Metallography: Standard Terminology Relating To

Designation: E 7 03
Standard Terminology Relating to

Metallography1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 7; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.
1. Scope testing in the field of metallography. In order for one to

1.1 This standard covers the definition of terms, acronyms, properly use and interpret these standards, the terminology
and symbols used in ASTM documents related to the field of used in these standards must be understood.
metallography and metallographic testing. Terms that are only 3.2 The terms used in the field of metallography have
relevant to a particular standard or that are adequately defined precise definitions. The terminology and its proper usage must
in a general dictionary are not defined in this terminology be completely understood in order to adequately communicate
standard. in this field. In this respect, this standard is also a general
1.2 This standard includes terminology used in metallo- source of terminology relating to the field of metallography
graphic areas, such as, but not limited to: light microscopy, facilitating the transfer of information within the field.
microindentation hardness testing, specimen preparation, x-ray 4. Terminology
and electron metallography, quantitative metallography, pho-
tomicrography, and determination of grain size and inclusion absorptionthe decrease in intensity which radiation under-
content. goes during its passage through matter when the ratio of
1.3 This standard may be of use to individuals utilizing transmitted or reflected luminous flux to incident is less than
standards of Committee E-4 as well as by those in need of a 1.
general reference source for terminology in the field of absorption coefficientspecific factor characteristic of a
metallography. substance on which its absorption radiation depends. The
rate of decrease of the natural logarithm of the intensity of a
2. Referenced Documents parallel beam per unit distance traversed in a substance. For
2.1 ASTM Standards: X-rays, the linear absorption coefficient is the natural loga-
E 14 Practice for Thermal Analysis of Metals and Alloys2 rithm of the ratio of the incident intensity of an X-ray beam
E 45 Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content incident on unit thickness of an absorbing material to the
of Steel3 intensity of the beam transmitted. If Ieis the incident inten-
E 80 Practice for Dilatometric Analysis of Metallic Materi- sity of a beam of X-rays, Itthe transmitted intensity, and X
als4 the thickness of the absorbing material, then:
E 92 Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Mate- It 5 Ieexp~2X! (1)
rials3
E 112 Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size3 Here is the linear absorption coefficient. The mass absorption
E 1122 Practice for Obtaining JK Inclusion Ratings Using coefficient is given by /r where r is the density.
Automatic Image Analysis3 absorption edgean abrupt change in absorption coefficient
at a particular wavelength. The absorption coefficient is
3. Significance and Use always larger on the short wavelength side of the absorption
3.1 Standards of Committee E-4 consist of test methods, edge.
practices, and guides developed to ensure proper and uniform absorption limitSee absorption edge.
accelerating potentiala relatively high voltage applied be-
tween the cathode and anode of an electron gun to accelerate
1
This terminology is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E04 on electrons.
Metallography and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E04.02 on achromaticliterally, color-free. A lens or prism is said to be
Metallographic Terminology and Nomenclature of Phase Diagrams.
Current edition approved May 10, 2003. Published June 2003. Originally
achromatic when corrected for two colors. The remaining
approved in 1926. Last previous edition approved 2001 as E 7 01. color seen in an image formed by such a lens is said to be
2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.01. secondary chromatic aberration. See apochromatic objec-
3
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01. tive
4
Discontinued; see 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02. Replaced
by E228.
Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
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Copyright ASTM International 1

Provided by IHS under license with ASTM
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E 7 03
achromatic objectivean objective that is corrected chro- anisotropic (replaces anisotropy)having different values for
matically for two colors, and spherically for one, usually in a property, in different directions.
the yellow-green part of the spectrum. annealing-twin bands See twin bands.
achromatic objective lensan objective lens with longitudi- anode apertureSee aperture.
nal chromatic correction for green and blue, and spherical anvilthe base on which objects for hardness test are placed.
chromatic correction for green. NoteLens should be used anvil effectthe effect caused by use of too high a load or
with a green filter. when testing the hardness of too thin a specimen, resulting in
acid extractionSee extraction. a bulge or shiny spot on the under side of the specimen.
air-lockan intermediate enclosed chamber of a vacuum or aperture, electron:
pressure system through which an object may be passed anode aperture the opening in the accelerating voltage
without materially changing the vacuum or pressure of the anode shield of the electron gun through which the electrons
system. must pass to illuminate or irradiate the specimen.
alignmenta mechanical or electrical adjustment of the condenser aperturean opening in the condenser lens
components of an optical device in such a way that the path controlling the number of electrons entering the lens and the
of the radiating beam coincides with the optical axis or other angular aperture of the illuminating beam. The angular
predetermined path in the system. In electron optics there are aperture can also be controlled by the condenser lens current.
three general types: physical objective aperturea metal diaphragm, centrally
(1) magnetic alignmentan alignment of the electron pierced with a small hole, used to limit the cone of electrons
optical axis of the electron microscope such that the image accepted by the objective lens. This improves image contrast
rotates about a point in the center of the viewing screen when since highly scattered electrons are prevented from arriving
the current flowing through a lens is varied. at the Gaussian image plane and therefore can not contribute
(2) mechanical alignmenta method of aligning the to background fog.
geometrical axis of the electron microscope by relative aperture, opticalthe working diameter of a lens or a mirror.
physical movement of the components, usually as a step angular aperture the angle between the most divergent
preceding either magnetic or voltage alignment. rays which can pass through a lens to form the image of an
(3) voltage alignmenta condition of alignment of an object.
electron microscope such that the image expands or con- aperture diaphragma device to define the aperture.
tracts symmetrically about the center of the viewing screen apochromatic objectivean objective with longitudinal chro-
when the accelerating voltage is changed. matic correction for red, green and blue, and spherical
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allotriomorphic crystala crystal whose lattice structure is chromatic correction for green and blue. This is the best
normal, but whose outward shape is imperfect since it is choice for high resolution or color photomicrography.
determined to some extent by the surroundings; the grains in arcingin electron diffraction, the production of segments of
a metallic aggregate are allotriomorphic crystals. circular patterns, indicating a departure from completely
alloy systema complete series of compositions produced by random orientation of the crystals of the specimen.
mixing in all proportions any group of two, or more, arrestthat portion of a cooling curve in which temperature is
components, at least one of which is a metal. invariant with time (for example, thermal or eutectic arrest).
alpha brassa solid solution phase of one or more alloying artifacta false microstructural feature that is not an actual
elements in copper and having the same crystal lattice as characteristic of the specimen; it may be present as a result
copper. of improper or inadequate preparation, handling methods, or
alpha iron (Fe)solid phase of pure iron which is stable at optical conditions for viewing.
temperatures below 910C and possesses the body-centered ascending fork pointin a ternary phase diagram, the con-
cubic lattice. It is ferro-magnetic below 768C. figuration at the convergence of the three bivariant curves
amplifiera negative lens, used in lieu of an eyepiece, to upon each of the four phases associated in Class II univariant
project under magnification the image formed by an objec- equilibrium; for example, the union of two ascending liqui-
tive. The amplifier is especially designed for flatness of field dus surface valleys to form one ascending liquidus surface
and should be used with an apochromatic objective. valley.
ampliphan eyepiece See amplifier. aspect ratiothe length-to-width ratio of a microstructural
analyzeran optical device, capable of producing plane feature in a two-dimensional plane.
polarized light, used for detecting the state of polarization. asterisma lengthening of diffraction spots usually in the
angle of reflection: ( 1) reflectionthe angle between the radial direction.
reflected beam and the normal to the reflecting surface. astigmatisma defect in a lens or optical system which
(2) diffractionthe angle between the diffracted beam and causes rays in one plane parallel to the optical axis to focus
the diffracting planes. at a distance different from those in the plane at right angles
Angstrom unit (abbreviation) = A, , or A. Ua unit of to it.
length equal to 108 cm. This is the standard unit of ASTM grain size number See grain size.
measurement in X-ray crystallography. athermalnot isothermal, with changing rather than constant
angular apertureSee aperture, optical. temperature conditions.

E 7 03
atomic replicaSee replica. formed on continuous (slow) cooling if the transformation
atomic scattering factorthe ratio of the amplitude of the rate of austenite to pearlite is much slower than that of
wave scattered by an atom to that scattered by a single austenite to bainite. Ordinarily, these structures may be
electron. Symbol = f. formed isothermally at temperatures within the above range
austenitea face-centered cubic solid solution of carbon or by quenching austenite to a desired temperature and holding
other elements in gamma iron. for a period of time necessary for transformation to occur. If
austenite grain sizethe grain size which exists or existed in the transformation temperature is just below that at which
austenite at a given temperature. See Test Methods E 112. the finest pearlite is formed, the bainite (upper bainite) has a
autographic dilatometera dilatometer that automatically feathery appearance. If the transformation temperature is just
records instantaneous and continuous changes in dimensions above that at which martensite is produced, the bainite
and some other controlled variable such as temperature or (lower bainite) is acicular, resembling slightly tempered
time. martensite. At the higher resolution of the electron micro-
autographic pyrometer See pyrometer. scope, upper bainite is observed to consist of plates of
automatic image analysisthe separation and quantitative cementite in a matrix of ferrite. These discontinuous carbide
evaluation of an image into its elements with or without plates tend to have parallel orientation in the direction of the
operator interaction. It includes the enhancement, detection, longer dimension of the bainite areas. Lower bainite consists
and quantification of the features contained in an image of ferrite needles containing carbide platelets in parallel
through the use of optical, geometrical, and stereological array cross-striating each needle axis at an angle of about
parameters and a computer program. Image analysis data 60. Intermediate bainite resembles upper bainite; however,
output can provide individual measurements on each sepa- the carbides are smaller and more randomly oriented.
rate feature (feature specific) or totals for all features of a balanced filters (X-rays)a pair of filters used to eliminate
particular type in the field (field specific). all but a narrow range of wavelengths. The filter materials
automatic image analyzera device which can be pro- and thicknesses are chosen so that their absorption edges lie
grammed to detect and measure features of interest in an very close together and so that they have the same absorption
image. It may include accessories such as automatic focus except for wavelengths lying in the range between their
and an automatic traversing stage to permit unattended absorption edges. When these filters are used alternately, the
operation. difference in effect, if any, is due to X-rays that have
average coefficient of cubical expansion average change in wavelengths in this range. Balanced filters thus can be made
unit volume of a substance per unit change in temperature to serve as a crude monochromator.
over a specified range of temperature. bandin electron diffraction, a broad intensity maximum with
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average coefficient of linear expansion average change in sharp edges.

unit length of a body per unit change in temperature over a banded structure (banding)alternate bands parallel with
specified range of temperature. the direction of working resulting from the elongation of
average coefficient of thermal expansion general term. segregated areas.
(See also average coefficient of cubical expansion and barrel distortion See distortion.
average coefficient of linear expansion.) basal planethat plane of a hexagonal or tetragonal crystal
average grain diameter See grain size. which is perpendicular to the axis of highest symmetry. Its
axial ratiothe ratio of the length of one axis to that of Miller indices are (0001) or (001), respectively.
another (for example, c/a) or the continued ratio of three bellows lengththe distance from the eyepiece to the photo-
axes (for example, a:b:c). sensitive material or viewing screen in a photomicrographic
axis (crystal)the edge of the unit cell of a space lattice. Any apparatus.
one axis of any one lattice is defined, in length and direction, Bertrand lensan auxiliary removable lens in the body of a
with respect to the other axes of that lattice. microscope, used to examine images in the back focal plane
Babos lawthe vapor pressure over a liquid solvent is of the objective, for example, interference figures with
lowered approximately in proportion to the quantity of a polarized light.
nonvolatile solute dissolved in the liquid. beta structurestructurally analogous body-centered cubic
backing filma film used as auxiliary support for the thin phases (similar to beta brass), or electron compounds, that
replica or specimen-supporting film. have ratios of 3 valence electrons to 2 atoms.
back reflectionthe diffraction of X-rays at a Bragg angle biased gunan electron gun in which there is a bias voltage
approaching 90. on the cathode cap. (See also self-biased gun.)
background blackeninga continuous, slowly varying bifilar eyepiecea Filar eyepiece with motion in two mutually
blackening of photographic film which has been exposed to perpendicular directions.
diffracted X-rays, on which the blackening due to diffracted binary alloyany specific composition in a binary system.
spots or lines is superimposed. binary systemthe complete series of compositions produced
bainiteupper, lower, intermediate metastable micro- by mixing a pair of components in all proportions.
structure or microstructures resulting from the transforma- binodal curvein a two-dimensional phase diagram, a con-
tion of austenite at temperatures between those which tinuous line consisting of both of the pair of conjugate
produce pearlite and martensite. These structures may be boundaries of a two-phase equilibrium and which join,

E 7 03
without inflection, at a critical point. See miscibility gap. temperature close to or within the melting range. This results
birefringenthaving more than one refractive index. Such in a structure exhibiting incipient melting or intergranular
materials exhibit alternately bright and dark reflections at oxidation.
45 intervals during a 360 rotation with plane-polarized calibration1) the act or process of determining the relation-
light. (See also anisotropic.) ship between a set of standard units of measure and the
bivariant equilibriuma stable state among a number of output of an instrument or test procedure,
phases equal to the number of components in a system and 2) the graphical or mathematical relationship relating the
in which any two of the external variables (temperature, desired property (expressed in a standard unit of measure
pressure, or concentrations) may be varied, at will, without such as micrometers or Kg/mm2) to the instrument output
necessarily causing a change in the number of phases; (instrument units such as filar divisions or pixels).
sometimes called divariant equilibrium. caliper diameter (Ferets diameter)the length of a line
blowholesa hole produced in a casting by gas which was normal to two parallel lines, tangent to opposite edges of a
trapped during solidification. phase or object.
body-centeredhaving an atom (or group of atoms) separated carbidea compound of carbon with one or more elements,
by a translation of 12 , 12 , 12 from a similar atom (or group which, in customary formulation, are considered as being
of atoms). The number of atoms in a body-centered cell must more positive than carbon.
be a multiple of two.
casein a ferrous alloy, the outer portion that has been made
boiling pressureat a specified temperature, the pressure at
harder than the inner portion (see core) as a result of altered
which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium.
composition, or structure, or both, from treatments such as
boiling temperatureat a specified pressure, the temperature
carburizing, nitriding, and induction hardening.
at which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium.
bonded abrasive diska rigid support surface with an abra- cassettea light-tight film or plate holder.
sive, typically diamond, bonded to the surface by a ceramic, cast replicaSee replica.
resin, or metal based material. cast structurethe structure, on a macroscopic or micro-
boundary grainin the Jeffries method for grain size mea- scopic scale, of a casting.
surement, a grain that is intersected by the boundary of the cathode lensa lens field terminated on one side by a surface
standard area and is, therefore, counted only as one-half at zero potential (cathode) normal to the optic axis. A
grain. (See also Jeffries Method.) cathode lens occurs in any system in which a cathode is
Bragg anglethe angle between the incident beam and the imaged by its own electron emission, be it thermionic,
lattice planes considered. photoelectric, secondary, or field emission.
Bragg equation: cementitea very hard and brittle compound of iron and
nl 5 2d sin u (2) carbon corresponding to the empirical formula Fe3C. It is
commonly known as iron carbide and possesses an orthor-
hombic lattice. In plain-carbon steels some of the iron
where:
atoms in the cementite lattice are replaced by manganese,
n = order of reflection,
l = wavelength of X-rays, and in alloy steels by other elements such as chromium or
d = distance between lattice planes, and tungsten. Cementite will often appear as distinct lamellae or
u = Bragg angle. as spheroids or globules of varying size in hypo-eutectoid
Bragg methoda method of X-ray diffraction in which a steels. Cementite is in metastable equilibrium and has a
single crystal is mounted on a spectrometer with a crystal tendency to decompose into iron and graphite, although the
face parallel to the axis of the instrument. reaction rate is very slow.
Brauns lawthe ratio of the solubility change with pressure, central pencila bundle of rays originating in the axis with an
temperature being constant, (d X/dP)T, to the solubility angular aperture equal to the effective aperture of the lens.
change with temperature, pressure being constant, (d These rays pass through the lens aperture and contribute to
X/dT)P, is equal to the negative of the product of the the formation of the image.
absolute temperature, T, and the (fictitious) volume change certified reference materiala reference material, the com-
(Dv) which accompanies the solution of 1 gmolecular position or properties of which are certified by a recognized
weight of the solute in an infinitely large quantity of the standardizing agency or group. Typically such a material is
saturated solution at T degrees, divided by the amount of accompanied by documentation (certificate).
heat, Q, developed in the process: characteristic curvethe curve showing the relationship
~dX/dP!T/~dX dT!P 5 2TDv/Q (3) between exposure and resulting density in a photographic
brightfield illumination for reflected light, the illumination image. It is usually plotted as the density against the log
which causes specularly reflected surfaces normal to the axis exposure. Called also the H and D curve and the sensi-
of a microscope to appear bright. For transmission electron tometric curve.
microscopy, the illumination of an object so that it appears characteristic radiationX-radiation of a particular set of
on a bright background. wavelengths, produced by and characteristic of a particular
burning (burnt, burned)a term applied to metal which has element used as a target whenever its excitation potential is
been permanently damaged by having been heated to a exceeded.
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E 7 03
charge neutralizer gunan electron gun used to dissipate the equilibria at temperatures and pressures above, while the
charges which tend to build up on specimen surfaces, within other two phases occur in all three of the associated bivariant
an electron-diffraction camera, which would introduce un- equilibria below; for example, L + a + b = g + d.
desired electrostatic fields. Class III quinary equilibriumin a five-component system,
chemical potential( i or G i) the partial molar free energy the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, three of
of component i, that is, the change in free energy of a which appear in all three of the associated bivariant equilib-
solution upon adding one mole of component i to an infinite ria at temperatures and pressures above, while the other three
amount of solution of given composition, occur in all three of the associated bivariant equilibria below;
for example, L + a + b = g + d + e.
~dG/dni!T,P,n1 5 Gi 5 i (4)
Class III ternary equilibriumin a three-component system,
where: the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, one of
G = Gibbs free energy, and which must disappear at higher temperature or pressure; for
ni = number of moles of the i thcomponent. example, the ternary peritectic equilibrium, L + a + b = g.
Chinese script eutectica configuration of eutectic constitu- Class IV quaternary equilibriumin a four-component
ents, found particularly in some cast alloys of aluminum system, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, one
containing iron and silicon and in magnesium alloys con- of which must disappear at higher temperature or pressure;
taining silicon, which resembles in appearance the characters for example, the quaternary peritectic equilibrium,
in Chinese script. L + a + b + g = d.
chlorine or volatile halide extractionSee extraction. Class IV quinary equilibriumin a five-component system,
chromatic aberrationa defect in a lens or lens system as a the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, four of which
result of which the lens possesses different focal lengths for appear in both associated bivariant equilibria at temperatures
radiation of different wavelengths. and pressures above, while the other two occur in all four
Class I quaternary equilibriumin a four-component sys- associated bivariant equilibria below; for example,
tem, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, one of L + a + b + g = d + e.
which must disappear upon lowering the temperature or Class V quinary equilibriumin a five-component system,
pressure; for example, the quaternary eutectic equilibrium, the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, one of which
L = a + b + g + d. must disappear upon increasing the temperature or pressure;
Class I quinary equilibriumin a five-component system, for example, the quinary peritectic equilibrium,
the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, one of which L + a + b + g + d = e.
must disappear upon lowering the temperature or pressure; Clausius-Clapeyron equationthe rate of change of the
for example, the quinary eutectic equilibrium, pressure of a heterogeneous equilibrium with change of
L = a + b + g + s + e. temperature dP/dT is equal to the heat of transformation
Class I ternary equilibriumin a three-component system, from the low to the high temperature state D Hv divided by
the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, one of the product of the absolute temperature of the equilibrium
which must disappear upon lowering the temperature or and the volume change of the transformation TDV:
pressure; for example, the ternary eutectic equilibrium, dP/dT 5 DHv/TDV (5)
L = a + b + d.
or,
Class II quaternary equilibriumin a four-component sys-
tem, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, two of d ln P/dT ' Hv/RT (6)
which appear in each of the three associated bivariant where R is the gas constant and the equilibrium is not near
equilibria at temperatures and pressures above, while the a critical point.
other three phases all occur in both of the associated clear cross testan experimental method for determining
bivariant equilibria below; for example, L + a = b + g + d. which of two conceivable two-phase equilibria is real; at that
Class II quinary equilibriumin a five-component system, composition at which the two conceivable two-phase fields
the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, two of which cross, an alloy is brought to equilibrium and the phases
appear in each of the four associated bivariant equilibria at identified; the same principle may be applied to higher-order
temperatures and pressures above, while the other four equilibria in higher-order systems.
phases occur in both of the associated bivariant equilibria clear glass focusing screena glass screen polished on both
below; for example, L + a = b + g + d + e. sides and mounted for use in a camera, in lieu of photo-
Class II ternary equilibriumin a three-component system, sensitive material, for the purpose of establishing a plane on
the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, two of which to focus an image prior to recording it.
which appear in both of the associated bivariant equilibria at cleavage planesthat family of planes of a crystal along
higher temperature and pressure, while the other two phases which the crystal is easily split.
occur in both bivariant equilibria below; for example, close packeda geometric arrangement whereby a collection
L + a = b + g. of equally sized spheres (atoms) may be packed together in
Class III quaternary equilibriumin a four-component a minimum total volume.
system, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, coefficient of thermal expansionchange in unit of length (or
three of which appear in both of the associated bivariant volume) accompanying a unit change of temperature, at a
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E 7 03
specified temperature. of heterogeneous equilibrium may be described completely;
coalescencegrowth of grains at the expense of the remainder usually an element, or a compound that remains undissoci-
by absorption or the growth of a phase or particle at the ated throughout the range of temperature and pressure
expense of the remainder by absorption or by reprecipitation. concerned.
coarse grainsgrains either larger than normal for the par- compositionthe quantity of each of the components of a
ticular wrought metal or alloy, or grains of such a size that a mixture; usually expressed in terms of the weight percent-
surface roughening, popularly known as orange peel or age, or the atomic percentage of each of the components in
alligator skin, is produced. the mixture.
coherent precipitatea precipitated particle of a second Compton scatteringX-ray scattering by atoms in which the
phase, the lattice of which still maintains registry with the scattered beam has, relative to the incident beam, a longer
matrix lattice. Because the lattice spacings are usually wavelength and a random phase relationship. Also called
different, strains usually exist at the interface. incoherent or modified scattering.
coherent scatteringa kind of X-ray electron scattering in condensed systema pure substance, or mixture, at a pressure
which the phase of the scattered beam has a definite (not and temperature such that the vapor phase does not exist.
random) relation to the phase of the incident beam. Also condensera term applied to lenses or mirrors designed to
called unmodified scattering. collect, control, and concentrate radiation in an illumination
cold-cathode gunan electron gun in which electrons pro- system.
duced in a gas discharge are accelerated through a small condenser aperture See aperture.
aperture in the anode. condenser lensa device used to focus radiation in or near the
cold junctionSee reference junction. plane of the object.
cold junction correction See reference junction correction. congruent transformationan isothermal, or isobaric, phase
cold worked structurea microstructure resulting from plas- change in which both of the phases concerned have the same
tic deformation of a metal or alloy below its recrystallization composition throughout the process; the order of a system
temperature. becomes unary at a composition of congruency.
collimationthe operation of controlling a beam of radiation conjugate phasesthose states of matter of unique composi-
so that its rays are as nearly parallel as possible. tion which coexist at equilibrium at a single point in
collodion replica See replica. temperature and pressure; for example, the two coexisting
color filma photographic film consisting of several emulsion phases of a two-phase equilibrium.
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layers, where the individual layers selectively record various conjugate planestwo planes of an optical system such that
wavelengths of light. one is the image of the other.
color temperaturethe temperature of a blackbody in de- constituenta phase, or combination of phases, which occurs
grees Kelvin (K). In photography, the apparent temperature in a characteristic configuration in an alloy micro-structure.
in K of a luminous source which may be measured by its constitutional diagramgraphical representation of the com-
emission ratio of blue to red light. positions, temperatures, pressures or combinations thereof at
column, electron microscopethe assembly of gun, lenses, which the heterogeneous equilibria of an alloy system occur;
and specimen, viewing and plate chambers. also called phase diagram, or equilibrium diagram.
columnar structurea macro- or microstructure character- continuous phasethe phase forming the matrix or back-
ized by elongated grains whose long axes are parallel, for ground in which other phases may be dispersed as isolated
example, to solidification direction, electroplated direction, units.
etc. continuous spectrum (X-rays)the polychromatic radiation
comparison standarda standard micrograph or a series of given off by the target of an X-ray tube, containing all
micrographs, usually taken at 75 or 100 diameters, or a wavelengths above a certain minimum value called the short
suitable equivalent built into the eyepiece and used to wave length limit.
determine grain size by direct comparison with the image. contrast enhancement (electron optics) an improvement in
compensating eyepieceone designed for use with objectives electron image contrast by the use of an objective aperture
such as apochromats, the lateral chromatic aberration of diaphragm, shadow casting, or other means.
which is undercorrected. contrast perceptionthe ability to differentiate various com-
compensating lead wireswires leading from a thermo- ponents of the object structure by different intensity levels in
couple to the voltage-measuring instrument. These wires the image.
must be of such compositions that they will generate an emf contrast, photographicthe word contrast has been used in
equivalent to the emf generated by the reference junction of many different senses in connection with various photo-
the couple. graphic characteristics; there are different types of photo-
complex silicate inclusionsa general term describing sili- graphic contrast and different methods of measuring it. It is
cate inclusions containing visible constituents besides the frequently used to designate the magnitude of the density
silicate matrix. An example would be corundum or spinel difference resulting from a given exposure difference. (For
crystals occurring in a silicate matrix in steel. another use, see gamma.)
componentone of the independently variable substances by conversion, hardnessthe exchange of a hardness number
means of which the composition of each phase of a system determined by one method for an equivalent hardness

E 7 03
number of a different scale. crystal systemone of seven groups into which all crystals
cooling curvegraphical representation of the course of may be divided; triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, hex-
temperature fall of a chemical mixture as a function of time agonal, rhombohedral, tetragonal, and cubic.
commonly exhibiting more or less abrupt changes of rate at, cube texturea texture found in wrought metals in the cubic
or near, those temperatures at which phase changes begin; system, in which nearly all the crystal grains have a plane of
used in finding the temperatures at which phase changes the type (100) parallel or nearly parallel to the plane of
occur. Occasionally, some property or function other than working and a direction of the type [001] parallel or nearly
time may be used; for example, thermal expansion. parallel to the direction of elongation.
cooling ratethe average slope of the time-temperature curve cubichaving three mutually perpendicular axes of equal
taken over a specified time and temperature interval. length.
core(1) case hardeninginterior portion of unaltered com- cuppingthe condition sometimes occurring in heavily cold
position, or microstructure, or both, of a case-hardened steel worked rods and wires, in which the outside fibers are still
article. intact and the central zone has failed in a series of cup-and-
( 2) clad productsthe central portion of a multilayer cone fractures.
composite metallic material. Curie pointthat temperature above which a substance be-
coringa variable composition between the center and outside comes paramagnetic.
of a unit of structure, (such as a dendrite, grain, carbide curvature of fielda property of a lens that causes the image
particle) resulting from non-equilibrium growth which oc- of a plane to be focused into a curved surface instead of a
curs over a range of temperatures or compositions. plane.
corona shielda smooth, rounded metal covering placed darkfield illuminationthe illumination of an object such
around exposed high-voltage components to prevent electri- that it appears illuminated with the surrounding field dark.
cal discharge. This results from illuminating the object with rays of
countera device for the measurement of radiation intensity sufficient obliquity so that none can enter the objective
by means of an electrical triggering principle (Geiger- directly. As applied to electron microscopy, the image is
Mller). formed using only electrons scattered by the object.
coupler, colora substance capable of reacting with the dashpota hydraulic cylinder device with a controlled leak
oxidation product of a color-forming developer to produce a designed to eliminate impact loading of mechanisms. Hard-
colored dye image. ness testers may employ a dashpot to bring an indenter into
critical curvein a binary, or higher order, phase diagram, a contact with a specimen without impact or other disturbance.
line along which the phases of a heterogeneous equilibrium dead-weight loadinga method of loading in which a weight
become identical. is supported solely by the specimen and has no other
critical pointin a phase diagram, that specific value of mechanical connection to the testing machine. In hardness
composition, temperature, pressure or combinations thereof testing, the weight is supported by the indenter.
at which the phases of a heterogeneous equilibrium become Debye ringa continuous circle, concentric about the unde-
identical. (See also transformation temperature.) viated beam, produced by monochromatic X-ray diffraction
critical pressurethat pressure above which the liquid and from a randomly oriented crystalline powder. An analogous
vapor states are no longer distinguishable. effect is obtained with electron diffraction.
critical surfacein a ternary, or higher order, phase diagram, Debye-Scherrer methoda method of X-ray diffraction em-
the area upon which the phases in equilibrium become ploying monochromatic radiation and a polycrystalline
identical. specimen mounted on the axis of a cylindrical strip of film.
critical temperaturethat temperature above which the va- (See powder method.)
por phase cannot be condensed to liquid by an increase in decarburizationloss of carbon from the surface of a carbon
pressure. containing alloy due to a reaction with one or more chemical
cross directionone of three mutually perpendicular direc- substances in a medium that contacts the surface. Decarbur-
tions used to define a worked material, specifically that ization may be either (1) partial, that is, where carbon
direction in the plane of working which is at right angles to content is less than the unaffected interior but greater than
the direction of maximum elongation. the room temperature solubility limit of carbon in ferrite or
cross gratinga two-dimensional diffraction grating, patterns (2) complete, that is, where carbon content is less than the
from which are similar in the effects produced by diffracted solubility limit of carbon in ferrite so that only ferrite is
electrons from thin flakes and films, and whose theory may present.
therefore be used to explain the latter. deep etchingmacroetching; etching preliminary to macro-
crystala solid composed of atoms, ions, or molecules examination, intended to develop gross features such as
arranged in a pattern which is periodic in three dimensions. segregation, grain flow, cracks or porosity.
crystal analysisa method for determining crystal structure, define (X-rays)limit a beam of X-rays by passage through
for example, the size and shape of the unit cell and the apertures in order to obtain a parallel, divergent, or conver-
location of all atoms within the unit cell. gent beam.
crystallitea crystalline grain not bounded by habit planes. definitionthe clarity or sharpness of a microscopical image.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

E 7 03
deformation bandsbands produced within individual grains the division of a descending liquidus surface valley into two
during cold working which differ variably in orientation descending liquidus-surface valleys.
from the matrix. detected featurein image analysis, an object or constituent
deformation linesthin bands or lines produced in grains of of interest that is isolated for measurement by adjustment of
some metals, particularly those of face-centered cubic struc- the threshold setting to its particular range of gray level.
ture, by cold working; they are not removed by repolishing deviation (X-ray)the angle between the diffracted beam and
and re-etching. the transmitted incident beam. It is equal to twice the Bragg
degree of freedomin heterogeneous equilibrium, an external angle u.
variable that may be adjusted independently without causing devitrificationcrystallization of an amorphous substance.
a change of state; the external variables usually considered dezincificationa type of corrosion found with some copper-
are: temperature, pressure, and concentration parameters zinc alloys which occurs by solution of a small region and
numbering one less than the order of the system. immediate redeposition of the copper in a spongy porous
delta ferritedesignation commonly assigned to delta iron form, thus giving the impression of selective removal of zinc
containing alloying elements in solid solution. Small from the alloy.
amounts of carbon and large amounts of other alloying diagonalin hardness testing, a line joining two opposite
elements markedly affect the high-and-low-temperature limit corners of a diamond pyramid indentation.
of equilibrium. differential curve: ( 1) in thermal analysisa curve result-
delta iron (d Fe)solid phase of pure iron which is stable at ing from the differential method of thermal analysis when
temperatures between 1400 and 1539C and possesses the the difference in temperature (u u8) between a specimen
body-centered cubic lattice. Strictly, there is no difference and a neutral body is plotted against the temperature of the
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
between delta and alpha iron. latter.
denatured alcoholethyl alcohol containing an addition of a (2) in dilatometrya curve produced by plotting against
poisonous substance, making it unfit for human consump- the temperature the difference in changes of length or
tion. volume between a body of known expansivity and a body
dendritescrystals, usually formed during solidification or (specimen) of unknown expansivity.
sublimation, which are characterized by a tree-like pattern differential interference contrast illuminationa micro-
composed of many branches; pine-tree or fir-tree crystals. scopical technique employing a beam-splitting double-
quartz prism; that is a modified Wollaston prism placed
densitometeran instrument which measures the relationship
ahead of the objective with a polarizer and analyzer in the
between incident light and transmitted or reflected light and,
90 crossed positions. The two light beams are made to
using a logarithmic scale, gives a numerical measurement
coincide at the focal plane of the objective, thus rendering
that corresponds to a materials opacity or a films photo-
height differences visible as variations in color. The prism
graphic density.
can be moved, shifting the interference image through the
density (film)transmission density is the common logarithm range of Newtonian colors.
of the ratio of the radiant flux incident on the sample to the
differential thermocoupletwo thermocouples placed in se-
radiant flux transmitted by the sample, assuming no reflec-
ries opposition (bucking).
tion.
diffraction:(1) a modification which radiation undergoes, as
deoxidation productsa term specifically applied to those in passing by the edge of opaque bodies or through narrow
non-metallic inclusions formed as a result of the addition of slits, in which the rays appear to be deflected.
deoxidizing agents to molten metal. (2) coherent scattering of X-radiation by the atoms of a
depletionselective removal of one component of an alloy, crystal which necessarily results in beams in characteristic
usually from the surface or preferentially from grain bound- directions. Sometimes called reflection.
ary regions. (3) the scattering of electrons, by any crystalline material,
depth of fieldthe depth or thickness of the object space that through discrete angles depending only on the lattice spac-
is simultaneously in acceptable focus. ings of the material and the velocity of the electrons.
depth of focusthe depth or thickness of the image space that diffraction gratingan artificially produced periodic array of
is simultaneously in acceptable focus. scattering centers capable of producing a pattern of dif-
derived differential curvethe curve derived from the data fracted energy, such as accurately ruled lines on a plane
obtained by the use of the differential method of thermal surface.
analysis. The changes in the temperature difference D(u diffraction pattern (X-rays)the spatial arrangement and
u8), between a specimen and a neutral body, for a constant relative intensities of diffracted beams.
interval of temperature Du are plotted against the tempera- diffraction ringthe diffraction pattern produced by a given
ture. An arithmetic treatment of the differential data resulting set of planes from randomly oriented crystalline material.
in a plot of D(u u8)/Du versus u. (See differential curve.) (See also Debye ring.)
descending fork pointin a ternary phase diagram, the diffusion-transfer processa rapid photographic process in
configuration at the convergence of the three divariant which a negative image is produced at one location, with
curves upon each of the three high-temperature phases unused imaging materials then diffusing across a thin fluid
associated in Class III univariant equilibrium; for example, layer to produce a positive image on a receptor sheet.

E 7 03
diffusion zonethe zone of viable composition at the junction of a projection such as dirt in or near the electron beam.
between two different materials, such as in welds or between dry objectiveany microscopical objective designed for use
the surface layer and the core of clad materials or bearings, without immersion liquids.
in which interdiffusion between the various components has duplex microstructurea two-phase structure.
taken place. duplex grain sizethe simultaneous presence of two grain
dilatometerthe instrument used in dilatometry for measur- sizes, in substantial amounts, with one grain size appreciably
ing lengths or volume changes. larger than the other. (Synonymous with mixed grain size.)
dilatometrythe measurement of length or volume changes dynamical theorythe explanation of diffraction phenomena
of a substance undergoing a change in temperature, pressure, in terms of dynamical interaction between the incident beam,
or state. See Practice E 80.4 all scattered waves and the crystal lattice, where the latter is
direct printa photographic print of an original negative. treated as a triply periodic field of potential.
discontinuous stringerthree or more Type B or C inclusions dystetic equilibriumsynonymous with eutectoid equilib-
aligned in a plane parallel to the hot working axis and offset rium.
by no more than 15 m with a separation of less than 40 m EberbachSee micro penetration tester.
(0.0016 in.) between the two nearest neighbor inclusions edge anglethe included angle between two opposite edges of
(see Practices E 45 and E 1122). a hardness indenter.
disordered structurethe crystal structure of a solid solution elastic electron scatterthe scatter of electrons by an object
in which the atoms of different elements are randomly without loss of energy, usually an interaction between
distributed with respect to the available lattice sites. electrons and atoms.
dispersoidin metallography, finely divided particles of rela- elastic recoveryin hardness testing, the shortening of the
tively insoluble constituents which can be seen in the original dimensions of the indentation upon release of the
microstructure of certain alloys. applied load.
dissociationas applied to heterogeneous equilibria, the electrolytic extraction See extraction.
transformation of one phase into two, or more, new phases, electrolytic polishinga metallographic preparation proce-
all of different composition. dure where metal is preferentially dissolved from high points
dissociation pressureat a designated temperature, the pres- on an anodic surface by passage of an electric current
sure at which a phase will transform into two, or more new through a conductive bath, to produce a specular reflecting
phases, of different composition. surface. Used as an alternative to mechanical polishing.
distortionan aberration of lens systems where axial and electromagnetic focusing deviceSee focusing device.
marginal magnifications are unequal.
electromagnetic lensan electromagnet designed to produce
( 1)barrel distortionthe distortion in the image which
a suitably shaped magnetic field for the focusing and
occurs when the magnification of the image in the center of
deflection of electrons or other charged particles in electron-
the field is greater than in the edge of the field. This is also
optical instrumentation.
called negative distortion.
electrona subatomic particle having a negative charge of
(2) pincushion distortionthe distortion in the image
4.8025 3 1010 esu, and a charge-to-mass ratio or specific
which results when the magnification in the center of the
charge of 5.2737 6 0.0015 3 10 17 esu/g.
field is less than it is at the edge of the field. This is also
called positive distortion. electron beama stream of electrons in an electron optical
system.
divorced eutectica structure in which the components of an
eutectic appear to be entirely separate. electron diffractionthe phenomenon, or the technique of
double boiling systema series of mixtures characterized by producing diffraction patterns through the incidence of
the vaporization of a liquid phase in one temperature (or electrons upon matter.
pressure) range and the vaporization of another liquid phase electron guna device for producing and accelerating a beam
within another temperature (or pressure) range; for example, of electrons.
a salt and water mixture which boils with the expulsion of electron imagea representation of an object formed by a
water at moderately elevated temperature and then at higher beam of electrons focused by an electron optical system (See
temperature the molten salt itself boils to produce salt vapor. image.)
double melting systema series of mixtures which, with electron lensa device for focusing an electron beam to
rising temperature, first develops a liquid phase that is totally produce an image of an object.
converted to vapor before a second liquid phase appears; for electron micrographa reproduction of an image formed by
example, a salt and water mixture which, upon heating, first the action of an electron beam on a photographic emulsion.
melts to an aqueous solution of the salt, the water then boils electron microscopythe study of materials by means of the
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
away and the salt residue itself melts. electron microscope.

doublet (in characteristic X-ray spectra) a separation of electron microscopy impressionSee impression.
characteristic radiation into subspecies of slightly different electron optical axisthe path of an electron through an
wavelength. electron optical system along which it suffers no deflection
driftin electron optics, motion of the electron beam or image due to lens fields. This axis does not necessarily coincide
due to current, voltage or specimen instabilities or charging with the mechanical axis of the system.

