British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1973, 30, 313-324

Assessment of man's thermal comfort

in practice

P. 0. FANGER
Laboratory of Heating and Air Conditioning, Technical University of Denmark, Building 402,
DK 2800 Lyngby, Denmark

Fanger, P. 0. (1973). British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 30, 313-324. Assessment of man's
thermal comfort in practice. A review is given of existing knowledge regarding the condi-
tions for thermal comfort. Both physiological and environmental comfort conditions
are discussed. Comfort criteria are shown diagrammatically, and their application is illustrated
by numerous practical examples. Furthermore, the effect on the comfort conditions of age,
adaptation, sex, seasonal and circadian rhythm, and unilateral heating or cooling of the body
is discussed. The term 'climate monotony' is considered. A method is recommended for
the evaluation of the quality of thermal environments in practice.

In its Constitution, the World Health Organization he is most inclined to complain about the indoor
(WHO) defines health as 'a state of complete climate of his workplace (offices, industrial premises,
physical, mental and social well-being and not shops, schools, etc.) where he is compelled to spend
merely the absence of disease or infirmity'. The inclu-
his time in environments which he himself can
sion of man's well-being in the definition of health control only to a very limited degree.
reflects the increasing interest which public health Field studies indicate that in practice many of
officers, hygienists, and many physicians have shown these complaints can be traced to an unsatisfactory
in man's comfort. thermal environment.
In this connection the indoor climate warrants In this article the conditions for man's thermal
special attention because in a modern industrial comfort will be discussed, as well as the thermal
society man spends the greater part of his life environments which should be aimed at and the
indoors. A large proportion of the population spends methods which should be employed in practice to
23 out of 24 hours in an artificial climate-in dwel- evaluate the quality of a given thermal environment.
lings, at the workplace, at hobby, amusement, and Only thermal environments which cause moderate
cultural centres, or during transport by car, train, degrees of discomfort will be dealt with. It is these
ship or aeroplane. cases that bring forth by far the greatest number of
This has resulted in a growing understanding and complaints met by physicians and engineers. Over
interest in studying the influence of the indoor recent years research has led to the establishment of
climate on man, thus enabling suitable requirements rational methods for the assessment of such thermal
to be established, which should be aimed at in environments.
practice. Methods for determining the risk of thermal
At the same time an increasing number of com- disorders when man is exposed to extreme thermal
plaints about unsatisfactory indoor climate suggest stress (i.e., during hard physical work in mines or in
that man has become more critical regarding the hot industry) will not be discussed here. Well-
environment to which he is subjected. It seems that established and reliable methods have long been
313
314 P. 0. Fanger

available for such cases, e.g., as reviewed in the TABLE 2

monographs of Leithead and Lind (1964) and of THERMAL RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT CLOTHING
Kerslake (1972). ENSEMBLES

Comfort parameters Clothing clo

What is required in practice is that the comfort Naked .. .. .. 0
conditions are expressed in controllable factors, Bikini .. .. .. .. .. .. 0 05
Shorts .. .. .. .. .. .. 01
namely the following four main physical parameters Ordinary tropical clothing: shorts, open shirt
which constitute the thermal environment: with short sleeves, light underwear .. .. 03
1. air temperature Light summer clothing: long light-weight trous-
2. mean radiant temperature ers, open shirt with short sleeves, light under-
wear ... .. .. .. .. Q5
3. relative air velocity Light tropical suit .. 0'8
4. vapour pressure in ambient air. Typical business suit .. .. ..
Besides the environmental factors, man's comfort is Traditional heavy northern European suit with
also influenced by the following two factors: waistcoat, long underwear, and singlet with
long sleeves .. .. .. .. 15
5. activity level (internal heat production in the Polar clothing .. .. .. 3-4
body)
6. thermal resistance of clothing.
As suggested by Gagge, Burton, and Bazett
(1941), activity is often expressed in met-units Definition of comfort
(1 met = 58 W/m2 (50 kcal/m2h) corresponding to
In agreement with the American Society of Heating,
sedentary activity) and the thermal resistance of the
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers
clothing is expressed in clo-units (1 clo = 0 155 m2
C/W (018 m2h C/kcal)). (ASHRAE) Standard 55-66 (1966), thermal comfort
for a person is here defined as 'that condition of
The activity and the thermal resistance of the
mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
clothing can be estimated with reasonable accuracy
environment'. Normally this means that the person
by considering the application of the room con-
does not know whether he would prefer a warmer or
cerned. Values for typical activities and clothing
ensembles are listed in Tables 1 and 2. a cooler environment. Furthermore, it is a require-
ment that the heat loss from the person is not too
asymmetrical.
TABLE 1 People are not alike, thermally or otherwise. If
HEAT PRODUCTION IN THE BODY DURING DIFFERENT a group of people is exposed to the same room
TYPICAL ACTIVITIES climate it will therefore normally not be possible, due
to biological variance, to satisfy everyone at the
Activity met same time. One must then aim at creating optimal
Sleeping .. .. .. .. .. 08
thermal comfort for the group, i.e., a condition in
Sitting .. .. .. .. .. 10 which the highest possible percentage of the group
Typing .. .. .. .. .. .. 12 are thermally comfortable.
Standing .. .. .. .. .. . i4
Ordinary standing work in shop, laboratory,
kitchen 1.. .. .. .. .. .. I6-2 Physiological comfort conditions
Slow walking (3 km/hr) .. .. 2
Normal walking (5 km/hr) .. .. 2-6 The purpose of the human thermoregulatory system
Fast walking (7 km/hr) .. .. .. 4 is to maintain a reasonably constant deep body
Ordinary carpentering and bricklaying work .. 3 temperature; a requirement for this is the main-
Running (10 km/hr) .. .. .. 8 tenance of a heat balance so that the heat lost to
the environment is equal to the heat produced by
the body. Man possesses the most effective physio-
In practice, quantitative knowledge is needed as logical mechanisms for maintaining a heat balance:
to which combinations of the above-mentioned six the sensible heat loss can be altered by a variation
variables will lead to thermal comfort for man. of the cutaneous blood flow and thus of the skin
The existing knowledge of comfort conditions will temperature, latent heat loss can be increased by
be discussed, including the correlation between man's sweat secretion, and internal heat production can
thermal sensation and his physiological reactions. be increased by shivering or muscle tension.
But before proceeding to a discussion of comfort These mechanisms are extremely effective and
conditions it is important to define the concept of ensure that the heat balance can be maintained
comfort. within wide limits of the environmental variables.
 4ssessment of man's thermal comfort in practice 315

Maintenance of heat balance is, however, far from ness of the skin can occur if the sweat secretion or
being a sufficient condition for thermal comfort. the vapour diffusion resistance of the clothing are
Within the wide limits of the environmental variables high. Gagge (1937), who introduced the 'skin wet-
for which heat balance can be maintained there is ness' concept, recommends that it should be lower
only a narrow interval which will create thermal than 25% (Gagge, Stolwijk, and Nishi, 1969a).
comfort. It must be emphasized that the physiological
It has long been known that man's thermal sensa- comfort conditions given in equations (1) and (2)
tion is related to the state of his thermoregulatory apply only under reasonably steady-state conditions.
system, the degree of discomfort being greater the It has not been possible as yet to establish physio-
heavier the load on the effector mechanisms. logical comfort conditions during thermal transients
Experiments by Yaglou (1927) in the 1920s indicated but important studies on transients have been
a correlation between the skin temperature and the performed at the Pierce Foundation Laboratory,
sensation of thermal comfort; later and more Yale University, by Gagge, Stolwijk and Hardy
complete studies by Gagge, Herrington, and (1967), Gagge, Stolwijk, and Saltin (1969b), Hardy
Winslow (1937), Gagge et al. (1941), Winslow, and Stolwijk (1966), and Stolwijk and Hardy (1966).
Herrington, and Gagge (1937), DuBois, Ebaugh, In one series of experiments nude subjects were
and Hardy (1952), and Nielsen (1947) showed a exposed alternately to cold and neutral and to hot
correlation between thermal sensation and skin and neutral environments. When proceeding from
temperature, independent of whether the subjects neutral to cold or warm environments, the changing
were nude or clothed. Therefore it was generally thermal sensation was found to be correlated with
accepted for a long time that the physiological the actual skin temperature and sweat rate in the
conditions for comfort were that a person had a same way as under steady-state conditions. But
mean skin temperature of 33-34C and that sweating when these transients were reversed, i.e., proceeding
(or shivering) did not occur. This was later confirmed from a cold or hot to a neutral environment, they
in experiments by Fanger (1967) but only for seden- felt almost immediately comfortable, even though
tary subjects. At higher activities than sedentaryones their skin temperature had not yet reached the steady-
he showed that man prefers a lower mean skin state level considered comfortable. Gagge explains
temperature and prefers to sweat. Based on experi- this by the rate of change of skin temperature which
mental results for 20 subjects each participating in might cause a sensation that compensates for and
four tests at different activity levels, and based on predominates over the sensation of discomfort
data by McNall et al. (1967), the following values caused by the skin temperature itself. The thermal
of skin temperature and sweat secretion were found sensation 'leads' the body temperature changes in
to provide comfort during steady-state conditions this case and is thus 'anticipatory'.
(Fanger, 1967): Other transient experiments by Cabanac (1969,
Mean skin temperature during comfort: 1971) and by Hardy (1970) with subjects immersed
ts= 35-7-0-0276M (OC) (1) in a waterbath indicate that an interactionof internal
Sweat secretion during comfort: and skin temperature might be important in evoking
Esw = 0-42 (M -58) (W/m2) (2) discomfort. The possible influence of internal tem-
where M is the metabolic rate per unit body surface perature has also been suggested by Missenard
area (W/m2). (1957).
It is apparent from equation (1) that during The relationship between man's thermal sensation
sedentary activity (M = 58 W/m2) man prefers a and his physiological reactions during sudden
skin temperature of approximately 34C, while the environmental changes is certainly complicated, and
preferred skin temperature is, for example, only further research is necessary before it will be possible
approximately 31C at an activity three times that to establish quantitative physiological comfort con-
of the sedentary level. ditions for thermal transients.
From equation (2) it can be seen that man prefers
a sweat secretion of zero during sedentary activity Environmental comfort conditions
(M = 58 W/m2), whereas at higher activities he
prefers a sweat secretion involving a latent heat loss When, in practice, artificial climates are to be
of 42 % of the increased heat production of the body. created which will provide thermal comfort for man,
Ambient temperatures which were so low that no it is of course insufficient merely to know the physio-
sweating occurred were felt to be much too cold. logical comfort conditions. What is necessary is a
It should be noted that a certain wetness of the detailed quantitative knowledge of those combina-
skin in itself can produce a non-thermal discomfort tions of the environmental variables which will result
due to tactile sensations associated with dripping wet in optimal thermal comfort.
clothing, sticky skin, and skin irritation. A high wet- Two research methods which differ in principle
316 P. 0. Fanger

