EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Technology-based learning (TBL) constitutes learning via electronic technology, including the
Internet, intranets, satellite broadcasts, audio and video conferencing, bulletin boards, chat
rooms, webcasts, and CD-ROM. TBL also encompasses related terms, such as online learning
and web-based learning that only include learning that occurs via the Internet, and computer-
based learning that is restricted to learning through the use of computers. E-learning is
synonymous with TBL and has largely replaced it in scholarship and industry as the term of
choice.

TBL holds the promise of substantially transforming the way learning takes place because of its
numerous advantages. Among these, TBL fosters greater accessibility to learning by offering
anytime and anywhere delivery. It is readily scalable to both large and small groups since it can
accommodate larger numbers of learners at little extra cost and smaller groups of learners that
otherwise would not be able to participate in traditional classroom training for lack of
enrollments. Further, the content of TBL courses, especially those that are delivered online, can
be centrally developed and updated whenever the need arises; therefore, the cost of replacing
outdated course materials and retraining teachers and instructors drops significantly. From the
learners point of view, TBL can be self-paced and matched to the learners needs, and, building
on pedagogy that emphasizes the merits of discovery learning, it offers the prospect of promoting
greater comprehension and retention, particularly for complex materials, because of its clear
opportunities for the hands-on manipulation of course materials and the use of simulations and
game-playing. Perhaps for these reasons, TBL has witnessed marked growth in the training
marketplace in government, industry, and education.

At the same time, TBL is not without its challenges. Among the most important of these is the
digital divide, caused by low computer literacy rates and lack of access to technology among
some learner populations. Additional challenges include social loafing, characterized by
students who work less diligently than they otherwise might, or who become frustrated by course
material or technology and thus less engaged, because of the relative absence of instructor-
learner and learner-learner interaction. Further, some TBL has been characterized by high
attrition rates among learners. Course developers face their own challenges, as they grapple with

iii
problems related to technological incompatibility, and they must be certain to make appropriate
accommodations to promote access for learners with disabilities. Finally, TBL still lacks
credibility. Some employers and academicians view TBL instruction as less credible than
traditional face-to-face instruction and may be less likely to hire someone with a TBL certificate
unless provided by an accredited institution.

Although these benefits and challenges apply in a general sense, TBL in fact is an umbrella term
that encompasses multiple delivery modes and methods, with each having particular strengths
given certain contexts and learning objectives. For example, TBL includes tutorials, web
conferences, online forums, simulations, and gaming, among other methods. The learning can be
synchronous, when delivery occurs when instructors and learners meet at a specific time in a
physical or virtual classroom, or it can be asynchronous, when the learning does not occur at a
pre-specified time and thus can be self-paced. Further, different applications can be
predominately instructor-centric, which have an expert at the core who delivers a lecture, either
synchronously or as an asynchronous narrated tutorial; or they can be content-centric, where
learners interact with content that is embedded in a learning system and experience little
instructor-learner or learner-learner interaction; or they can be learner-centric, where the learner
is the navigator, the learners interests and needs drive the learning, and the learning environment
is open. In actuality, much TBL mixes these different methods and modes. Furthermore, TBL is
increasingly seen as being most effective when it is used in concert with, rather than as a
replacement for, more traditional face-to-face instruction, in a style that has come to be known as
blended learning.

Given the promise of TBL, it is not surprising that its applications have increasingly been seen in
government, industry, and education. For example, in 1997 the Department of Defense initiated
Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL), a comprehensive strategy to integrate technology and
learning content to further the departments training efforts. In industry, IBM has embraced
blended learning that incorporates strategies for diverse learning styles, including a web-based
On-Demand Model with just-in-time learning embedded in the workflow as well as traditional,
face-to-face classroom sessions. Similarly, Southwest and Delta Airlines have used TBL to
make in-house training accessible to all of their company employees, as has Home Depot, which
has installed computer kiosks in each of its stores and encourages its employees to access
asynchronous training modules during working hours on topics that include customer service,
safety, product knowledge, and crafts, such as plumbing, gardening, and painting. TBL has also
been used in K-12, post-secondary, and adult education. In fact, most post-secondary institutions
now offer distance learning, either as selected courses offered online as part of traditional on-
campus programs or as entire certificate, undergraduate, and graduate programs offered

iv
primarily or solely online. The University of Phoenix is a pioneer in the latter and provides
asynchronous activities, group study, and meetings with an academic counselor.