E 7 03
electron optical systema combination of parts capable of time interval during which the heat of transformation from
producing and controlling a beam of electrons to produce an the liquid phase to two or more conjugate solid phases is
image of an object. being evolved, (or conversely).
electron opticsthe science that deals with the propagation of eutectic carbidesin hypereutectic tool steels, the skeleton-
electrons, as light optics deals with that of light and its like structure of the eutectic carbide.
phenomena. eutectic colony, graina two-phase region which solidified
electron probea narrow beam of electrons used to scan or progressively from a simple center and, therefore, has some
illuminate an object or screen. uniformity of structural relationship.
electron trajectorythe path of an electron. eutectic equilibriuma reversible univariant transformation
electron velocitythe rate of motion of an electron. in which a liquid, that is stable only at superior temperature,
electron wavelengththe wavelength necessary to account decomposes into two or more conjugate solid phases; for
for the deviation of electron rays in crystals by wave example, L = a + b, L = a + b + g, etc.
diffraction theory. It is numerically equal to the quotient of eutectic pointthe composition of a liquid phase that is in
Plancks constant divided by the electron momentum. This is univariant equilibrium with two or more solid phases; the
approximately l = (12.3/V) A., where V = the accelerating lowest melting alloy of a composition series.
potential in volts. eutectic structurethe structure resulting when an alloy has
electrostatic focusing deviceSee focusing device. passed through a eutectic equilibrium upon freezing.
electrostatic immersion lensSee immersion objective eutectoid equilibriuma reversible univariant transformation
electrostatic lensa lens producing a potential field capable in which one solid phase, that is stable only at superior
of deflecting electron rays to form an image of an object. temperature, decomposes into two or more conjugate solid
elongated graina grain with one principal axis significantly phases; for example, a = b + g, a = b + g + d, etc.
longer than either of the other two. eutectoid pointthe composition of a solid phase which,
emission microscopea type of electron microscope in which upon cooling, undergoes univariant transformation into two,
the specimen is the cathode source of the electrons. Some- or more, other solid phases.
times used synonymously with shadow microscope.
eutectoid reaction See eutectoid equilibrium.
enantiotropic transformationa reversible metastable phase
eutectoid structurethe microstructure resulting when an
change; for example, the freezing of sulfur directly to the
alloy has passed through an eutectoid equilibrium upon
rhombic phase, or the direct melting of the latter, without
cooling.
passing through the stable intermediate monoclinic phase.
end-centeredhaving an atom (or group of atoms) separated evaporationthe vaporization of a material by heating it,
by a translation of the type 12 , 12 , 0 from a similar atom (or usually in a vacuum. In electron microscopy this process is
group of atoms). The number of atoms in an end-centered used for shadowing or to produce thin support films by
cell must be a multiple of two. condensation of the vapors of metals or salts.
epsilon (e)designation generally assigned to intermetallic, Ewald spherea geometric construction, of radius equal to
metal-metalloid, and metal-nonmetallic compounds found in the reciprocal of the wavelength of the incident radiation,
ferrous alloy systems (for example, Fe3Mo 2, FeSi, Fe 3P). with its surface at the origin of the reciprocal lattice. Any
epsilon carbidecarbide with hexagonal close-packed lattice crystal plane will reflect if the corresponding reciprocal
which precipitates during the first stage of tempering of lattice point lies on the surface of this sphere.
primary martensite. Its composition corresponds to the excitation potentialthe applied potential on an X-ray tube
empirical formula Fe2.4C. required to produce characteristic radiation from the target.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
epsilon structurestructurally analogous close-packed exogenous inclusiona nonmetallic constituent produced by

phases (similar to epsilon brass), or electron compounds, that entrapment of foreign material in the melt. (See inclusions.)
have ratios of 7 valence electrons to 4 atoms. expansion curve, thermalthe curve produced by plotting a
equiaxed graina polygonal crystallite, in an aggregate, dimension or the volume of a substance versus the tempera-
whose dimensions are approximately the same in all direc- ture.
tions. exposure:(1) The act of submitting material to radiation to
equilibriuma state of dynamic balance between the oppos- which it is sensitive.
ing actions, reactions, or velocities of a reversible process. (2) the quantitative measure of exposure as a function of
equilibrium diagram See constitutional diagram. intensity and time of the radiation (often the product of I 3
etch figuresmarkings formed on a crystal surface by etching t) falling on a sensitive material.
or chemical solution and usually related geometrically to the (3) X-raythe product of X-ray intensity and time.
crystal structure. exposure indexthe rating of a film for use in connection
etchingcontrolled preferential attack on a metal surface for with exposure tables, exposure computers, and exposure
the purpose of revealing structural details. meters. (See also sensitivity.)
eutectic alloythe alloy which has the composition of the exposure scalein a photographic process, the range of
eutectic point. exposure over which substantially correct reproduction is
eutectic arrestin a cooling curve (or heating curve) an obtained. This is measured by the ratio of the exposure
approximately isothermal segment, corresponding to the corresponding to the minimum useful gradient at the high

E 7 03
exposure end of the scale to that corresponding to the fieldthe portion of the object in view.
minimum useful gradient at the low exposure end. field lensthe lens nearest the field diaphragm in an eyepiece.
extension lead wireswires leading from a thermocouple to field measurement, in image analysisthe aggregate mea-
the voltage-measuring instrument. These wires should have surement of the detected features in a field of view.
the same temperature-emf relationship as the thermocouple filamentan electrically heated wire used as a source of a
wires. radiation, such as electrons, or as a source of heat, such as in
extinctiona decrease in the intensity of the diffracted beam the vaporization of a metal.
caused by perfection or near perfection of crystal structure. filar micrometer or filar eyepiecean eyepiece equipped
(See also primary extinction and secondary extinction.) with a fiducial line in its focal plane, which is movable by
extinction coefficientthe ratio of the diffracted beam inten- means of a calibrated micrometer screw, in order to make
sity when extinction is present to the diffracted beam accurate measurements of length.
intensity when extinction is absent. It is applicable to either film cassetteSee cassette.
primary or secondary extinction. filtera device which modifies the light coming from the light
extractiona general term concerning chemical methods of source either chromatically or with regard to intensity.
isolating phases from the metal matrix. (1) colora device which transmits principally a prede-
( 1)acid extractionremoval of phases by dissolution of termined range of wavelengths.
the matrix metal in an acid. (2) contrasta color filter, usually with strong absorption,
( 2)chlorine extractionremoval by formation of a vola- whose function is to utilize the spectral absorption bands of
tile chloride. the subject to control the contrast of the image by exagger-
(3) electrolytic extractionremoval by using an electro- ating or diminishing the brightness difference between areas
lytic cell containing an electrolyte which preferentially of different color. Maximum contrast is obtained when the
dissolves the metal matrix. transmission of the filter is entirely within the absorption
eye clearancethe distance from the back lens of an eyepiece band of an area but not of its surroundings.
to the proper location of the viewers eye, typically about 8 (3) interferencea combination of several thin optical
mm (about 20 mm for high eyepoint eyepieces which permit films to form a layered coating for transmitting or reflecting
the use of eyeglasses). a narrow band of wavelengths by virtue of interference
eye lensthe lens in an eyepiece nearest to the eye. effects.
eyepiecethe lens system used in an optical instrument for (4) neutral(a) a color filter that reduces the intensity of
magnification of the image formed by the objective. the transmitted illumination without affecting its hue.
eyepiece micrometer See ocular micrometer. ( b) a color filter having identical transmission at all
face anglethe included dihedral angle between two opposite wavelengths throughout the spectrum. Such an ideal filter
faces of an indenter. does not exist in practice.
face-centeredhaving atoms (or groups of atoms) separated (5) orthochromatica color filter whose function is to
by translations of 12 , 12 , 0; 12 , 0, 12; and 0, 12 , 12 from a modify the illumination quality reaching the film so that the
similar atom (or group of atoms). The number of atoms in a brightness of colored objects will be relatively the same in
face-centered cell must be a multiple of four. the resultant black-and-white positive.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
face (crystal)an idiomorphic plane surface on a crystal. (6) photometrica color filter whose function is to
family (of crystal planes)the planes in any one crystal that convert the quality of illumination from that of one source to
have common Miller indices, regardless of sign. that of another. Most frequently the term is used for a filter
feature-specific measurement, nan individual measurement altering the illumination quality from that of one color
of each detected feature in the field of view. temperature to that of another.
Ferets diameterSee caliper diameter. ( 7) X-Raya material that preferentially absorbs certain
ferritedesignation commonly assigned to alpha iron contain- wavelengths.
ing alloying elements in solid solution. Increasing carbon fire crackcracking, frequently intergranular in nature, that
content markedly decreases the high-temperature limit of occurs in some metallic materials when too rapidly heated or
equilibrium. when stressed and heated rapidly. Not to be confused with
ferrite grain sizethe grain size of the ferrite in predomi- quench crack.
nantly ferritic steels. See Test Methods E 112. fire scalecopper oxide subscale formed just under the
ferritizing annealthe process of producing a predominantly surface of silver-copper alloys when they are annealed in air.
ferritic matrix in a ferrous alloy through an appropriate heat flakesin wrought ferrous products, flakes appear as short
treatment. discontinuous internal cracks attributed to stresses produced
fiber (fibre)a structural feature of wrought metal revealed by by localized transformation and hydrogen solubility effects
directional properties, manifested by the appearance of an during cooling after hot working. They appear in a fracture
etched longitudinal section, by the appearance of a fracture, surface as bright silvery areas with a coarse texture. In deep
or by an X-ray pattern of crystal orientations. acid-etched transverse section they appear as discontinuities
fiber-axisthe preferred direction of fiber texture. which are usually located in the midway to center location of
fiber texturea texture characterized by having only one the section. Known also as shatter cracks and hairline cracks.
preferred crystallographic direction. flatness of fielda qualitative term describing how well the

