Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the
researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name
implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This Non-probability method is
often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without
incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it also
has other research advantages.

In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to obtain
basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a randomized
sample.

This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a substance
or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very useful for detecting
relationships among different phenomena.

The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the sample
is not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest disadvantage when
using a convenience sample because it leads to more problems and criticisms.
Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between the
results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not rare
that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the
results from the entire population. A consequence of having systematic bias is obtaining
skewed results.

Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in

generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is not
representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire
population. This results to a low external validity of the study.

When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would differ
from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe the
individuals who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals who are
overrepresented in the sample.

Judgmental sampling

Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects

units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.

The Judgment Sample-Judgmental sampling, also called Purposive Sampling or

authoritative sampling , is another form of convenience sampling where subjects are
handpicked from the accessible population Subjects usually are selected using judgmental
sampling because the researcher believes that certain subjects are likely to benefit or be more
compliant A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is
familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. It is a common non-probability
method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.

The judgemental sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a
more representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other
probability sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely handpicking
individuals from the population based on the authoritys or the researchers knowledge and
judgment.

Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals possess the
trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining information from a very
specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental sampling if the researcher
knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is capable of assembling a
representative sample.

The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies the
sampling technique.

Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the authority.
The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the best and most
experienced authority in the field of interest.
When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was used
in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of the population did not
have equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is the misrepresentation of the
entire population which will then limit generalizations of the results of the study.Purposeful
sampling is often used in qualitative research studies.

Quota Sampling-

Quota sampling is the Non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified

sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where
the stratums are filled by random sampling Quota sampling is a non-probability technique
used to ensure equal representation of subjects in each layer of a stratified sample grouping.

It is a technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the
entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.

In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final sample to
be used in the study meets the researchs quota criteria.

The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive
subgroups.

Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this
same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.

Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into
consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.

The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows
the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the different
high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the researcher
first identifies the subgroups.

Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides
the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status.
Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then
samples each subgroup accordingly.

The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the researchers to
sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to investigate a trait or
a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal technique.

Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups. In
some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another subgroup. In
such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling technique.
It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the population.
In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken
into account in forming the subgroups.

In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be
overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the
basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race,
educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.

Snowball or Chain Sampling

This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know what
cases are information rich that is good examples for study, good interview subjects. This is
commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless households. What
you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others are or can be found.
When you find those others they will tell you where you can get more others and the chain
continues. Snowball sampling is a special Non-probability method used when the desired
sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate
respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to
generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it
comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood
that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to

identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.

Snowball Sampling

Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a
very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain
referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject
to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.

The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate another
person with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the nominated
subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is
also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to
observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for the
study.

Types of Snowball Sampling

Linear Snowball Sampling

Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling

Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling