OPTIMIZATION OF CUTTING PARAMETERS

FOR CO2 LASER BEAM CUTTING USING

VARIABLE WEIGHT GREY-TAGUCHI
METHOD

KHAIRUL FIKRI BIN MUHAMAD

IJAZAH SARJANA KEJURUTERAAN

(PEMBUATAN)
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
 v

ABSTRACT

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) laser beam cutting (LBC) process involves several
parameters. These parameters need to be optimized in order to get the best quality
output. Researchers had applied various types of optimization methods which are
used for single or multi-objectives problems. One of the methods is Grey-Taguchi
method. However, there is a disadvantage of these methods. This study focuses on
improving the Grey-Taguchi method in order to optimize machining parameters for
CO2 LBC. The Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi method is proposed which
considering all possible weights to be assigned to the control and noise factors. The
considered control factors are stand-off distance, cutting speed and laser power. This
study also considers surrounding temperature as noise factor. The superior of these
methods is merely depending on the response factors which are Surface Roughness
(SR), Kerf Taper Angle (TAP), Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and Kerf Width (KW).
Results from Matlab assisted physical experiment shows there is an effect on weight
assigning to the factors. Results also show that the proposed method successfully
improved all the response factors. Surface roughness had improved by 49.4%, taper
52%, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 9.3% and kerf width 46.2%. As conclusion, this
study had successfully proposed an improved optimization method for LBC process.
 vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.

PENGAKUAN PENYELIA i

PENGAKUAN PELAJAR ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF SYMBOLS xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Motivation 1

1.2 Research Problem Statement 2

1.3 Research Objective 4

1.4 Research Scope 4

1.5 Research Methodology 5

1.6 Thesis Organization 6

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND OF LASER BEAM

CUTTING (LBC) AND

GREY-TAGUCHI METHOD

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Laser Background 7

 vii

2.3 Laser Generation Process 9

2.4 Types of Industrial Lasers 14

2.5 Comparison of Laser Types 18

2.6 Laser Applications In Manufacturing 21

2.7 Critical Discussions on Laser Applications 27

2.8 Laser Cutting Process 28

2.9 Machining Performance Characteristics 30

2.10 Relationship Between Cutting Parameters and Cutting 34

Performances

2.11 Summary 39

CHAPTER 3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE VARIABLE WEIGHT

GREY-TAGUCHI ALGORITHM

3.1 Introduction 40

3.2 Current Optimization Methods Applied on LBC 41

3.3 Critical Discussions on The Grey-Taguchi Algorithm 59

3.4 The Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi Algorithm 62

3.5 Analysis Between Grey-Taguchi Algorithm and Variable 65

Weight Grey-Taguchi Algorithm

3.6 Summary of Theoretical Development of The Proposed 67

Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi Algorithm

 viii

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTS ON CO2 LASER BEAM CUTTING

4.1 Introduction 69

4.2 The Objectives of Physical Experiments 70

4.3 Physical Experiments Setup 70

4.4 Results of Physical Experiments 74

4.5 Data Analysis 79

4.6 Comparison of Physical Experiments Results 89

4.7 Confirmation Run 90

4.8 Summary of Results Analysis 91

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion 93

5.2 Research Summary and Conclusion 93

5.3 Recommendations for Future Works 95

REFERENCES 96

APPENDIX 102
 ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

2.1 Comparison of Properties Between The Laser Types 18

3.1 L9 OA for four control and three levels 55

3.2 Control, noise and response factors on L9 OA 56

3.3 Summary between Grey-Taguchi algorithm and 65

Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi algorithm

4.1 Machining parameters and their respective levels 70

4.2 Standard L27 orthogonal array used for this study 72

4.3 The average value of surface roughness, taper, heat 78

affected zone and kerf width measured along the cutting
path for 27 groups, respectively as evaluated in this
study

4.4 The normalized values, Grey relational coefficients 79

(GRC), and Grey relational grade (GRG)