E 7 03
image of a planar specimen is reproduced as a plane in the steel, a fully martensitic specimen is generally used and the
image field. (See curvature of field.) depth of hardening as well as the prior austenitic grain size
flexure plate pivota type of pivot or hinge in which the is determined.
motion occurs through the bending of a thin elastic plate. fracture test: (1) generalthe production of a fracture in a
flicker method, in image analysis the procedure of alternat- metal sample to determine such things as discontinuities,
ing between the live video image and the detected image grain size, and composition.
while altering the gray-level threshold range to establish the (2) steela test which utilizes a hardened steel disk
optimum discrimination and detection. section prepared from billet or bar stock which is fractured
flow linesa fiber pattern, frequently observed in wrought parallel to the grain flow so that, among other things,
metal, which indicates the manner in which the metal flowed discontinuities due to inclusion segregates can be detected
during deformation. visually.
fluorescent screena sheet of material which emits visible free-energy diagrama graphical representation of the varia-
light when exposed to invisible radiation. tion with concentration of the Gibbs Free Energy, at constant
fluorescent X-rays (fluorescent analysis) characteristic pressure and temperature.
X-rays excited by radiation of wavelength shorter than the free-energy surfacein a ternary, or higher order, free energy
corresponding absorption edge. diagram, the locus of points representing the Gibbs Free
focal lengththe distance from the second principal point to Energy as a function of concentration, with pressure and
the point on the axis where parallel rays entering the lens temperature constant.
will converge or focus. freezing pointSee melting point.
focal spotthat area on the target of an X-ray tube which is frequency factorSee multiplicity factor.
bombarded by electrons.
frequency (X-ray)the number of alternations per second of
focusa point at which rays originating from a point in the
the electric vector of the X-ray beam. It is equal to the
object converge or from which they diverge or appear to
velocity divided by the wavelength.
diverge under the influence of a lens or diffracting system.
focusing (X-rays)the operation of producing a convergent Fresnel fringesa class of diffraction fringes formed when
beam in which all rays meet in a point or line. the source of illumination and the viewing screen are at a
focusing camera (X-rays)a diffraction camera in which the finite distance from a diffracting edge. In the electron
X-ray source of a divergent X-ray beam, specimen (poly- microscope these fringes are best seen when the object is
crystalline) and film all lie on one circle, which results in the slightly out of focus.
diffracted beams all being focused on the film. gamma (photography)the tangent of the angle which the
focusing device (electrons)a device which effectively in- straight-line part of the characteristic curve makes with the
creases the angular aperture of the electron beam illuminat- log exposure axis and in a photographic film or plate is a
ing the object, rendering the focusing more critical. measure of the extent of development.
focusing magnifier: ( 1)a low-power microscope, telescope gamma iron (g Fe)solid nonmagnetic phase of pure iron
or simple lens used to observe the electron image formed on which is stable at temperatures between 910 and 1400C and
a fluorescent screen. possesses the face-centered cubic lattice.
(2) a magnifying lens mounted so that its focal plane is gas holesblow holes, channels, or porosity produced by gas
coincident with its base, used to obtain a sharp focus in the evolution, usually during solidification.
plane of the sensitive material in a camera. gatea valve placed in a vacuum system to facilitate the
foila thin sheet of a material, usually a metal, not exceeding isolation of a selected section of the system.
0.005 in. in thickness. Geiger-Mller counterSee counter.
foldsdefects in metal, usually on or near the surface, caused
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gelatin replicaSee replica.

by continued fabrication of overlapping surfaces.
general precipitatea precipitate which is dispersed through-
forged structurethe macrostructure through a suitable sec- out the matrix.
tion of a forging which reveals direction of working.
Gibbs free energythe maximum useful work that can be
forma set of equivalent planes in a crystal. In general, they
obtained from a chemical system without net change in
will have the same spacing but different Miller indices. For
temperature or pressure; DF = DH TDS.
example, in the cubic system, the planes (101), (110), (011),
etc. are planes of the form (110). In the tetragonal system, Gibbs trianglean equilateral triangle, used for plotting
however, the planes (101) and (110) belong to different composition in a ternary system.
forms. Equivalent directions are also spoken of as directions glancing anglethe angle (usually small) between an incident
of a form. X-ray beam and the surface of the specimen.
Formvara plastic material used for the preparation of gnomonic projectiona projection in which the orientation of
replicas, or specimen supporting membranes. Trade name a crystal plane at the center of the unit sphere is represented
for poly(vinyl formal) 15/95. by the point where the plane normal intersects the plane of
Formvar replicaSee replica. projection which is tangent to the unit sphere at the zenith.
fracture grain sizegrain size determined by comparing a goniometeran instrument devised for measuring the angle
fracture of a specimen with a set of standard fractures. For through which a specimen is rotated.

E 7 03
gradient furnacea furnace within which a known tempera- guard regionin video based automatic image analysis, that
ture gradient is maintained between the two ends. Some- portion of the imaged area between the guard (active) frame
times known as a Rosenhain Furnace. and the image frame which is employed in a variety of ways
grainan individual crystallite in metals. to eliminate sizing errors of features that intersect the guard
grain boundaryan interface separating two grains, where frame.
the orientation of the lattice changes from that of one grain Guinier-Preston streakan elongated spot on the Laue
to that of the other. When the orientation change is very pattern from a single crystal which first appears during age
small the boundary is sometimes referred to as a subbound- hardening.
ary. Guinier-Preston zonesthose regions of a crystal which give
grain growthan increase in the grain size of a metal usually rise to Guinier-Preston streaks.
as a result of heating at an elevated temperature. H and D curveSee characteristic curve.
grain sizethe dimensions of the grains or crystals in a habit planecrystallographic plane in a parent phase along
polycrystalline metal exclusive of twinned regions and which a new phase (or phases) is (are) generated.
subgrains when present. Grain size is usually estimated or hard (X-rays)of short wavelength.
measured on the cross section of an aggregate of grains. hardness impressionSee impression.
Common units are: (1) average diameter, (2) average area, heating curvegraphical representation of the course of
(3) number of grains per linear unit, (4) number of grains per temperature rise of a sample or body as a function of time.
unit area, and (5) number of grains per unit volume. See Test heterogeneousnon-uniform in microstructure or composi-
Methods E 112. tion.
(1) ASTM grain size numbera grain size designation heterogeneous equilibriumin a chemical system, a state of
bearing a relationship to average intercept distance at 100 dynamic balance amongst two or more homogeneous phases
diameters magnification according to the equation: G which are capable of stable coexistence in mutual or
= ASTM grain size number = 10.0 2 log2 L, where L is the sequential contact.
average intercept distance in millimetres at 100 magnifica- hexagonal (concerning lattices for crystals)Having two
tion. equal coplanar axes, a1 and a2, at 120 deg to each other and
(2) average grain diameterthe mean diameter of an a third axis, c, at right angles to the other two; c may or may
equiaxed grain section whose size is representative of all the not be equal to a1 and a2.
grain sections in the aggregate being measured. hexagonal close packed:(1) a structure containing two
grain size comparison eyepiecean eyepiece provided with atoms per unit cell located at (0, 0, 0) and (13 , 23 , 12 ) (or
calibrated patterns representing a series of standard sizes of 23 , 13 , 12 ).
grains. The eyepiece must be used at a total magnification (2) one of the two ways in which spherical objects can be
for which the patterns have been calibrated. most closely packed together, such that the close-packed
graphite, flakean irregularly shaped body, usually appearing planes are alternately staggered in the order A-B-A-B-A-B.
as long curved plates of graphitic carbon such as found in Heyn methodan intercept method for determining grain
gray cast irons. size. See Test Methods E 112.
graticulea scale on glass or other transparent material placed Homal eyepieceSee amplifier.
in the eyepiece or at an intermediate plane on the optic axis homogeneous (radiation) (monochromatic)of the same
of a light microscope for the location and measurement of wavelength.
objects (a graticule is different than a reticle, see reticle). hot cathodea heated element of a vacuum enclosed electri-
gray level, in image analysisa specific neutral color value cal system emitting electrons thermionically. It is maintained
existing within the range from black to white. at a potential negative with respect to a second element to
grindingthe removal of material from the surface of a accelerate the emitted electrons.
specimen by abrasion through the use of randomly oriented hot junctionSee measuring junction.
hard-abrasive particles bonded to a suitable substrate, such hot worked structurethe structure of a material worked at a
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
as paper or cloth, where the abrasive particle size is temperature higher than the recrystallization temperature.
generally in the range of 60 to 600 grit (approximately 150 Hull-Davey chartscharts for indexing the lines of powder
to 15 m) but may be finer. patterns on which a function of the interplanar spacing of the
ground-glass focusing screena glass screen, one side of Bragg angle is plotted against the axial ratio for a number of
which is ground or made diffusing and mounted for use in a different lattice planes.
camera, in place of photosensitive material, for the purpose Hull method ( for X-ray crystal analysis)See Debye-
of intercepting, viewing, and focusing a real image formed Scherrer method.
on it. Huygens eyepiecean achromatic eyepiece invented by Huy-
guard framein video-based automatic image analysis, an gens and consisting of a plano-convex eyelens and a
internal border, smaller than the monitor image frame, used plano-convex collective, between which is a field dia-
to restrict the measurement area and thus eliminate errors in phragm.
sizing features that interesect the measurement area border hypereutectic alloyany composition between the eutectic
when used in conjunction with specific feature selection point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into
rules (also called the active frame). which the eutectic liquid decomposes, which is considered

E 7 03
the less important; thus, the identification of the hypereutec- after the application of pressure and heat, or both.
tic range, as distinguished from the hypoeutectic range, is a (2) hardnessthe imprint or dent made in the specimen
matter either of personal preference, or a common usage for by the indenter of a hardness-measuring device.
each alloy system. impression replicaSee replica.
hypereutectoid alloyany composition between the eutectoid inclusion countdetermination of the number, kind, size, and
point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into distribution of non-metallic inclusions. See Practice E 45.
which the eutectoid solid phase decomposes, which is inclusionsforeign material held mechanically, usually refer-
considered the less important; for the meaning of impor- ring to non-metallic particles, such as oxides, sulfides,
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tant, see hypereutectic alloy. silicates, etc.