With the widespread adoption of TBL, measuring its effectiveness has become more of a
priority. Different facets of evaluation include measuring learners satisfaction with the
experience, measuring their skill gains through pre- and post-tests (sometimes in comparison to
learners who received traditional classroom approaches), gauging how learners applied their new
knowledge in work settings, and estimating how the institution itself benefited from employee
learning. In return-on-investment calculations, the latter entails an assessment of whether the
benefits are commensurate with the cost of providing the training.

Although rigorous wide scale research evaluating TBLs effectiveness by any of these criteria is
sparse, the available evidence seems to suggest that TBL generally seems to work at least as well
as traditional approaches and is often less costly. Nonetheless, it also seems clear that, to realize
its full potential, TBL should not dispense with opportunities for human interaction (either face-
to-face or electronically), and that it should provide opportunities for the active engagement of
learners, provide content that is relevant and linked with what learners already know, and offer
opportunities for feedback and support.

What is clear as well is that TBL is rapidly evolving in adopting these principles, as new
technologies emerge and old ones fall out of favor, as training designers and educators learn how
to use these tools to increasingly better effect. Recent trends include the gravitation towards
online delivery and the adoption of Learning Objects. The latter consists of small units of
instructional content that can be assembled, reused, and rearranged for use in multiple lessons
and courses.

v
A. INTRODUCTION

This paper is the result of a Quick Research Task Order to assist the Employment and Training
Administration gain a better understanding of the concept and state of technology-based learning
and the application of technology-based learning in government, industry, and education.

The report provides an overview of recent trends in industry and media that have made
technology-based learning such a rapidly growing phenomenon. The report then defines the
term and compares and contrasts it with related terms, such as e-learning and distance learning,
and next describes the benefits and challenges that are associated with providing learning via
technology.

The report also provides brief descriptions of the main delivery modes as well as methods and
tools used in providing technology-based learning programs, and provides examples from
government, industry, and education.

The report concludes by describing the most common framework used today to measure the
success of technology-based learning programs and looks at future questions for technology-
based learning.

1
B. OVERVIEW

Technology-based learning (TBL) in the early 21st century is transforming the way people learn
at a time when two powerful trends converge. The first trend is the rapid acceleration of
technological change and the demand that this change places on education and workforce
training. While successful economies have always depended on a skilled and knowledgeable
workforce, todays rate of change in production processes and workplace tools requires much
more training and retraining of individuals on the job than it did in the past. As more workers
become knowledge workers, the demand for frequent retraining is further accelerated with each
technological shift. Industry has to be able to retrain its workforce much more quickly, and the
development cycles of training programs have to be shortened if companies want to stay
competitive. Given that updating workers skills rapidly and as the need arises is so critical in
todays economy, the efficiency with which companies do so can thus be critical in helping them
maintain a competitive edge.

The second major trend is the

US Internet Users
change that the digital revolution
as Percentage of Total US Population
has brought to media usage
100% among Americans. While in
1995 only 22 million Americans
80%
used the Internet, in 2005 more
60%
60% 62% than 184 million were users. 1
40% 51% Even more remarkable, in 2004
40%
20%
U.S. Internet users spent almost
22%
8%
twice as much time on the
0%
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
Internet than they did watching
television. 2 This represents not

1
Fox and Madden, 2005.
2
Institute for the Quantitative Study of Society, 2004.

3
B. Overview

just a shift in consumer habits, but also a shift in the way users interacted with the medium.
Internet users have shifted away from a spectator role in the hierarchical broadcasting medium
toward a much more participatory role with the new medium where they can create and modify
content and where content creation and distribution is shared.

The convergence of these two trends means that, at a time when the nature of work is changing
profoundly, the way workers learn how to do that work is also transforming.

What is Technology-Based Learning (TBL)?

For the purpose of this report, we are using the widely accepted definition of technology-based
learning as the learning of content via all electronic technology, including the Internet, intranets,
satellite broadcasts, audio and video tape, video and audio conferencing, Internet conferencing,
chat rooms, e-bulletin boards, webcasts, computer-based instruction, and CD-ROM. 3 TBL also
encompasses related terms, such as online learning and web-based learning that only include
learning that occurs via the Internet, and computer-based learning that is restricted to learning
using computers. E-learning is synonymous with TBL and has largely replaced it in scholarship
and industry as the term of choice. Therefore, the report uses these terms interchangeably.

TBL is distinguished from distance learning or technology-delivered learning in that TBL

includes methodologies where instructors and learners are in the same room or instruction is
computer-based and there is no distance involved. On the other hand, TBL is more narrowly
defined in that it does not include text-based learning and courses conducted via written
correspondence that would be covered by either distance learning or technology-delivered
learning. Furthermore, technology-enhanced learning describes a methodology in which
technology plays a subordinate role and serves to enrich a traditional face-to-face classroom.

Technology-Based Learnings Potential

Whereas even ten years ago, the majority of TBL depended on shipping video tapes or on
expensive satellite upload and downloads in selected sites, most TBL content today is distributed
via CD-ROMs or the Internet.

The Internet holds particular promise among educational technologies since it easily
accommodates multiple learning styles and distributed learning models. 4 On the Internet, users

3
ASTD, 2005.
4
Brown, 2002.

4
 B. Overview

Online Course Takers cannot only view all types of

content from text to pictures to
2005
music; they can also interact with it,
2003
alter it, create new content, and
2002 disseminate it back to a wider
2001 community. In addition, the
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
medium is well matched to the new
requirements of education and
training in the knowledge-based economy.

Because of these facts, growth in online course delivery has been strong. In just the past 5 years,
the number of adults who said that they had taken an online course has grown from one in ten, to
one in four. 5 Growth in this area is still accelerating. This explains why the CEO of Cisco, John
Chambers, calls e-learning the Internets killer app.

Exhibit 1:
Education in the Knowledge Economy 6

Old Economy New Economy

Four-year Degree Forty-year Degree
Training as Cost Center Training as Competitive
Advantage
Learner Mobility Content Mobility
Distance Education Distributed Learning
Correspondence & Video High-Tech Multimedia Centers
One Size Fits All Tailored Programs
Geographic Instituting Brand Name Universities &
Celebrity Professors
Just-in-Case Just-in-Time
Isolated Virtual Learning Communities

In the new economy, training is less dependent on credit hours towards a degree and more on
being able to demonstrate a measurable competency in a given skill. It is also much more time
sensitive. In fact, most technology companies have no idea what knowledge or skills their
employees will need five years from now to stay competitive.

5
PEW Internet and American Life Project, 2005.
6
Erwin, 1999, p. 8.

5
B. Overview

Another key feature of TBL is that it emphasizes learning solutions and learning results, and
is contextual and can be personalized. As such it allows for a new way to integrate learning with
work. Rather than training workers on every possible procedure that they may need throughout
their working lives, in an e-learning or TBL model, workers have access to the training module
for a given process only if and when they need it, perhaps delivered via a handheld computer. In
addition, technology is already in place that allows TBL delivery systems to anticipate future
information and learning needs by recognizing patterns in learning styles and delivering training
in chunks as needed by the learner.

Since much of TBL technology is so new, no leading paradigm has been established regarding
the most effective delivery of content for the various modes that are available. In fact, a number
of technologies ended up on the trash heap in just the past few years, after appearing to be
tremendous breakthroughs when first introduced. To avoid this potential pitfall, the following
sections will describe different TBL methodologies and their applications without trying to rank
them or rate their efficacy.

Benefits and Challenges

TBL comes with substantial benefits. Most of all, it offers geographic reach and a scalability of
training and educational efforts that face-to-face interaction cannot achieve. It also offers a wide
range of learning modes and an opportunity to track progress and measure outcomes as a
seamless part of learning. However, as with all technology applications, the use of technology in
itself poses some new challenges. In TBL, the most significant problem is the digital divide,
which still splits the country into digital haves and digital have-nots. In addition, transferring
learning into a TBL environment creates additional challenges for educators and training
designers.