4.5 Machining parameters and performance characteristics 81

from trial number 22

4.6 The value of average GRGs of machining parameters 83

and their respective levels

4.7 Performance characteristics from optimum parameters 84

using Grey-Taguchi algorithm

4.8 Machining parameters from trial with highest GRG 86

4.9 Performance characteristics from trial with highest 86

GRG

4.10 The value of average GRGs of machining parameters 86

and their respective levels

4.11 Machining parameters at optimum level 87

4.12 Performance characteristics from optimum parameters 88

using Grey-Taguchi algorithm
 x

4.13 Comparison of results of Grey-Taguchi algorithm and 88

Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi algorithm

4.14 Optimum machining parameters selected by Grey- 89

Taguchi and Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi method

4.15 Comparison of performance characteristics from both 90

algorithms

4.16 Performance characteristics from both algorithms and 90

confirmation run

4.17 Improvement of response performances 91

 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

2.1 Coherent and incoherent waves 9

2.2 Population inversion 12

2.3 Schematic illustration of amplification 13

2.4 Generic gas laser 17

2.5 Laser welding 22

2.6 Laser drilling 24

2.7 Schematic Diagram of Laser Beam Cutting 26

2.8 Coordinates for surface roughness measurement 31

2.9 Measurement of kerf width 32

2.10 Measurement of kerf taper angle 33

2.11 Measurement of HAZ 34

2.12 Effect of stand-off distance on kerf width 38

3.1 Taguchi design procedure 44

3.2 Flow of Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) algorithms 50

3.3 Procedure of Grey-Taguchi algorithms 51

3.4 Flow chart of the Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi 62

algorithm

4.1 CO2 laser beam cutting machine 73

4.2 Drawing of sample 74

4.3 Measurements spots on the sample 75

4.4 Sample picture of graph of surface roughness 75

 xii

4.5 Sample of captured heat affected zone (HAZ) 76

4.6 Sample of captured kerf width (KW) 77

4.7 Graph of Grey Relational Grade (GRG) from Matlab 82

program of Grey-Taguchi method

4.8 Graph of value of average GRG by Grey-Taguchi 83

algorithm

4.9 Graph of Grey Relational Grade (GRG) from Variable 85

Weight Grey-Taguchi algorithm

4.10 Graph of value of average GRG by Grey-Taguchi 87

algorithm
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 RESEARCH MOTIVATION

Referring to Malaysia Third Industrial Master Plan (IMP3) 2006-2020 that was
published by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) on August 16th
2006 (MITI 2006), Malaysia economy was ranked 8th among 30 countries in the
category of populations above 20 millions. In order to sustain the achievement and
enhancing Malaysia industrial capabilities, ten strategic thrusts had been set which
are;
1. enhancing Malaysias position as a major trading nation,
2. generating investment in growth areas,
3. integrating local companies into region and global networks,
4. ensuring more balanced regional development,
5. strengthening manufacturing sector,
6. developing service sector to become a major source of growth,
7. growing the knowledge-intensive technologies,
8. developing innovative and creative human capital,
9. strengthening the role of private sectors and
10. creating more competitive business.

IMP3 had outlined the fifth strategic thrust - the manufacturing sector as one of
major sources of growth. There are some strategies to continuously develop this
sector. One of the strategies is to support the applications of advanced manufacturing
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 2

technologies in industries like biotechnology, nanotechnology, wireless technology,

micro-electro-mechanical system, fuel cells and laser technology.

In addition, IMP3 also stated that machinery and equipment shall play an important
role since it has direct linkage with major economic sectors like automotive,
manufacturing and construction. This is indicated by the increased number of
machinery and equipment manufacturers in operations from 118 manufacturers in
1995 to 410 manufacturers in 2005 during the IMP2 period.

IMP3 grouped machinery and equipment industry in Malaysia under four categories.
The categories are:
1. power generating machine and equipment, including turbines, engines, power
plants and boiler.
2. specialized machinery and equipment for specific industries, such as oil and
gas, agriculture and plastic processing.
3. general industrial machinery and equipment including elevators, cranes,
pressure vessels and construction machinery and equipments.
4. metalworking machinery and equipment which include:
o metal-cutting computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools, such
as CNC milling, CNC lathe and electro-discharge machine (EDM)
and
o metal-shaping and sheet-metal machine tools such as turret punches,
laser cutting machines and shearing machines.

Based on the fifth category of strategic thrusts and the fourth category of machinery
and equipments, research on laser technology and sheet-metal processing is strongly
relevant to strengthen Malaysian economy towards realizing the Vision 2020. This is
the research motivation.

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT

Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Since the introduction of first laser by Maiman on 1960, laser technology is rapidly
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 3

growing. The special and unique properties of laser are the main advantage in laser
machining process.

One of the special properties of laser light is nearly collimated. So, laser beam can be
focused on a very small spot. This is an important feature in laser machining,
especially the laser cutting processes. Using laser beam as a cutting tool, cutting
process is precise because laser beam is focused on a very small area resulting in
high concentration of heat transfer from laser beam to the workpiece.

Despite laser beam capability to perform precise cutting, there are some other cutting
parameters that need to be finely tuned and controlled in order to get high quality
cutting process. Among other cutting parameters that affect the quality of cutting
process are cutting speed, laser power, stand-off distance and workpiece thickness.
Thus, choosing the optimal cutting parameters that would produce the best cutting
output is the main challenge.

For example, one of the quality aspects of the cutting process is surface roughness.
Currently, machine operators use trial and error approach to set-up laser cutting
parameters in order to achieve the desired surface roughness. The setting up of laser
cutting parameters is repetitive due to trial and error process. Obviously, this method
is not efficient because it is very time and cost consuming. In addition, the method is
also not systematic and depends on the experience of the machine operators.
Furthermore, machining parameters are different between different workpiece
materials and the type of laser beam used. Some companies have a system to record
those machine conditions and parameters for each material and types of laser beam.
But, since there are other parameters such as the cutting speed, laser power and
stand-off distance, those recorded parameters are not adequate.

According to Zhang et al. (2007), there is no analytical method (theoretical) to

determine the best and optimal machine parameters and conditions for laser cutting
process. Researchers (Pan et al., 2007, Zhang et al., 2007, and Singh et al., 2004)
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 4

used experimental approach to determine the parameters that influence the quality of
the cutting parts.

Practically, optimization approach is a better approach in determining optimum

machine parameters and conditions for laser cutting process compared to trial and
error approach. Recently, Pan et al. (2007) used Grey-Taguchi method to design the
experiment and calculating the optimum machine parameters for laser cutting
process. However, the Grey-Taguchi method can still be improved especially in its
weight assignment in order to obtain optimum machine parameters.

This research investigates the effectiveness of Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi

algorithm in achieving optimum set of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) laser cutting
parameters on acrylic sheet.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

There are two objectives of this research. The objectives are:

1. to determine the effect of weight assignment in Grey-Taguchi algorithm on
the selected laser cutting parameters in optimization calculation.

2. to verify that the proposed Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi algorithm will

generate better cutting parameter optimization than the existing Grey-Taguchi
algorithm through Matlab assisted physical experiments of the laser cutting
process on acrylic sheet.

1.4 RESEARCH SCOPE

In order to achieve the research objectives, two research scopes have been identified:
a) Although there are several factors contributed to the performance of laser
beam cutting such as power requirement, types of shielding gases, cutting
speed and feed rate, type of workpiece materials as well as beam intensity,
this research concentrates on four factors. Factors considered are cutting
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 5

speed, laser power, stand-off distance and surrounding temperature. These

factors are chosen because the limitation of machine that used in this study.
b) This research is experimentally applied on acrylic sheet laser beam cutting
process.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research is carried out through three main stages, which are:
First, literature reviews on fundamentals of Laser Beam Cutting (LBC) Taguchi
method and Grey-Taguchi algorithms are conducted. This review is to know the
principles of laser cutting process, the parameters that influence the quality of laser
cut and the principles of existing Grey-Taguchi algorithms as well as their
limitations.

Second, a new method is proposed in order to obtain the optimum cutting

parameters. The proposed method, which is based on the Variable Weight
assignment, is applied to overcome the limitation of existing Grey-Taguchi
algorithm.

Lastly, experiments applying Grey-Taguchi algorithm (Pan et al., 2007) and the
proposed Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi algorithm on CO2 laser beam cutting for
acrylic sheet were conducted. Design of Experiment (DOE) by Taguchi method was
used in designing the experiments. Control and noise factors are considered in the
experiments as suggested by previous research. Finally, experiments are conducted
to verify the performances of the proposed new method.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 6

1.6 THESIS ORGANIZAT ION

This thesis is organized as follows:

Chapter 2: Overview of Laser Beam Cutting

This chapter describes laser properties and applications, laser beam cutting (LBC)
principle and cutting parameters that influence the cutting quality.

Chapter 3: Development of Variable Weight Grey-Taguchi method

This chapter presents detailed discussion of current optimization methods that are
applied on laser beam cutting process. In particular, three methods are discussed
which are Taguchi method, Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) method and Grey-
Taguchi method. Lastly, the modified Grey-Taguchi method called Variable Weight
Grey-Taguchi method is presented.