have been used to establish environmental comfort not provide sufficient information for an overall
conditions, but both require a large number of assessment and calculation of the relative and
subjects in order that the optimal condition can be absolute influence of all the individual variables on
stated with reasonable statistical certainty. man's thermal comfort.
In one of the methods the subjects are asked to The other method for establishing environmental
vote on their thermal sensation on suitable psycho- comfort conditions was employed by Fanger (1967)
physical scales, and at the same time measurements in the derivation of his comfort equation.
are taken of the ambient thermal climate to which An underlying idea, later experimentally supported
they are exposed. Subsequently the results are by Olesen, Bassing, and Fanger (1972a), is that it
treated statistically and the optimal thermal environ- is the combined thermal effect of all the physical
ment can be determined. factors which is of importance for man's thermal
This method is relatively simple and has therefore state and comfort. It is therefore impossible to
been used in a large number of field studies in all consider the effect of any of the physical factors
parts of the world. The best known study of this influencing thermal comfort independently, as the
nature is Bedford's (1936) classical study on factory effect of each of them depends on the level of the
workers, but recent investigations by Wyon, Lidwell, other factors.
and Williams (1968), and Humphreys and Nicol The equation was derived by setting up a heat
(1970) have used the same method. balance equation for the human body and inserting
In many field studies activity level, and especially in it the physiological comfort conditions for skin
clothing, have not been specified, and in some temperature and sweat secretion given in equations
cases it has not been possible to measure all the (1) and (2). In this way, the comfort equation estab-
environmental variables. Even though the results lishes those combinations of activity, clothing, and
of such field studies have often been of value in the four environmental variables which will provide
the actual conditions under which they were mea- thermal comfort. It has been known for a long time
sured, it is difficult to make generalisations from the that these six variables influence the state of comfort.
results and to apply them to other conditions. But the combined quantitative influence of all the
The same method has been used in recent years parameters on man's comfort was not known until
in extensive experimental studies under carefully the equation was introduced.
controlled laboratory conditions at Kansas State
University by Nevins, Rohles, Springer, and Feyer- Practical application of comfort diagrams
herm (1966), McNall et al. (1967), McNall, Ryan, and
Jaax (1968), McNall and Schlegel (1968), Rohles and The comfort equation is comprehensive and complex
Nevins (1971), Rohles and Johnson (1972), and and therefore unsuitable for manual calculation, but
Rohles, Woods, and Nevins (1973). These experi- it has been solved by the use of electronic data
ments have involved many hundreds of subjects, processing and has been plotted in 28 comfort
who, clothed in a standard clothing ensemble, have diagrams (Fanger, 1970); these diagrams are intended
been exposed to different combinations of two for use in practice. In Figs. 1 to 4, examples are shown
environmental variables (e.g., air temperature and of four of the comfort diagrams. In each diagram
relative humidity) while keeping constant, in so far as comfort lines have been drawn, i.e., curves through
it is practically possible, all other factors which various combinations of two variables which will
influence thermal comfort. Large numbers of create comfort providing the values of the other
subjects have been asked to vote upon their thermal variables are kept constant.
sensation according to special scales. From a For practical application of the comfort diagrams,
statistical analysis combinations of the two variables it is necessary to estimate the activity level and the
which give optimal thermal comfort have then been clothing first, taking into account the use of the room
determined. (see Tables 1 and 2). From the comfort diagrams,
Because of the large number of subjects and the combinations can then be found of the four environ-
carefully controlled experimental conditions this mental parameters which will provide thermal
method has given valuable results; however, these comfort.
results are valid only for the constant values of the Beneath Figs. 1 to 4 nine characteristic examples
other four parameters prevailing when the experi- are given of the use of the comfort diagrams in
ments were performed. Since the effect of any of the practice.
six main parameters on man's thermal comfort
depends on the level of the other parameters this Individual differences
empirical method requires an enormous number of Everyone is not alike. How then is it possible, from
experiments to cover the range adequately. The an equation, to specify one particular temperature
method is thus slow, and existing data therefore do which will provide comfort? The answer is that the
 Assessment of man's thermal comfort in practice 317

comfort equation does not necessarily satisfy every-

one. It gives, however, combinations of the variables
which will provide comfort for the greatest number M/AIA1XOMet OFO\
of people. This is exactly what should be aimed at
when a large group of people are together in the
same room climate (optimal comfort for the group).
Nu-de \&

oc
40 50 60 70 80 90 100F
40
,,' 100 I 05 4
35 Sedentary1 0 /1 90
M/AD,I=l.OmetKb
30 Medium clothin' t V
a-
E
25 Icl=1.oclo \ Relative
80 15 20 25 30 35C
Air temperature=mean radiant temperature
humidity 70
|- 20- FIG. 2. Comfort diagram showing the combined influence
of humidity and ambient temperature. The comfort lines
60 corresponding to four different velocities are curves
ac, 1 5- _77 I through different combinations of ambient temperature
a 10 . 50 and humidity which will provide optimal thermal
comfort. The diagram applies for nude, sedentarypersons.
: // I~~~x
5 40 Example 4 At swimming baths with rest places it is
desired to establish the necessary air temperature which
O'- . . .
will maintain thermal comfort for sedentary nude persons.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 440C Relative air humidity is 80%, relative air velocity
Air temperature < 0-1 m/s, and air temperature = mean radiant tempera-
ture. From Fig. 2, ta = 28 0C is found.
FIG. 1. Comfort diagram showing the combined influence
of mean radiant temperature and air temperature. The It has been found from experiments involving 1 300
comfort lines corresponding to five different velocities are subjects that the best result attainable is 5% dis-
curves through different combinations of mean radiant
temperature and air temperature which will provide satisfied (Fanger, 1970). Any deviation from the
optimal thermal comfort. The diagram applies for seden- thermal conditions specified by the comfort equation
tary persons in medium clothing (01 clo). Relative will result in an increase in the percentage of dis-
humidity 50 %. The slope of the lines has been reasonably satisfied.
well confirmed by recent British studies (Griffiths and
McIntyre, 1972a). Comfort zones or comfort points
Example 1 In an office, the employees are clothed at Earlier it was quite common to recommend so-called
1 clo (normal business suit) and occupied with sedentary 'comfort zones'. How can it then be that for set
work (1 met). Relative humidity 50 %, relative air values of the parameters the comfort equation
velocity < 01 m/s. It is desired to determine the optimal establishes only one comfort temperature and not a
air temperature, presuming that the mean radiant comfort zone? It is true that for every person there
temperature = the air temperature. From Fig. 1,
ta = tmrt = 23 0C is found. exists an interval of ambient temperatures within
Example 2 In a warehouse an air temperature of 140C which he will feel reasonably comfortable. Thus for
and a relative humidity of 50% should be maintained each individual there exists a comfort zone. But as
owing to the nature of the goods. Air velocity is 0-2 m/s. the comfort zone varies from person to person there
In the warehouse, a person is occupied with sedentary will be no common interval of temperatures for a
work, clothed at 1 clo. It is desired to maintain the person large group of persons which will satisfy them all.
in comfort by means of high-intensity infrared heaters There will not even be one common temperature
placed above his workplace. The mean radiant tempera- which will provide comfort for all. But, as mentioned
ture necessary for comfort is to be calculated. From
Fig. 1, tmrt = 380C is found. earlier, there will be one ambient temperature at
Example 3 Under winter conditions the mean radiant which the least possible number of persons will be
temperature in a long-distance bus is calculated to be dissatisfied (5 %). This 'comfort point' is established
50 lower than the air temperature. It is desired to deter- by the comfort equation.
mine the air temperature necessary for comfort, the
passengers being presumed to be seated without top Variability in man's comfort conditions
clothes (1 0 clo) and the velocity being 0-2 m/s (relative from day to day
humidity 50%). From Fig. 1: ta = 25 50C and tmrt =
20-50C. How reproducible are the comfort conditions for the
318 P. 0. Fanger

50 70 800F ment are seen in Figure 5. It will be seen from Table

I I~ ...ft/m in 3 that the thermal environments preferred by the
n/s Medium cIothinq elderly do not appear to differ from those preferred
~~~~~~-250
by younger people. The lower metabolism in
1l.2_ elderly people seems to be compensated for by a
0
1-0- ~~~~~~~200 lower evaporative loss.
00.8~~~~~~~ 15 0 The fact that young and elderly prefer the same
thermal environment does not necessarily mean that
exain ple
100
they are equally sensitive when exposed to cold (or
0.2 -5" -Relative heat). This has recently been discussed by Fox et al.
~~~~~~~~hiSmidity
500/ (1973) in relation to the hypothermia problem for
5 10 20 25 300C the elderly.
Air temperature=mean radiant temperature
Adaptation
FIG. 3. Comfort diagram showing the combined influ- It is widely believed that, by exposure to hot or cold
ence of air velocity and ambient temperature. The surroundings, people can acclimatize themselves so
comfort lines corresponding to five different activity that they prefer other thermal environments, and
levels are curves through different combinations of
relative air velocity and ambient temperature which will
provide optimal thermal comfort. The diagram applies CIo
for persons wearing medium clothing (1-0 clo). Relative 2.0-
humidity 50%. example 7 L
Example 5 It is desired to determine the comfort tem-
perature for the personnel in a shop, where the mean
activity corresponds to walking at a speed of 1 5 km/hr
(activity = 1-5 met, relative velocity = 0-4 m/s); cloth-
ing = 10 clo, relative humidity 50%. From Fig. 3 it
will be seen that ta = tmrt = 20 80C.
wj~~~~~~-
L A lempe9"-
l*0'exampleB8
=
7

Example 6 In a 'clean room' (laminar flow type) the

horizontal air velocity is 0 5 in/s and the personnel are 5-0
10 1 25 3
engaged in sedentary work clothed in a special standard
suit (10 clo). Relative humidity 50%. From Fig. 3 it :a0.5-
E
will be seen that the comfort temperature is 24 7C.
Relative velocity< 01 nV/s
0
Relativ e humidity =500/6u
individual? Is not the subjective thermal sensation 10 15 20 25 300C
so uncertain that large variations in comfort require- Air temperature =mean radiant temperature
ments can be expected from day to day? This has
recently been investigated by determining the prefer- FIG. 4. Comfort diagram showing the combined influence
red ambient temperature for each subject under of clothing and activity. The comfort lines corresponding
identical conditions on four different days (Fanger, to six different activity levels are curves through different
1973). A standard deviation of only 0 60C was combinations of clo-value and ambient temperature
found. which will provide thermal comfort. Relative humidity
It is concluded that the comfort conditions for is 50 %, relative air velocity < 0 1 m/s.
the individual can be reproduced and will vary only Example 7 A special uniform is to be made for personnel
slightly from day to day. in the meat-packing industry who are employed in an
environment of 12C. The necessary clo-value of the
Age uniform must be determined, the activity level being set
at 1-6 met. From Fig. 4 it can be seen that 1 8 clo corres-
It has often been claimed that due to the fact that ponds to the desired conditions.
metabolism decreases slightly with age the comfort Example 8 In an operating theatre the surgeon is clothed
conditions based on experiments with young and at 0 9 clo and has an activity level of 1-4 met. It is desired
healthy subjects cannot be used as a matter of course to determine the ambient temperature (air temperature =
for other age groups. In Table 3 the results are mean radiant temperature) which will provide thermal
summarized of recent comfort studies in Denmark comfort. From Fig. 4, ta = 20 5C is found.
Example 9 In the same operating theatre, the other
and the United States of America on different age members of the operating team are engaged at a lower
groups (mean age 21-84 years). Activity, clothing, activity level (12 met). It must be determined what clo-
and other experimental conditions have in all value their standard clothing should have in order to
studies been identical. Subjects during one experi- provide thermal comfort. From Fig. 4, 1 15 clo is found.
 Assessment of man's thermal comfort in practice 319

TABLE 3
COMPARISON BETWEEN COMFORT CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS
Preferred Mean skin Evaporative
Study ambient temp. at weight loss Number
Mean age temp. conmfort during comfort of subjects
(yr) (OC) (OC) (g/m'/hr)
Nevins et al. 21 25-6 720
(1966)
Fanger .. 23 25-7 19-2 128
(1970)
Fanger .. 68 25-7 15-3 128
(1970)
Rohles and Johnson 74 24 5 228
(1972)
Technical University of
Denmark (1972)1 .. 24 25-4 33 5 19-2 32
Technical University of
Denmark (1972)1 .. 84 25-4 33-2 12-4 16
Comfort equation, Fanger.. 25 6
(1967)

"Data not yet published

Subjects were tested under the following standardized conditions: sedentary activity, light standard clothing 0-6 clo, rel.
velocity <0 1 m/s, rel. humidity 50 %, mean radiant temperature = air temperature.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'
jA

FIG. 5. Subjects wearing a standard uniform (0-6 do) during thermal studies
in the environmental test chamber at the Technical University of Denmark.
During the studies, physical and physiological measurements are correlated
with the subjective evaluations of the subjects.
320 P. 0. Fanger

that the comfort conditions vary in different parts Sex

of the world, depending on the outdoor climate at In all the experiments mentioned in Tables 3 and 4,
the relevant place. In Table 4 the results are shown an equal number of male and female subjects partici-
of experiments (identical experimental conditions)
involving subjects from the United States of America, pated, and it is therefore possible to compare the
Denmark, and tropical countries. The latter group comfort conditions for the two sexes (Table 5). It is
was tested in Copenhagen immediately after their
shown that men and women seem to prefer almost
arrival by plane from the tropics where they had the same thermal environments. Women's skin
lived all their lives. temperature and evaporative loss are slightly lower
Moreover, Table 4 gives experimental results for than those for men, and this balances the somewhat
two groups of persons exposed daily to cold. One lower metabolism of women.
group comprises persons who for eight hours daily
for at least one year have been doing sedentary work Seasonal and circadian rhythm
in cold surroundings in the meat packing industry.
The other group consists of winter swimmers who As it has been ascertained above that man cannot
bathe daily in the sea. become adapted to prefer warmer or colder environ-
It is apparent from the Table that there are only ments, it follows that there is no difference between
slight differences between the various groups as comfort conditions in winter and in summer. This
regards both the preferred ambient temperature and is confirmed by an investigation undertaken at
the physiological parameters in the comfort con- Kansas State University where results of winter and
dition. The results indicate that man cannot become summer experiments showed no difference (McNall
adapted to prefer warmer or colder environments. et al., 1968).
It is therefore likely that the same comfort con- On the other hand, it is reasonable to expect the
ditions can be applied throughout the world. How- comfort conditions to alter during the day as the
ever, in determining the preferred ambient tempera- internal body temperature has a daily rhythm, a
ture from the comfort diagrams, a clo-value should maximum occurring late in the afternoon and a
be used which corresponds to the local clothing minimum early in the morning.
habits. A comparison of field comfort studies from We have recently studied this by determining
different parts of the world (Nicol and Humphreys, experimentally the preferred ambient temperature
1972) shows, as might be expected, significant for each of 16 subjects both in the morning and in
differences in clothing habits depending, among the evening. No difference was observed (Ostberg
other things, on the outdoor climate. and Nicholl, 1973). We have furthermore studied

TABLE 4
COMPARISON BETWEEN COMFORT CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT NATIONAL-GEOGRAPHIC GROUPS AND FOR
GROUPS OF PEOPLE REGULARLY EXPOSED TO EXTREME COLD OR HEAT
Preferred Mean skin Evaporative Number
ambient temp. weight loss of
Group Study temp. at comfort during comfort subjects
(OC) (OC) (g/m3/hr)
Americans .. .. .. Nevins et al 25-6 720
(1966)
Danes .. .. .. Fanger 25-7 256
(1970)
Danes .. .. .. Technical University of 25-4 33-5 19-2 32
Denmark (1972)1
People from the tropics .. Technical University of 26-2 33-5 17-1 16
Denmark (1972)1
Danes working in the cold Olesen and Fanger 24-7 33-6 17-1 16
meat-packing industry .. (1971)
Danish winter swimmers .. Technical University of 25 0 33-3 16-6 16
Denmark (1972)1
Comfort equation .. .. Fanger 25-6
(1967)

'Data not yet published

Subjects were tested under the following standardized conditions: Sedentary activity, light standard clothing 0-6 clo, rel.
velocity <0-1 m/s, rel. humidity 50%, meaw radiant temperature = air temperature.
 Assessment of man's thermal comfort in practice 321

TABLE 5
COMPARISON BETWEEN COMFORT CONDITIONS FOR MALES AND FEMALES
Preferred Mean skin Evaporative Number
ambient temp. weight loss of
Study Sex temp. at comfort during comfort subjects
(OC) (OC) (glmllhr)
Nevins et al. (1966) and Males 25 4 488
Fanger (1970) Femalcs 25 8 488
(both studies combined)
Technical University of Males 25-5 33 6 21 3 16
Denmark (1972)1 Females 25-3 33-4 171 16
Comfort equation
Fanger (1967) .. 25-6

.Data not yet published

Subjects were tested under the following standardized conditions: Sedentary activity: light standard clothing 0 6 clo, rel.
velocity <01 m/s, rel. humidity 50 %, mean radiant temperature = air temperature.

the preferred ambient temperature during a simulated 30*

eight-hour working day (sedentary work) (Fanger, I Pretest
H0jbjerre, and Thomsen, 1973). It will be seen from 0

Fig. 6 that we observed only small fluctuations in EM4f s t

, 28 Breo Lunch
the preferred ambient temperature during the day. m
There is a slight tendency to prefer somewhat warmer 0

surroundings before lunch, but none of the fluctua- E- 26-

tions is significant. It is recommended, therefore,
that the thermal environment be kept constant -lE 0
throughout the day at a level given by the comfort
equation.
c
0
D 24