Benefits
There are numerous advantages to TBL in comparison to face-to-face learning. Five of the
primary benefits are the following:
Accessibility, offering anytime and anywhere delivery
Training that is self-paced and matched to the learners needs
Full scalability
Timely dissemination of up-to-date information
Streamlined and effective learning delivery

6
 B. Overview

Accessibility: A major benefit of many TBL courses is that learners may enroll in a course at
any time, rather than at the start of a semester. They can also fulfill their learning requirements
at any time of day or night. This flexibility holds particular promise for working adults and
parents whose life-schedules are not compatible with the time of day a particular course is
offered. 7 8 Likewise, it can also be appealing to incumbent workers who cannot afford to take
time off from their jobs to advance their careers.

Technology-based training can also increase the geographic reach of training and bring access to
those with transportation barriers. For example, Creighton University has a TBL program for
obtaining a Doctor of Pharmacy degree. Forty percent of the students in this program are not
within driving distance of a pharmacy school. 9 In fact, for students with a laptop, TBL can be
accessed from anywhere in the world where there is Internet access. 10 As a result, many TBL
programs have entirely migrated to an online-only delivery model.

Self-Paced Learning Matched to Need: Another benefit of TBL programs is that they allow
learners to advance through requiredor desiredcourse content at their own pace. For
example, Toshiba uses a self-paced sales training program for its sales representatives. While
time spent in each module is self-paced, the learners have to test with a score of 80 percent or
higher before progressing to the next module.11 Additionally, TBL programs can serve as a low-
cost self-paced refresher course. British Airways, for example, requires that their employees
participate in TBL programs, and then revisit the same program every few years to refresh and
retest their knowledge. 12

Scalability: Well-designed TBL programs can also accommodate larger volumes of customers at
little extra cost. For traditional face-to-face training, there are two options to scale up a training
program and reach more learners: (1) increase class size, or (2) have trainers repeat the training at
different times or locations. TBL, on the other hand, can be scaled up with relatively little additional
effort and little marginal cost for additional students. Classroom limitations do not apply and
modern learning management systems (LMS) allow the management of learning outcomes for large

7
Australian Flexible Learning Framework, 2004.
8
Twigg, 1995.
9
Sloan Consortium, 2004.
10
Twigg, 1995.
11
Harris, 2005.
12
Summerfield, 2005.

7
B. Overview

numbers of students. For example, the U.S. Navy saves about $40 million per year in travel costs by
using TBL programs. 13

Timely Update: Another major advantage of TBL courses, especially those that are delivered
online, is that they can be centrally developed and centrally updated whenever the need arises.
Therefore, the costs of replacing outdated course materials and retraining teachers and instructors
drop significantly, and frequent updates become much more manageable. Nowadays, most
course updates in the corporate learning market are done on an as-needed basis, and trainers
simply get the updated content when they sign in the next time.

Streamlined and Effective Learning Delivery: Course developers sometimes find that
learning content can be streamlined when a course is converted from traditional to TBL delivery,
in that the amount of duplicated material can be considerably reduced. For example, the
University of Tennessees Physicians Executive MBA program integrated 14 traditional courses
into a year-long technology-based training program. 14 By integrating all of their coursework,
they were able to identify and eliminate duplicative learning objectives and information across
the 14 courses, thereby reducing overall training time.

There is also some evidence from cognitive psychology that TBL offers advantages in promoting
learning retention. It has long been argued, for example, that learners learn best and retain
knowledge better when they are actively involved in the discovery process rather than being
mere passive receptacles for mastering content delivered by others, as expressed in the
paradigms of discovery learning and autonomous learning. 15 With its opportunities for the
hands-on manipulation of course materials, simulations, and game-playing, TBL offers the clear
prospect of building off this potential.

Challenges
The introduction of TBL is not without challenges. They include:
The digital divide, caused by low computer literacy rates and lack of access to
technology among some learner populations
Social loafing, which occurs when learners reduce their effort in TBL
programs, or are frustrated in their attempts to use TBL, because of the programs
lesser focus on personal interactions

13
Hollis, 2004.
14
Dean, Stahl, Sylwester, and Peat, 2001.
15
See, for example, Anderson, Reder, and Simon, 1998, and Greitzer, 2002.