Chapter 4: Physical Experiments of Parameter Optimization

This chapter presents the objectives of experiments, Design of Experiment (DOE),

experimental setup, experimental results and analysis of the two optimization
methods based on CO2 Laser Beam Cutting of acrylic sheet.

Lastly in Chapter 5: Research Conclusion

This chapter concludes the research and recommendations for future works.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 7

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE LASER BEAM CUTTING

AND OPTIMIZATION METHODS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, the overview of this research is discussed which contains
research motivation, research objectives, research problem statement, research scope
and research methodology. Lastly, thesis organization is presented.

In this chapter, detailed discussion about laser beam cutting (LBC) especially CO2
laser are presented. This chapter starts with the fundamental of laser system and the
principles of the laser beam cutting. It follows by laser applications in industry.
Then, factors that influence the quality of cut in laser beam cutting will also be
exposed.

2.2 LASER BACKGROUND

Laser is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In

1917, Einstein had introduced stimulated emission, the concept of laser operation in
one of his three papers on the quantum theory of radiation (Nahendra and Harimkar,
2008). The worlds first laser was demonstrated by Maiman using a ruby crystal in
1960 (The New Websters International Encyclopedia 2007).

Laser is different from other conventional sources of light, such as sunlight and lamp.
It has special properties, which differentiate it from other lights. The first property is
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 8

monochromatic which means that laser only produces one colour of light while the
other sources of light such as sunlight produces seven colours of light (Ion, 2005).
This is an important feature because one colour of light means single wavelength.
Wavelength of laser light relates to the power of the beam.

The second special property of laser light is that it travels in an orderly phase
relationship, referred to as coherent (Brown, 1998). It is coherent because during the
stimulated emission process, the emitted photon has same frequency and phase with
the bombarding photon. As the stimulated emission continues, both of these photons
bombard the other excited atoms in active medium and continuously produce
photons that have the exactly same frequency and phase. So, laser light consist of all
photons that have same frequency and phase. Thus, a coherent light is produced.

Coherent light have higher intensity compared to incoherent light such as lamp and
sunlight. It causes laser light waves which have sinus shape lined up with each other.
The result is each peak and valley of laser wave has a same point with the other
waves. While for the other source of light, waves are incoherent because waves are
not lined up. This phenomenon may cause peak and valley for two different waves
have a same point as shown in Figure 2.1 on the next page. Thus, the peak may
eliminate the valley for other waves that causes these source of light has low
intensity. So, coherent light have higher intensity compared to incoherent light such
as lamp and sunlight.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 9

First wave

Second wave

COHERENT WAVES INCOHERENT WAVES

Figure 2.1 Coherent and incoherent waves

Laser is also a nearly collimated light; it does not significantly diverge or converge.
This property becomes an advantage for laser because the beam can be focused on a
very small spot which is useful in laser applications. As a result, heat from the beam
can be delivered to the workpiece in a very high intensity.

2.3 LASER GENERATION PROCESS

There are three stages to produce laser beam which are population inversion,
stimulated emission and amplification.

Population Inversion Stage

Population inversion is a process of inverting the population of electrons in the

energy levels of an atom (Ion, 2005). At equilibrium, most electrons are at the lower
energy levels. Similarly, there are fewer electrons at the higher energy level.
Population inversion is a process to reverse i.e. to cause population of electrons at
higher energy level to be higher than at the lower energy level.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 10

As an example, Natrium has a total of 11 electrons. At equilibrium, the lowest energy

level has two electrons, the second energy level has eight electrons and the outer
most, the third energy level has only one electron. Population inversion on this atom
is to reverse this condition that is to cause the electrons from the second energy level
to jump to the third energy level.

According to Boltzmann law, the higher energy states are the least populated and the
population of electrons in the higher energy states decreases exponentially with
energy as Equation 2.1 below (Ion, 2005):

(E 2 - E1 )
N2 -
=e kT Equation 2.1
N1

In Equation 2.1, E2 is the higher energy level, E1 is the lower energy level, N2 is the
population of electron at higher energy level, N1 is population of electron at the lower
energy level, k is Boltzmanns constant (1.381 x 10-23 JK-1) and T is the absolute
temperature.

In order to create an efficient population inversion, it is a must for the atoms to

possess a large group of upper absorption energy level. So, energy can be absorbed
over an appreciable frequency range. In order to maintain a population inversion, the
rate of population of upper state must be higher than the lower state. So, laser beam
can be produced steadily.

This process may be achieved by using a variety of sources to excite the atoms.
Optical, electrical and chemical means are the most common in industrial laser (Ion,
2005). In optical pumping, flash lamp is used to excite atoms. In electrical pumping,
electric current is used to produce electron beams that pump free electrons to excite
laser medium. Electrons from electric current transfer their energy to the laser
source.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 11

The first laser, ruby laser uses flash lamp as its pumping source. Atoms in the active
medium are excited by flash lamp that emits bright and intense light. These lights
emit steady electric charges and are absorbed by the active medium corresponding to
its wavelength. The flash lamp is placed parallel to the active medium to produce
more population inversion. This is because light emitted from the flash lamp goes
through the cross section of active medium.

Stimulated Emission

The second process of laser generation is stimulated emission. Stimulated emission is

a process of external photon bombarding electrons at the higher energy level of an
excited atom (Ion, 2005). Electrons at higher energy level are stimulated as they fall
back to the lower energy level emitting photon of the same frequency, phase and
direction with the bombarding external photon. This is the process that produces the
unique coherent property of the laser.

Referring to Figure 2.2 on the following page, the stimulated emission process is the
process that changes the energy level E3 to E2 then to E1. The drops to the lower
energy level cause the generation of laser light. Once the electrons are in the lower
energy level, they are pumped to the higher energy level by the population inversion
process. This process is repeated so that constant laser source is generated.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 12

Figure 2.2 Population inversions (Ion, 2005)

The drop of electrons from the higher energy level to the lower energy level is due to
the instability of the electrons at the higher level. For example, the number of stable
electrons for Natrium at the highest energy level is supposed to be only one electron.
After the population inversion, the number of electrons at the highest energy level is
more than one. This is not the stable state. Therefore, the excess electrons drop to the
lower energy level and this releases the laser light.

The bombarding photons and the emitted photons may then strike other excited
atoms, stimulating further emission of photons, all of the same frequency, phase and
direction. This process continues to produces a sudden burst of coherent radiation as
all excited atoms are discharged in a rapid chain reaction (Hetch, 2008).

The emitted photon will have frequency v (nm) and energy hv (J), given by the
following equation.

E 2 - E1 = hv Equation 2.2

In Equation 2.2, h is Plancks constant (6.626068 x 10-34 m2kg/s).

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 13

Amplification

The third stage of laser generation is amplification process. It is a process of

increasing the laser light strength (Hetch, 2008). The laser light strength is amplified
by generating more photons that have the same wavelength. The same wavelength
will ensure the laser beam is coherent.

Amplification occurs in a resonant cavity or optical cavity consisting of a set of well-

aligned highly reflecting mirrors at the end, perpendicular to the cavity axis. This is
shown in Figure 2.3. The active laser is placed in between the mirrors with one of the
mirrors is a fully reflecting mirror, almost 100% reflectivity and the other is partially
reflecting mirrors.

Fig. 2.3 Schematic illustration of amplification (Ion, 2005)

The fully reflective mirror is used to reflect the photons so that it remains at the same
frequency and to help create chain reaction by bombarding other excited atoms. The
function of the partially reflecting mirror is to allow some of the photons in the
cavity to emerge as laser output (Charles, 1999).

The amplification factor A, which measures the increase in power is given by

Equation 2.3 below.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 14

A = e GL Equation 2.3

where L is length of laser medium and G is gain per unit length. From the Equation
2.3, the longer cavity size (L), the more amplification is achieved.

In summary, laser generation process consists of three stages, which are population
inversion, stimulated emission and amplifications. Population inversion is a process
to invert the population of electron in atoms of active medium. This inverted
population of electrons then goes through stimulated emission which uses a
bombarding photon to collide with the atom. Then, the photon will be emitted with
same frequency and phase with the bombarding photon. This process continues to the
amplification stage.

In the next sections, several types of lasers used in industries will be presented in
particular the materials used in the construction of laser source, the advantages and
disadvantages of different types of laser.

2.4 TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL LASERS

Industrial lasers are normally classified by the active lasing medium material. An
active lasing medium is the material that is used to produce laser light. In other
words, the atoms of the active lasing medium materials go through the population
inversion, stimulated emission and amplification process.

Based on the active lasing medium materials, the industrial laser can be classified
into four types: solid-state, semiconductor, liquid and gas lasers.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 15

Solid-State Laser

Solid-state laser is a type of laser that is produced by atoms of solid active lasing
medium embedded in the host (Barat, 2006). The term solid-state indicates that the
active lasing medium material is a solid, instead of liquid or gas.