0--xUsQa
cl
Climate monotony ,, 2 2
It has sometimes been claimed that a constant 1.
thermal environment is not ideal as it produces so-
called climate monotony-increased fatigue, lower 20 I I

arousal, lower performance, etc. But such claims 89 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

have not so far been supported by experimental Time of day (hr)
evidence.
We have recently performed a preliminary study FIG. 6. Mean of the preferred ambient temperature for
of this problem by exposing subjects to temperature 16 subjects during a simulated normal 8-hour working
swings of varying amplitudes and frequencies around day. Sedentary activity, light standard clothing 0-6 cdo,
relative air velocity <0.1 m/s, relative humidity 50%,
the comfort level (Wyon, Asgeirsdottir, Kjerulf- mean radiant temperature = air temperature (Fanger,
Jensen, and Fanger, 1973). At the same time their 1973).
thermal sensations, mental performance, and behav-
iour were studied. Slight positive effects on perfor-
mance were observed but only with large temperature comfort if one part of the body is warm and another
swings which were felt to be definitely uncomfortable. is cold. This might be caused by an asymmetric
More comprehensive studies are needed. Until then radiant field or a local convective cooling of the
I would recommend keeping ambient temperatures body (draught) or by contact with a warm or cool
constant at the level given by the comfort diagrams. floor. Besides the comfort conditions for the body in
general, it is therefore essential to establish limits
Unilateral heating or cooling of the body for how asymmetric the heat loss from the body can
be without evoking discomfort.
Although a person may feel thermally neutral for the Limits for asymmetric radiation were recently
body in general, i.e., he would preferneitherawarmer studied experimentally by Olesen, Fanger, Jensen,
nor a cooler environment, he might not be in thermal and Nielsen (1972b). The following formula for
322 P. 0. Fanger

estimating the limits of acceptable temperature

differences of a local radiant source for sedentary 80
0) 60 '
persons in thermally neutral environments with still o..o .... .

air was recommended: 4)- 40

4).-
.-
-2-4 - 1 81cl _ ZtwFp-w < 3 9 + 181i U 30-
where ci = clo-value of clothing Q. 0 20-p ~ 4
-0.1^
4)V
Fpw = angle factor between person and 4)-o
radiant source 4)
Itw = temperature difference ('C) between ._
wa 8
6 _. .
radiant source and mean radiant tem-
perature in relation to the person. -T
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1-0 I-5 2.0
This formula is in reasonable agreement with other Predicted mean vote
recent data by McNall and Biddison (1970) and by
Griffiths and McIntyre (1972b), while Chrenko FIG. 7. The predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD)
(1953) 20 years ago established more conservative as a function of the predicted mean vote (PMV). The
limits for hot ceilings. curve has a minimum value of 5% dissatisfied persons
Local convective cooling is a considerable problem for PMV = 0. This corresponds to optimal thermal
in practice and unfortunately it has been only super- comfort. The curve is based on experiments comprising
ficially investigated so far. The mean air velocity and 1 300 subjects (Fanger, 1970).
the air temperature are, of course, of importance for
convective heat transfer and they should be balanced Figure 7 is based on studies comprising 1 300
according to the comfort equation. But the mean experimental subjects. As mentioned earlier, 5% is
velocity is not sufficient to explain the draught the lowest percentage of dissatisfied which can be
phenomenon. Man can be comfortable at quite expected. The PPD value is an appropriate and
substantial air velocities (i.e., 1 m/s) provided that easily understood expression for the quality of a
the ambient temperature is adjusted to a suitable given thermal environment.
level; but in other cases a mean velocity of 0 3 m/s An instrument which measures simultaneously the
might evoke a sensation of draught. Other aero- PMV and PPD values has recently been developed
dynamic magnitudes might be important and by Korsgaard and Madsen (1971, 1973). It has a
preliminary experiments at the Technical University sensor which integrates the comfort parameters in
of Denmark indicate that the turbulence of the air the same way as the human body does (Fig. 8).
is a significant factor for the sensation of draught. Experience from practice has shown this instrument
More studies are needed in order to establish reliable to be a reliable and useful tool in assessing thermal
draught limits. environments in the field.
Practical assessment of thermal environments
When evaluating the thermal climate of a room in
practice, the thermal parameters must first be
measured at a suitable number of points in the
occupied zone. Deviations from the optimal condi-
tion given in the comfort diagrams can then be
determined.
However, it is often of value to quantify the dcegree
of discomfort, and for this purpose an index has
been devised which gives the predicted mean vote
(PMV) of a large group of subjects according to the
following psychophysical scale:
-3 cold
-2 cool
- 1 slightly cool
0 neutral
+ 1 slightly warm
+ 2 warm FIG. 8. Comfort-meter developed by Korsgaard and
+3 hot Madsen (1971, 1973). The sensor integrates the influence
The PMV value is determined from tables (Fanger, of the thermal parameters in the same way as the human
1970) and it is then possible, from Fig. 7, to deter- body (Comfy-test EQ-21, commercially available from
mine the predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD). RECI, Glosemosevej, 2600 Glostrup, Denmark).
 ~,
Assessment of man's thermal comfort in practice 323

Future research DuBois, E. F., Ebaugh, F. G., and Hardy, J. D. (1952).