hypereutectoid structurethe microstructure of a hypereu- incoherent electron scatterthe deflection of electrons by
tectoid alloy. For example, microstructural aggregate found either electrons or atoms which results in a loss of kinetic
in iron-carbon alloys which consist of primary crystals of energy by the incident electron.
cementite together with nodules of pearlite. incongruent transformationa nonisothermal, or noniso-
hypoeutectic alloyany composition between the eutectic baric, phase change in which one, or both, of the phases
point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into involved undergo composition change during the process.
which the eutectic liquid decomposes, which is considered indentSee impression.
the more important; for the meaning of important, see indentationSee impression.
hypereutectic alloy. indenterin hardness testing, a tool, usually of diamond and
hypoeutectoid alloyany composition between the eutectoid having a definite geometrical shape, which is forced into the
point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into surface of the specimen.
which the eutectoid solid phase decomposes, which is indenter constantin hardness testing, a numerical constant
considered the more important; for the meaning of impor- relating the area of the indentation to the square of the
tant, see hypereutectic alloy. measured diagonal.
hypoeutectoid structurethe microstructure of a hypoeutec- indifferent pointin a phase diagram, a maximum point, or
toid alloy. For example, the microstructural aggregate found minimum point, that is, a composition and temperature, or
in iron-carbon alloys which consist of primary crystals of pressure, at which congruent transformation occurs.
ferrite together with nodules of pearlite. indigenous (endogenous) inclusiona nonmetallic material
identity periodthe distance between equivalent points in that precipitates from the melt. (See inclusions.)
adjacent unit cells, usually measured in a direction parallel to inertial loadingSee impact loading.
a crystal axis. inflection pointposition on a curved line, such as a phase
idiomorphic crystalsingle crystals that have grown without boundary, where the direction of curvature is reversed.
restraint so that the habit planes are clearly developed. infraredinvisible light and heat radiation, adjacent to the red
illuminationSee brightfield, conical, darkfield, polarized end of the visible spectrum, with wavelengths from 700 to
light. about 3000 nm (nanometres).
imagea representation of an object produced by means of ingotcast metal in a form intended for subsequent fabrica-
radiation, usually with a lens or mirror system. tion.
image processing, in image analysisthe computer modifi- ingot scumslag, dross, or oxidation appearing on the top
cation of a digitized image on a pixel-by-pixel basis to surface of ingots during pouring, which, when entrapped, is
emphasize or de-emphasize certain aspects of the image. a source of inclusions.
image rotationin electron optics, the angular shift of the indicesSee Miller indices.
electron image of an object about the optic axis induced by indigenous inclusionsSee deoxidation products.
the tangential component of force exerted on the electrons inelastic electron scatterSee incoherent electron scatter.
perpendicular to the direction of motion in the field of a instantaneous coeffcient of thermal expansionSee coeffi-
magnetic lens. cient of thermal expansion.
immersion lensSee immersion objective. integral tripackSee color film: monopack.
immersion objectivean objective in which a medium of integrating cameraA diffraction camera in which the speci-
high refractive index is used in the object space to increase men is moved relative to the incident beam in order to cause
the numerical aperture and hence the resolving power of the diffraction to occur from an extended area of the specimen
lens. surface.
immersion objective (electron optics)a lens system in intensifying screena sheet of a substance which emits
which the object space is at a potential (or in a medium of visible light or X-rays or photoelectrons, or combinations of
index of refraction) different from that of the image space. these, under the action of X-rays, thus enhancing the
impact loadingin hardness testing, a phenomenon in which darkening of a film placed in contact with it.
a momentary overload is inadvertently applied to the in- intensity (X-rays)the energy per unit of time of a beam per
denter by the inertia of parts of the tester subjected to large unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
accelerations. intensity of scatteringthe energy per unit time per unit area
impression: (1) electron microscopythe reproduction of the of the general radiation which is diffracted by matter. Its
surface contours of a specimen formed in a plastic material value depends upon the scattering power of the individual

E 7 03
atoms of the material, upon the scattering angle, and upon inverted microscopea microscope so arranged that the line
the wavelength of the radiation. of sight is directed upwards through the objective to the
intercept methodSee Heyn method. object.
interception countthe number of particles (or clusters of ionization chambera device for the measurement of radia-
particles) of a phase or constituent of interest that are crossed tion intensity by means of determining the degree to which
by the lines of a test grid. the radiation ionizes a gas.
intercrystalline crackscracks or fractures that occur be- ionization methoda method of X-ray diffraction in which
tween the grains or crystals in a polycrystalline aggregate. the intensity of the diffracted beam is measured by means of
interdendriticlocated within the branches of a dendrite or an ionization chamber.
between the boundaries of two or more dendrites. ionization vacuum gagean indicating device used in
interdendritic porosityvoids occurring between the den- vacuum systems to determine the pressure of the residual gas
drites in cast metal. in a system by measuring the positive ion current produced
interferencethe effect of a combination of wave trains of in the process of ionization in an electrical field.
various phases and amplitudes. isobarsection, at constant pressure through a phase diagram.
intergranular corrosiona preferential attack at the grain isochorin a phase diagram, a section, or contour, at constant
boundaries. volume.
intermediary planeany plane in a microscope where a real isometrica crystal form in which the unit dimension on all
image of a specimen is formed. Reticles can be inserted at three axes is the same.
intermediary planes for superposition on the image. isomorphoushaving the same crystal structure; usually re-
intermediate imageany image of an object formed by a lens ferring to intermediate phases which form a continuous
other than the final projector lens. series of solid solutions.
intermediate phasein a chemical system, a distinguishable isomorphous systema complete series of mixtures in all
homogeneous substance whose composition range of exist- proportions of two, or more, components, wherein unlimited
ence does not extend to any of the pure components of the mutual solubility exists in both the liquid and solid states.
system. isoplethin a ternary, or higher order, temperature-
intermetallic phasescompounds, or intermediate solid solu- concentration, or pressure-concentration, phase diagram, a
tions, containing two or more metals, which usually have (vertical) two-dimensional section, having a linear compo-
characteristic properties and crystal structures different from sition series along one axis and temperature, or pressure,
those of the pure metals or the terminal solid solutions. along the other axis.
internal oxidationpreferential oxidation of certain compo- isothermsection, at constant temperature, through a phase
nents or phases within the bulk of a solid metal. diagram.
internal seamSee stepdown test.
isotropichaving the same value for a property in all direc-
interplanar distancethe perpendicular distance between
tions.
adjacent parallel lattice planes.
isotropythe condition of having the same values of proper-
interpupillary distancespacing between the pupils of the
ties in all directions.
eyes; eyepieces on binocular microscopes should be set at
this distance for comfortable and accurate viewing. Jeffries methoda method for determining grain size based
on counting grains in a prescribed area. See Test Methods
intersection countthe number of boundaries between the
E 112.
matrix phase and the phase or constituent of interest that are
crossed by the lines of a test grid. For isolated particles in a Jeffries multipliera factor used in the Jeffries method for
matrix, the number of feature intersections will equal twice grain size determinations. See Test Methods E 112.
the number of feature interceptions. K radiationcharacteristic X-rays produced by an atom when
intracrystalline crackingSee transcrystalline cracking. a vacancy in the K shell is filled by one of the outer
invariant equilibriuma stable state amongst a number of electrons.
phases exceeding by two the number of components in the K seriesthe set of X-ray wavelengths making up K radiation.
system and in which more of the external variables (pres- Kellner eyepiecea positive eyepiece consisting of an achro-
sure, temperature, or concentrations) may be varied without matic eyelens and a single collective, in which the image
causing a decrease in the number of phases present. plane and field diaphragm is external and near the collective.
invariant pointa point defined by the unique values of Kikuchi lineslight and dark lines superimposed on the
temperature, pressure, and concentrations in a system with background of a single crystal electron diffraction pattern
the maximum number phases which can coexist in equilib- caused by diffraction of diffusely scattered electrons within
rium. the crystal.
inverse rate curvein thermal analysis, the curve that is knife edge pivota type of pivot or hinge in which the motion
obtained when the length of time required by the specimen occurs through the rotation of a knife edge resting on a plane
to pass through successive and constant intervals of tem- or a vee notch.
perature is plotted against the temperature. KnoopSee micro penetration tester. In a more restricted
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inverse segregationa concentration of low melting constitu- sense, a type of diamond hardness indenter having edge
ents in those regions in which solidification first occurs. angles of 172 30 min, and 130.