There are two main components of solid-state laser; host and active medium. Host is
the material that is embedded with active medium. Suitable hosts are crystalline
materials that require high thermal conductivity for thermal stability to accommodate
the heat generated during the laser generation process. Host also must have low
thermal expansion coefficient because as it heats the expansion of the inner side of
host is higher than the outer side of the host. These unequal expansions will cause
crack in the structure of the host (Barat, 2006). The material of host is also important
as it determines the energy level characteristics in producing laser (Nahendra and
Sandip, 2008). Examples of common host are crystals, glasses or other transparent
solid materials.

Active medium is a small percentage of impurity ions doped in the host. One of the
active medium used in solid-state laser generation is yttrium garnet (YAG) that
doped in neodymium (Nd) host, called Nd:YAG laser (Hitz, 2001). These dopant
ions go through the population inversion, stimulated emission and amplification
processes in generating the laser beam. Other than Nd:YAG, there are several types
of solid-state lasers implemented in industry, such as Ruby laser, Nd:glass laser and
Ti-sapphire laser.

Ruby, neodymium and titanium (Ti) are suitable active medium because these
materials contain atoms or molecules that can be excited in order to produce laser
beam. For example, ruby is a suitable active medium because it contains chromium
atoms, which can be excited during population inversion process.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 16

Semiconductor Laser

Semiconductor laser is a type of laser that uses semiconductor as its lasing medium.
Semiconductor material is a type of material that has n-type material combine with p-
type material. Sometimes, semiconductor lasers are also called diode lasers or laser
diodes (Barat, 2006 and Noriah, 2002).

Laser beam generated in semiconductor laser is by pumping electrical current to

junction region, where n-doped and p-doped semiconductor materials meet. Free
electrons from n-doped move across the junction and combines with hole in p-doped,
and vice versa. The movement of electron cause energy loss and emit an electron
(Hitz, 2001).

Semiconductor lasers are different from solid-state lasers because of it is based on

radioactive recombination of charge carries. The problem occurs when electron
moves, it produces heat. Since very high current flow is needed to maintain a
population inversion, heat generated can destroy other devices. In order to reduce
heat generated while maintaining population inversion, modern design of
semiconductor lasers packs the junction into a small region; where the stimulated
emission occur. The density of stimulated emission is increased by increasing the
density of electrons and holes (Barat, 2006).

Common materials for semiconductor lasers are: gallium arsenide (GaAs),

aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) and indium gallium
phosphide (InGaP) (Hitz, 2001).

Liquid Laser

Liquid laser is a laser type that uses liquid solutions as lasing medium. Most of the
solutions are fluorescent organic dyes dissolved in suitable liquid solvent. These
lasers are optically pumped, usually by another laser because it requires high energy
source of light to produce acceptable number of population inversion. Light from the
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 17

laser pump is absorbed by the dye molecules, which then re-emits the absorbed
energy. Some of the available liquid lasers are: Rhodamine 6G laser, Coumarin 102
laser, Stilbene laser (Hetch, 2008).

Gas Laser

Gas laser is a type of laser that uses gas as the active lasing medium. Most gas lasers
share similar features as shown in Figure 2.4 (Hetch, 2008).

Fig. 2.4 Generic gas laser (Hetch J., 2008)

The gas laser is contained in a cylindrical tube with rear and output mirror at each
end. The rear mirror totally reflecting while the output mirror allows some photons to
go through to emit light as laser beam. An electric discharge passing in cylindrical
laser tube to excites atoms. These photons bounce back and forth on the two mirrors
at each end of the tube. Some photons may go through output mirror and emitted as
laser beam. There are several types of gas lasers available, such as: Carbon dioxide
(CO2) laser, Argon laser. Krypton laser, Copper vapor laser and Gold vapour laser.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 18

2.5 COMPARISON OF LASER TYPES

Laser types can be compared based on their properties such as the excitation method,
the performance of population inversion, the wavelength generated, the power
generated and the relative size and cost. Table 2.1 summarizes the comparison
between the four types of laser.