8
 B. Overview

Higher attrition rates

Accommodating individuals with disabilities
Technology incompatibility
High development costs
Lack of credibility

Digital Divide: The Digital Divide directly affects TBL implementation since a significant
portion of the population still does not have access to computers or to the Internet. Internet use
is lowest for low-income people, those who are over 50 years old, the unemployed, and
individuals who have never attended college. 16 It is also lower among African-Americans and
Hispanics than those in most other racial or ethnic groups. Further, over the past four years,
computer use has been about 10 percent lower in rural areas than in urban and suburban areas. 17
Internet access in the U.S. has begun to plateau and, very recently, has started to decline slightly.
This suggests that, for the foreseeable future, the digital divide will not shrink very much in the
near-term, unless major changes in the market or public investment result in further access.

Social Loafing: TBL is also more likely to produce social loafing, in which learners reduce
their level of effort when they perceive that doing so will not have negative social effects. TBL
learners can be particularly prone to social loafing because, without the personal contact of
instructor and peers, it is easy for learners to perceive that they are not being monitored. Larger
class sizesusually described as an advantage of TBLcan contribute to social loafing unless
individuals are held accountable for their actions, such as requiring individuals to post
contributions on group discussion boards or requiring periodic deadlines for deliverables. Users
who are frustrated by the technology, or who are better able to absorb information through
personal interaction with an instructor, may also reduce their effort in using TBL which may be
perceived as social loafing.

Attrition Rates: Given the social loafing effect, it is not surprising that attrition rates can be
higher with online courses as opposed to classroom-based courses. The dropout rate among TBL
students frequently reaches 50 percent to 80 percent, which is far higher than in face-to-face
training. There are a number of reasons for high dropout rates: 18
Students take TBL courses for the wrong reasons

16
National Telecommunications and Information Administration U.S. Department of Commerce: Economics
and Statistics Administration, 2002.
17
Bell, Reddy, and Rainie, 2004.
18
Adapted from Murray, 2001.

9
B. Overview

Some TBL courses lack auditory stimulation and in-person contact with others
Some courses may be overbooked and skimp on student support
Student may lack the technical skills they need to succeed
Students may only stay enrolled until they have met their own personal objective
and will then dropout, regardless of other future needs
Students realize that TBL requires more effort than originally anticipated 19

Access for Individuals with Disabilities: Access to TBL courses for individuals with
disabilities can also pose a challenge. While TBL generally offers access options for those with
disabilities, accommodations must be made in order for TBL to be accessible. 20 For example,
assistive technology must be purchased to accommodate individuals needs, such as by using
appropriate mouse devices, computer stations, and keyboards. Likewise, assistive technology
software, such as Zoom Text and JAWS, must be made available to persons with visual
impairments so they can read computer-based text. Additionally, TBL developers must program
web pages so they are compatible with assistive technology. 21

In addition, TBL content developed or procured by the federal government falls under the
provision of Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which requires that electronic and
information technology offer comparable access to individuals with disabilities as to those
without disabilities. 22 Section 508 has resulted in a series of design-standards that are now met
by most TBL and web developers who are developing content for a wider audience.

Technology Compatibility: Another challenge for TBL is the need for compatible technology.
In order for training programs to share and recycle content, the content needs to be able to
interface with a variety of learning management systems (LMSs). Nevertheless, as LMSs were
designed and marketed, developers created learning content specific to each system. Very little
attention was paid to ensuring one systems compatibility with content from another. This has
resulted in high development costs, as content must be recreated if, for example, a program
changes management systems. Within the past five years, leading organizations have made
efforts to standardize LMSs. The most extensive initiative, spearheaded by the Department of
Defense, is discussed in Section D of this report.

19
University of Central Florida, 2006.
20
The Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998.
21
The National Arts and Disability Center is one resource for learning how to make websites compatible with
assistive technology.
22
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 508, Subpart A, 1194.1.

10
 B. Overview

Development Costs: Another disadvantage of technology-based learning is high upfront

development costs, which can require a significant investment. For example, Pace University
estimated that they lost over $46,000 during their first year of offering technology-based learning
programs, because they spent so many hours developing the materials and so few students
enrolled in the course. However, they expect that by the end of the second year they will realize
a slight profit, compensating for their high initial investment. 23 Thereafter, they expect to
continue to profit from the course with relatively little additional investment.