Basal heat production and elirmination of thirteen normal
Conclusive new evidence has come to light on man's women at temperatures from 22C to 35'C. Journal
comfort conditions as a result of extensive research of Nutrition, 48, 257-293.
carried out during recent years. This knowledge is Fanger, P. 0. (1967). Calculation of thermal comfort:
Introduction of a basic comfort equation. ASHRAE
quantified so that it is directly applicable in practice. Transactions, 73. Part II, pp.111.4.1-III, 4.20(No. 2051).
However, several problems still exist which demand (1970). Thermal Comfort. Danish Technical Press,
our efforts in this field of research in the future. Copenhagen. Republished by McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
It is partly a matter of establishing comfort con- New York, 1973.
- (1973). The variability of man's preferred ambient
ditions during transients (including temperature and temperature from day to day. Proceedings of symposiumt
humidity fluctuations and sudden changes, for on "Quantitative prediction of the physiological and
instance, when a person moves from outdoors to psychological effects of the thermal environment on man",
indoors). In this connection it would be appropriate Centre d'Etudes Bioclimatiques, Strasbourg, July.
, H0jbjerre, J., and Thomsen, J. 0. B. (1973). Man's
to perform more fundamental studies to clarify the preferred ambient temperature during the day. Proceed-
correlation between man's thermal sensation and the ings of symposium on "Quantitative prediction of the
function of his thermoregulatory system. physiological and psychological effects of the thermal
Comfort studies on children are needed to investi- environment on man", Centre d'Etudes Bioclimatiques,
Strasbourg, July.
gate whether the comfort conditions for adults Fox, R. H., Woodward, Patricia M., Exton-Smith, A. N.,
apply also to this age group. Green, M. F., Donnison, D. V., and Wicks, M. H. (1973).
There is also a need for further studies on the Body temperatures in the elderly: A national study of
effect on man of unilateral heating or cooling of the physiological, social, and environmental conditions.
British Medical Journal, 1, 200-206.
body. The correlation between the sensation of Gagge, A. P. (1937). A new physiological variable associated
draught and the turbulence intensity of the air should with sensible and insensible perspiration. American
be studied. Comfort limits should be established for Journal of Physiology, 120, 277-287.
the floor temperature as a function of floor material - system , Burton, A. C., and Bazett, H. C. (1941). A practical
of units for the description of the heat exchange
and footwear. of man with his environment. Science, 94, 428-430.
More studies are needed on the thermal properties , Herrington, L. P., and Winslow, C.-E. A. (1937).
of clothing ensembles and on the connection between Thermal interchanges between the human body and its
clothing habits and behavioural temperature regula- atmospheric environment. American Journal of Hygiene,
26, 84-102.
tion. , Stolwijk, J. A. J., and Hardy, J. D. (1967). Comfort
Another problem which has hardly been investi- and thermal sensations and associated physiological
gated at all is the possible influence of non-thermal responses at various ambient temperatures. Environ-
environmental factors on man's thermal sensation. mental Research, 1, 1-20.
~~, and Nishi, Y. (1969a). The prediction of thermal
Even though an influence from, e.g., light (colour) comfort when thermal equilibrium is maintained by
or sound on man's thermal sensation has not yet sweating. ASHRAE Transactions, 75, part II, pp. 108-120.
been found, the possibility of the existence of such and (1971). An effective temperature scale
a pure psychological influence cannot be excluded, based on a simple model of human physiological regu-
latory response. ASHRAE Transactions, 77, part I,
and an experimental investigation of the problem pp. 247-262.
would therefore seem to be relevant. and Saltin, B. (1969b). Comfort and thermal
Furthermore, there is a need for studies of comfort sensations and associated physiological responses during
conditions for sleeping persons. The investigation and exercise at various ambient temperatures. Environmental
Research, 2, 209-229.
establishment of optimal thermal conditions for Griffiths, I. D., and McIntyre, D. A. (1972a). Radiant
sleep is of great practical significance for the planning heating and comfort. Building Services Engineer, 40,
and operating of heating and air-conditioning June, A32-A34.
systems for hotels and hospitals. __, and (1972b). Radiant temperature and comfort.
Proceedings of CIB symposium on thermal comfort.
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logical comfort conditions at sixteen combinations of Accepted for publication July 4, 1973