Table 2.1 Comparison between laser types (Hetch, 2008)

Solid-state Semiconductor
Properties Liquid laser Gas laser
laser laser

Optical/
Excitation method Electrical Chemical Electrical
electrical

The performance of
High High Medium Low
population inversion

280 nm 850 nm 390 nm 193 nm

The wavelength

generated
3.3 m 20 m 640 nm 10.6 m

Size and cost Small Small Medium Large

Each type of laser requires different pumping or excitation methods. For gas laser,
energy that excite gas atoms comes from electric current that transfer their electron
energy by passing through the laser material. Same goes to semiconductor laser, it
uses electrical pumping method. In contrast, liquid laser uses chemical reaction by
the liquid lasing medium to excite the atoms (Noriah, 2002). While for solid-state
laser, optical or electrical pumping method is used.

The suitability of excitation or pumping method is merely depending on the lasing

medium of the laser. For example, atoms in gas as lasing medium for gas laser can
easily excite by pumping energy to collide with them. The nature of gas, atoms can
moves freely in random movement. Thus, electrical pumping method is the most
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 19

suitable. Conversely, chemical pumping method is not suitable as there is no any

chemical reaction involves.

Population inversion in gas laser is less than solid-state laser. It can be explained by
the physical nature of gas. The density of gas is less than the density of solid in solid-
state laser. So, a large volume of gas is needed to achieve the significant number of
population inversion. This can explain why the size of gas laser is much bigger than
the solid-state laser. However, the cooling system in gas laser is simpler than solid-
state laser because the thermal conduction of gas is higher than solid materials.

Since the nature of liquid is it has more density than gas, population inversion and
stimulated emission in liquid solution is higher than gas. So, the beam only needs to
make few passes through the liquid and not much amplification needed. This can
explain why the size of liquid laser is much smaller that gas laser. However, this
scenario leads to high losses, as any reflection of photons on reflective mirror and
liquid cavity will reduce energy. In order to overcome this problem, pumping cavity
are often coated or anodized that will absorb the lasing wavelength but effectively
reflect the photons.

Short wavelength laser generates low electron energy. It leads to thermal reaction.
By contrast, long wavelength laser generates higher electron energy, which leads to
photochemical reaction (Hetch J, 2008 and Hitz 2001).

Compared to solid-state and gas laser, liquid laser can produce wider range of
wavelengths. So, this type of laser usually includes a wavelength selection device.
Hence, wavelength of laser can be selected or tuneable. Wavelength tuning produces
a different wavelength of the laser light. The wavelengths can be tuned within the
full range of wavelengths produced by the fluorescent dye. The liquid or dye solution
also can be replaced by another type with the same laser, if other wavelengths are
required.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 20

Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser is selected to be used in this study. It is a molecular gas
laser. This type of laser contains 9.5% of carbon dioxide (CO2) that acts as primary
lasing medium. It also contains 13.5% of nitrogen (N2) gas that help to excite CO2
atoms and 77% of helium (He) acts as a buffer heat to heat transfer.

Carbon dioxide laser is highly efficient, which is up to 20% of the input power can
be converted into laser beam (Hetch, 2008 and Hitz, 2001). It is one of the most
important and widely applied lasers in the laser machining of materials (Nahendra
and Sandip, 2008). In addition, flowing Helium gas that acts as a buffer heat removes
the heat generated from laser generation process efficiently.

The principle of CO2 laser is electron collisions raise CO2 molecules to higher energy
level. Stimulated emission occurs when these molecules drop to two laser transitions
level. During this process, they emit energy as photon. If it drops to first low energy
level, it releases photon with a wavelength of 10.6 m which is the strongest and
most common lasing. The lasing wavelength can also be at 9.6 m if the excited CO2
molecules drops to the second low energy level and it can be vary between 9 to
11m (Hitz, 2001).

However, a large volume of gas is required to achieve enough population inversion

to produce laser (Nahendra and Sandip, 2008, Meschede, 2004). It is because
physical nature of gases is they have low density. So, size of equipment of gas lasers
usually bigger than solid-state lasers. Laser emission from gases is well defined, and
occurs in three discrete parts of the electromagnetic spectrum; ultraviolet, visible and
infrared.

This type of laser offer some advantages over solid materials. Some of these
advantages are:

Gases are relatively inexpensive.

Gases can be easily transported for cooling and replenishment.
Gases act as homogeneous lasing medium.
Gases can be excited directly with an electric current.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 21

In this section, we have discussed the types of lasers used in industries as well as
their advantages and disadvantages in specific situation. In the next section, we will
discuss the specific laser applications in manufacturing.