Lack of Credibility: Lastly, TBL degree programs still lack the level of credibility of
traditional degree programs. For example, a survey administered to hiring committees of 60
higher education institutions found that respondents preferred to hire applicants who received a
degree from a traditional institution to those with a degree from distance education institutions.
Additionally, some respondents were even wary of hiring applicants who took some courses
online at a traditional institution. In general, they were concerned that TBL is more susceptible
to cheating and poor quality than traditional face-to-face and classroom-based training. 24

23
Carr, 2001.
24
Adams and DeFleur, 2005.

11
C. METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS

As we have seen in the previous section, TBL is transforming training and education by
providing new technological opportunities to address new learning needs. In this section, we
will look at various methodologies, delivery modes, and tools that are common in TBL
applications in government, industry, and education.

Technology-based learning programs come in different delivery modes and forms. They can
include online tools, such as discussion boards and e-mail, and real time events, through
videoconferencing and web conferencing. They can be self-paced, and have a varying focus of
instruction.

With the right mix of delivery modes and methodologies, TBL offers more than a repository of
learning resources online or a new way of reaching learners at a distance. When done well, TBL
offers a way to complement any learning process and, in some cases, it can bring learning to
places where it has not traditionally been accessible.

Methods and Tools

Technology-based learning uses a series of delivery methods and hardware and software tools to
manage and deliver learning content and manage and track learner progress, as well as learner-
to-learner and learner-to-instructor communication. In this section, we provide brief descriptions
of each of the most common delivery methods and tools used in TBL and the role they play in a
TBL environment. 25

Tutorials are self-paced training programs delivered online or from a CD-ROM. They
may contain audio and video and allow learners to control key aspects of the learning
experience. They may track progress and include quizzes and a competency assessment.

25
Adapted in part from ASTD, 2005.

13
C. Methodologies and Tools

Typically, they are modular and are accessed in sequence or out of sequence, depending
on the learners needs.

Web Conferences are synchronous meetings in a virtual environment. They are usually
centered around a website where visual and text content is displayed, and include audio
and sometimes video. A single facilitator may drive the visuals or they may involve
interaction among multiple participants. More advanced web conference environments
try to mimic most typical classroom interactions and allow for polling, live chat, and
other interaction among participants. Smaller web conferences sometimes are called
Webinars. Both may be archived for later asynchronous delivery.

Online Forums (also called bulletin boards, discussion groups, or news groups)
allow learners to interact with each other and the instructor through threaded discussions
by posting messages on specific subject areas, starting new threads and sub-threads, or
posting replies to others. Online forums are either self-moderated or moderated by an
instructor or expert facilitator, and the threads are typically archived. In order to
participate in a forum discussion, a learner has to visit the specific online location to
review the postings of others and post messages.

Electronic Mailing Lists (also called listservs) allow members to send messages to
other members of the same mailing list. They are different from online forums in that
postings are delivered to e-mail boxes and are not typically archived in a communal
online space.

Wikis and Virtual Collaborative Workspaces allow members of a group to share a

virtual space on the web where they can store reference documents, add and edit
documents and track progress on a collaborative work effort.

Blogs (Weblog) are web-based journals and are usually a component of a larger personal
or corporate website. Some are more topical and others are highly personal. They
typically allow readers to post replies or to be promoted to a co-contributor role. In an
online learning environment, they can take on the role of a learning journal.

Simulations allow learners to model or role-play in a scenario as a way to practice or test

learning. Applications range from simple scenarios to complex, highly scripted, and
interactive games.

14
 C. Methodologies and Tools

Goal-Based Scenarios are simulations in which learners assume a major role in the
pursuit of a well-defined mission or task. In order to achieve the goal the learner needs to
acquire particular skills and knowledge, which is where the learning occurs.

Gaming involves more complex simulations with (1) formal rules in which players
engage in artificial conflict with variable and quantifiable outcomes and both game play
and learning objectives, (2) a narrative which provides cues, context and relevance for the
activities, and (3) a simulation which represents the learning space necessary to support
the activities and narrative. 26

Learning Management Systems (LMSs) typically register, track, and deliver content to
learners; report on learner progress, assessment results, and skill gaps for instructors;
enroll learners; and provide security and manage user access for administrators. LMSs
typically handle courses by multiple publishers and providers. They are similar to
Learning Content Management Systems (LCMS) that are especially designed to
handle content objects in modular form for learner use.

Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs) are different from LMSs in that they are fully
integrated around a specific learning content and are not designed to handle learning
objects from disparate sources. ILSs typically include hardware, as well as curricula and
lessons organized by competency level. They usually include a number of tools such as
assessments, record keeping, report writing, and user information files that help to
identify learning needs, monitor progress, and maintain student records.

The delivery of these methods and their application are elaborated upon in the sections below.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Delivery Modes

Technology-based learning is grouped into synchronous and asynchronous delivery modes. TBL
courses often employ both modes in a form of blended learning.

Synchronous learning delivery occurs when instructors and learners meet at a specific time in a
physical or virtual classroom, in person or via Internet, satellite, or phone link-up. In a TBL
setting, synchronous learning occurs in broadcasted lectures, teleconferences, video conferences,
or webinars. In webinars and web conferences, audio lectures are often accompanied by slides
and sometimes a video image of the instructor is streamed to the learners desktop. As costs for
such web conferences have come down and tools have become more user friendly, synchronous

26
Definition adapted from the Advanced Distributed Learning, 2005.

15
C. Methodologies and Tools

training has become the fastest growing segment of the TBL market. In 2002, 60 percent of
corporations delivered some of their TBL synchronously. Subsequently, in 2004, that percentage
increased to nearly 75 percent of surveyed corporations. 27

Asynchronous learning in a TBL environment need not occur at a specified time and is not
linked to a specific learning event. Self-paced asynchronous applications include web-based and
computer-based courses that learners use at their own pace. Facilitated asynchronous
applications range from a simple e-mail dialog or a discussion via a bulletin board to a
comprehensive virtual learning environment where the instructor posts readings, video and audio
content, and assignments, and then monitors students progress over time. Asynchronous
learning also tends to emphasize the role of the community of learners of a given subject. Online
discussions are typically archived and become important repositories of knowledge and learning.
Because of this enhanced ability of learners to interact outside of in-class events, the traditional
power differential between instructor and learners is less pronounced in an asynchronous
environment. Another advantage of asynchronous TBL is that it is no longer constrained by
timing or geography. Learners can begin a course when they are ready for it and advance
through it as quickly or as slowly as their own time and ability permit.

Exhibit 2:
Synchronous and Asynchronous TBL Delivery Methods

Synchronous Asynchronous
Teleconferencing E-Mail
Conference Calls List servers
Web conferencing Threaded discussions
Instant Messaging Blogs
Chat Discussion Forums
Podcasts
Simulations

Instructor-Centric, Content-Centric and Learner-Centric Teaching

Delivery modes can also be distinguished by the focus of instruction. TBL, just like traditional
classroom teaching, can involve three main teaching modesinstructor-centric, content-centric,
and learner-centricand often involves a combination of several of these modes.

27
Pulichino, 2004.

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 C. Methodologies and Tools

In a TBL environment, the instructor-centric mode includes synchronous events, such as web
conferences with a lecture at its center. It can also include pre-recorded lectures or narrated
tutorials that are disseminated online, or via CD-ROMs. These lectures generally provide a
record of expert knowledge that learners view, listen to, and, sometimes, respond to. Expert-
learner contact can be frequent if the learner community is small, but tends to be rare in most
cases.

In a content-centric TBL model, students typically interact with content that is embedded in a
learning system that runs either from a CD-ROM on a stand-alone computer or from a web-
based system where the content resides on a remote web server and is accessed via the Internet.
In this model, there is little learner-expert interaction or learner-learner interaction. Typical
examples of content-centric TBL in industry include online courses on generic topics such as
project management, leadership, and compliance training, as well as training that leads to
industry certifications such as for information technology workers. Major corporate e-learning
providers include the recently merged market leaders SkillSoft and SmartForce, which provide
more than half of all content-centric TBL for Fortune 5000 companies. Typical examples of
content-centric courses in education include basic skills and GED courses delivered online or via
CD-ROM. Examples of software for adult education are Aztec, PLATO, SkillsTutor, and GED
Illinois Online. 28

In a learner-centric TBL model, the learner is the navigator and key decision-maker, and the
learners interests and needs drive the learning. The instructor acts as a coach and facilitator who
helps the student to achieve the learning objectives. The learning environment is open, and
learners are free to roam in search of learning objects that help them construct their
understanding of the given topic. A learner-centric model is well aligned with constructivist
learning pedagogy which maintains that students learn best when they can actively participate in
their learning and build their knowledge, rather than just act as passive recipients of knowledge.