2.6 LASER APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING

The applications of lasers have been demonstrated in casting, forming, joining,

cutting, surface hardening, and many other machining processes. Lasers are widely
used in industry as cutting tools due to its flexibility of the cutting conditions,
obtaining high quality end product, quick set up and non-mechanical contact between
the work piece and the tool (Avanish et al., 2008, 2007).

The utilization of laser in manufacturing is continuously spreading in many

applications especially in laser beam machining (Ion, 2005). The special property of
laser, especially the collimated property, is utilized in many manufacturing
applications. It means that laser beam can be focused on a very small spot. Hence,
very localized and precise machining process can be done. On top of that, the heat
generated by the laser beam is very high. This heat will be absorbed by the
workpiece at a very high intensity. During the laser machining process, temperature
of workpiece will increase from room temperature to the operating temperature. Ion
(2005) states that working temperature for laser machining processes is between
1300C to 1600C. The generated heat from the laser beam is used effectively in
laser machining process.

In the next discussions, four specific laser applications on material processing are
presented. The applications are laser welding, laser drilling, laser heat treatment
process and laser cutting processes.
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 22

Laser Welding

Laser welding is a fusion welding process whereby the heat carried by the laser beam
is focused on the joint to be welded (Schrader and Elshennawy, 2000). This process
is a non-contact approach in material joining.

The process begins with focusing the laser beam on the materials. When the beam is
irradiated on the surface of the workpiece, the heat energy carries by the laser beam
will be absorbed by the workpiece. It causes heating, melting, and/or evaporation of
the workpiece. Then, a pool of molten material which is called weld pool is created
on the surface of the workpiece.

The process continues as the laser beam continuously heating the workpiece through
the thickness of the material and produces a keyhole, as shown by Figure 2.5 below.
Within the keyhole, laser energy is reflected repeatedly at the walls of keyhole. So,
the keyhole plays an important role in this process, by transferring and transmitting
thermal energy deep into the material.

Figure 2.5 Laser welding (Barat, 2005)

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 23

Laser welding can be used to perform a variety of joints such as lap weld, butt weld,
T-weld, fillet weld and edge weld. There are two methods of laser welding, which
are continuous seam or spot welding methods. Continuous seam welding is a process
that uses continuous laser beam from start to finish. This method is suitable for
thicker materials. The second method is spot welding which usually applied on
thinner materials with lower melting point.

This process can be applied for wide range of materials like metallic materials,
ceramics, polymers and composites. This is the main advantage of laser welding
compared to conventional welding process. However, these materials cannot be
weld with equal ease, due to different thermo physical properties (Nahendra and
Sandip, 2008). In addition, aluminium and copper and their alloys are also difficult to
weld by laser because they are good reflector. In fact, copper is used as reflective
mirror in some laser like Carbon Dioxide (CO2) laser.

Compared to conventional welding process, laser welding is relatively cheap. Even

though the setup cost is higher, maintenance cost for this process is lower. It is
because laser welding process does not require any welding fill. In addition, welding
speed for this operation is faster than conventional welding because of automation
and fast heat transfer (Ion, 2005).

Laser Drilling

The second laser application in manufacturing is laser drilling. Laser drilling is a

process to create through hole by removing material through laser beam and material
interaction (Walker, 1996). Thus, it is a non-contact process. In fact, the first laser
was a ruby laser which was introduced to drill diamond.

During the drilling process, high intensity of laser beam is focused onto the surface
of a workpiece. The surface will be heated, melted and vaporized due to thermal
energy from the laser beam as shown in Figure 2.6 on the next page. Vapour will
build up pressure that causes a flow flush of vaporized and molten materials. Then, a
CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW 24

hole will be created on the surface of workpiece which is called crater (Ion, 2005
and Brown, 1998).

Figure 2.6 Laser drilling (Ion, 2005)

Ion (2005) had listed are some advantages of laser drilling compared to mechanical
drilling process such as:

High throughput lead to low-cost processing. Laser drilling is faster than

mechanical drilling. More outputs lead to lower cost especially cost of
machine operator.
Noncontact and no tool wear. Laser welding use laser beam as cutting tool
while mechanical drilling use drill bit. Drill bit will wear because of contact
and excessive use.
Applicable to wide range of material including hard-to-drill materials such as
ceramics and composites. This is the limitation of mechanical drilling
process. Different materials require different type of drill bits and ceramics
and composites cannot be drilled by mechanical drilling process.