All three modes of delivery are effective at transmitting factual knowledge. However, research
suggests that a constructivist learner-centered approach leads to better content retention,
improved student motivation, and lower dropout rates.

Simulations and Goal-Based Scenarios

The presumed effectiveness of learner-centered, discovery-based methods has led to the
promotion of simulations and goal-based scenarios as part of TBL. Of course, simulations have

28
Young, 2005.

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C. Methodologies and Tools

been used for quite some timeas a part of military training for example. But as simulations
have come to be adapted as a part of TBL and explicitly linked with a constructivist pedagogy,
the range of their applications has expanded to new content areas, including marketing, finance,
management, and even foreign languages. 29 For example, MIT developed the Beer Game as a
way of teaching its MBA students the principles of systems dynamics and operations
management as they work through the wrinkles of developing an effective beer production and
distribution chain. In this and other examples, simulations and goal-based learnings elements
enable discovery, experimentation, practice, and the active construction of systems and content
based on concrete examples in a risk-free environment. 30 These features are well illustrated in
the following exhibit. 31

Exhibit 3:
A Comparison of Simulations and Traditional Approaches

Traditional Approach Simulations & Scenarios

Scope Deductive: experts determine Inductive: learners use their
the scope of learning and experiences to create
establish right and wrong indicators of successful
answers outcomes
Focus The object or subject to be The learners behavior
mastered
Learning objectives Listed and prioritized based Not fully known until after the
on expert judgments lesson
Nature of learning Hierarchical, linear, and rule- Systemic, non-linear, with
based multiple feedback
Learning styles Can be multiple but usually Usually highly visual and
less kinesthetic highly kinesthetic
Best suited to Knowledge focused: Suited to Performance focused: Suited
relatively simple, well-known, to complex topics with high
and well-structured topics interaction or practice
with high knowledge requirements and where
requirements judgment skills, not facts, are
being taught

29
Marquardt and Kearsley, 1999.
30
Aldrich, 2004.
31
Kindley, 2002.

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 C. Methodologies and Tools

Blended Learning
The experience with CD-ROM-based TBL and online learning has shown educators and trainers
that learning that is exclusively delivered via technology is not the panacea to teach students and
train workers. Even if all technological hurdles are overcome, TBL that does not integrate well
with on-the-job training processes is missing an important experiential component. That is why
in the past few years many educators and trainers have begun to consciously mix different
elements of TBL and face-to-face learning into a blended learning model.

Blended learning, also known as hybrid or integrated learning, has recently become the dominant
paradigm for TBL success among training designers and experts. Blended learning typically
refers to a training approach that combines a mix of online and face-to-face training delivery for
improved engagement and better retention. Blending face-to-face with online activities also has
the potential of bringing the best of both worlds together in a single course. In its most basic
form, it combines a synchronous face-to-face lecture with some online follow-up activities, such
as discussion forums or chats.

While blended learning does not represent a new concept (many college courses have combined
classroom with online content for some time without ever calling it blended learning), it is
having an effect and changing training design in the corporate TBL market. The reason why it is
having such an impact there has to do with a weakness in early corporate implementations of
TBL. Early TBL initiatives were often too dependent on a single mode of delivery and were too
technology-driven. Blended learning in the corporate training market is likely to continue to
evolve and employ a more varied mix of learning tools. There is also evidence that blended
learning is more effective than non-blended approaches. In a controlled study, students who
learned Excel tasks using a blended approach showed a 30 percent improvement in accuracy and
learned 40 percent faster than their control groups in a non-blended approach. 32

Successful blends use a course design that ensures that each element complements the other
without duplication. For example, an instructor might be available for online discussions
between classes, post required reading on course websites, suggest further exploration with a list
of links, archive answers to frequently asked questions, and request that assignments be
completed online.

32
Thomson, 2002.

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