E 7 03
Knudsen vacuum gagean absolute manometer based on the reaction takes place which opposes the constraint, that is,
principle of the transfer of momentum from a hot to a cold one by which its effect is partially annulled.
surface by gas molecules as in a radiometer. ledeburiteintimate mixture of austenite and cementite in
Koehler illuminationa specular illumination system. In metastable equilibrium, formed on rapid cooling during the
reflected-light microscopy, used directly for the brightfield eutectic reaction in alloys of iron and carbon containing
mode, and as a preliminary setup for all other modes except greater than 2 percent but less than 6.67 percent carbon.
darkfield. The image of the field diaphragm is focused on the Further slow cooling causes decomposition of the austenite
specimen surface and the image of an undiffused lamp into ferrite and cementite (pearlite) as a result of the
source is focused in the plane of the aperture diaphragm. eutectoid reaction.
Konowalows lawthe vapor of a binary mixture contains the lever principlein a phase diagram, the relative proportions
larger proportion of that component, which, upon addition to of the conjugate phases, at a stated value of temperature and
the liquid, will raise its vapor pressure. pressure, or both, is such that a state of mechanical balance
laminationimperfection in flat products resulting from the would obtain, if the corresponding weight of each phase
presence of voids or inclusions aligned approximately par- were placed upon its composition point upon the tie-element
allel to the worked surface. (tie-line, tie-triangle, etc.) and the fulcrum were located at
lap(1) a surface imperfection on worked metal caused by the gross composition point of the mixture.
folding over a fin overfill, or similar surface condition and lightfield illuminationSee brightfield illumination.
then impressing this into the surface by subsequent working light filterSee color filter.
without welding it. limited solid solutiona crystalline miscibility series whose
(2) A flat surface which holds an abrasive for polishing composition range does not extend all the way between the
operations. components of the system, that is, the system is not
lappingthe abrasive removal of material using graded abra- isomorphous.
sive particles in a loose form as in a liquid slurry on a platen. line (in X-ray diffraction patterns)an array of small
latitudewhen the photographic process is represented by an diffraction spots so arranged that they appear to form a
H and D curve, the latitude is the projection on the exposure continuous line on the film.
axis of that part of the curve which approximates a straight lineage structureorientation deviations, of the order of
line within the tolerance permitted for the purpose at hand. minutes or a few degrees at most, from perfect alignment of
lattice(1) a space lattice is a set of equal and adjoining the crystal axes of parallel arms of a dendrite.
parallelopipeds formed by dividing up space by three sets of linear magnificationSee magnification.
parallel planes, the planes in any one set being equally line focus (in X-ray tubes)a long-narrow focal spot.
spaced. There are seven ways of so dividing space, corre- line indicesthe Miller indices of the set of planes producing
sponding to the seven crystal systems. The unit paral- a diffraction line.
lelopiped is usually chosen as the unit cell of the system. liquidusthe locus of points in a phase diagram, representing
(2) a point lattice is a set of points in space so located that the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each
each point has identical surroundings. There are fourteen composition in the system begins to freeze during cooling, or
ways of so arranging points in space, corresponding to the 14 completes melting during heating.
Bravais lattices. live fieldin video-based automatic image analysis, the vis-
lattice parameterthe term is used for the fractional coordi- ible, real-time gray level image from the television camera.
nates x, y, z of lattice points when these are variable. Also longitudinal directionthat direction which is parallel to the
used to indicate the lengths of the axes a, b, c, and their direction of maximum elongation in a worked material. (See
included angles a, b, g. also cross direction).
Laue equationsthe three simultaneous equations which lota unit of material processed at one time and subjected to
state the conditions which must be met for diffraction from similar processing variables.
a three-dimensional network of diffraction centers. lower critical pointin a phase diagram, a specified value of
Laue method (for crystal analysis)a method of X-ray composition, temperature and pressure or combinations
diffraction employing a beam of white radiation, a fixed thereof occurring as a minimum in temperature, or pressure,
single crystal specimen and a flat photographic film usually for the coexistence of two, or more, conjugate phases and at
normal to the incident beam. If the film is located on the which the conjugate phases become identical.
same side of the specimen as the X-ray source, the method low reflecting coatinga dielectric coating applied to an
is known as the back reflection Laue method, if on the other air-glass surface to reduce light reflection to a minimum.
side as the transmission Laue method. L-radiationcharacteristic X-rays produced by an atom when
layer latticea type of structure found in crystals which tend a vacancy in the L-shell is filled by one of the outer
to form in thin sheets. electrons.
leadedcharacteristic of a metallic body containing metallic L-seriesthe set of X-ray wavelengths making up L-radiation.
lead in dispersed form. Lders linesmarkings which appear on the surface of
Le Chateliers theoremif a system in equilibrium is sub- metals stretched past the yield point. The markings are
jected to a constraint by which the equilibrium is altered, a approximately parallel to the direction of maximum shear
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

E 7 03
stress and essentially independent of crystal orientation; also cooling. See Test Methods E 112.
called stretcher strains, flow figures, Hartmann lines. measurement uncertaintyan estimate of potential inaccu-
macroetchcontrolled etching of the surface of a metallic racies in a measured or derived quantity based on explicit
specimen, intended to reveal a structure which is visible at evaluation and combination of all sources of errors. Note -
low magnifications (not usually greater than 10 times). Quantitative uncertainty estimates are typically given in the
macrographa graphic reproduction of an object, slightly form of variances (or standard deviations) and covariances
reduced in size, unmagnified, or magnified ten diameters or (or correlations) derived from statistical procedures combin-
less (photomacrograph). ing random, systematic, and calculational (modeling) uncer-
magnetic alignmentSee alignment. tainties.
magnetic lensa device for focussing an electron beam by measuring junctionthe junction of a thermocouple placed at
means of a magnetic field. a location where an unknown temperature is to be measured
magnetic shieldingin electron microscopy, shielding for the or where an established temperature is to be maintained.
purpose of preventing extraneous magnetic fields from When the measuring junction is at a higher temperature than
affecting the electron beam in the microscope. the reference junction it is commonly called the hot junction.
magnetic transformationan intensive property change mechanical alignment See alignment.
from a ferromagnetic to a paramagnetic state, or the reverse, mechanical stagea device provided for adjusting the posi-
which occurs in certain solid materials under applied pres- tion of a specimen, usually by translation in two directions at
sure and temperature, or both. (See also Curie point.) right angles to each other.
magnificationa ratio of the size of an image to its corre- mechanical twinsSee twin bands.
sponding object. This is usually determined by linear mea-
melting pointin a phase diagram, the temperature at which
surement.
the liquidus and solidus coincide at an invariant point.
martensitemetastable phase resulting from the diffusionless
melting pressureat a stated temperature, the pressure at
athermal decomposition of austenite below a certain tem-
which the solid phases of an element, or congruently melting
perature known as the Ms temperature (martensite start
compound, may coexist at equilibrium with liquid of the
temperature). It is produced during quenching when the
same composition.
cooling rate of a steel, in the austenitic condition, is such that
the pearlite and bainite, or both, transformation is sup- melting temperatureat a stated pressure, the temperature at
pressed. The composition of the martensite is identical with which a solid phase of an element, or congruently melting
that of the austenite from which it transformed. Hence, compound, may coexist at equilibrium with liquid of the
martensite is a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in same composition.
alpha iron (ferrite) having a body-centered tetragonal lattice. membraneany thin sheet or layer.
It is a magnetic plate-like constituent formed by a diffusion- metallographythat branch of science which relates to the
less shear type of transformation. These plates may appear constitution and structure, and their relation to the proper-
needle-like or veriform in cross-section. ties, of metals and alloys.
martensitica plate-like constituent having a similar appear- metal shadowingSee shadowing.
ance and mechanisms of formation to that of martensite. metastablea state of apparent equilibrium which has a
mass-absorption coeffcientSee absorption coefficient. higher free energy than has the true equilibrium state;
mass scattering coefficientthat part of the mass absorption usually applied to a phase existing outside its temperature
coefficient due to scattering. and pressure span of equilibrium existence, by reason of a
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
matrixthe continuous phase. greatly delayed transformation.
maximum curvein a phase diagram, a univariant line, metatectic equilibrium See peritectoid equilibrium.
tracing the meetings of a pair of bivariant surfaces at microcharacterSee micro penetration tester.
intermediate composition and coinciding with their highest
microcutthe scratch made by a microcharacter test.
temperature at each pressure level, or their highest pressure
at each temperature level; congruent transformation occurs micrographa graphic reproduction of an object as seen
everywhere along a maximum curve. through the microscope or equivalent optical instrument, at
magnifications greater than ten diameters. (photomicro-
maximum pointthat composition and temperature, or pres-
graph).
sure, at which a heterogeneous equilibrium occurs at its
highest temperature, or pressure, when this does not coincide microindentSee indentation.
with one of the composition limits of the equilibrium, that is, micrometer eyepiecean eyepiece that has a scale perma-
when it occurs at an intermediate composition; the equilib- nently positioned in its focal plane, thus, in effect, superim-
rium becomes congruent (univariant) at the maximum point. posing the scale on the image of the field being observed.
maximum sublimation pointin a PT phase diagram, the micro penetration hardnessthe hardness number obtained
highest pressure and temperature at which a solid species of by use of a low load tester whose indentation is usually
intermediate composition may exist in equilibrium with measured with a high power microscope.
vapor of identical composition. micro penetration testera testing machine capable of ap-
McQuaid-Ehn grain sizethe austenitic grain size developed plying low loads, usually in the range from 1 g to 5 kg to
in steels by carburizing at 1700F (927C) followed by slow form an indentation or a scratch or both, as a basis for

E 7 03
measuring hardness. Typical names associated with commer- higher temperatures, decomposes, with lowering tempera-
cial testers are Bergsman, Eberbach, Knoop, Microcharacter, ture, into a new liquid phase and a solid phase, for example:
Tukon, Vickers, etc. L1 = L2 + a.
microphotographa microscopically small photograph. monotectic pointthe composition and temperature in a
microporosityextremely fine porosity in castings. binary system at which exists a liquid that is capable of
microscopean instrument capable of producing a magnified univariant decomposition, with lowering temperature, into
image of a small object. another liquid phase and a solid phase.
microstructurethe structure of a suitably prepared specimen monotropic transformationa nonreversible metastable
as revealed by a microscope. phase change.
Miller-Bravais indicesindices used for the hexagonal sys- morphologythe shape characteristics of a structure; the form
tem which involve the use of a fourth axis a3, coplanar with and orientation of specific phase or constituent.
and at 120 to a1 and a2. mosaic crystalan imperfect single crystal composed of
Miller indices (for lattice planes)the reciprocals of the regions each very slightly disoriented with respect to its
fractional intercepts which a plane makes on the three axes. neighbor.
The symbols are (hkl). mosaic structurethe structure of a material containing
minimum curvein a phase diagram, a univariant line tracing mosaic crystals.
the meeting of a pair of bivariant surfaces at intermediate multicomponent systemthe complete series of composi-
composition and coinciding with their lowest temperature at tions produced by mixing, in all proportions, two or more
each pressure level, or their lowest pressure at each tempera- components.
ture level; congruent transformation occurs everywhere multiplicity factora factor used in calculating the intensity
along a minimum curve. of diffraction from a polycrystalline specimen. It is equal to
minimum pointthat composition and temperature, or pres- the number of sets of planes of the same family.
sure, at which a heterogeneous equilibrium occurs at its multivarianthaving two or more degrees of freedom.
lowest temperature, or pressure, when this does not coincide mythical imagethe assumed intersections of the extended
with one of the composition limits of the equilibrium, that is, sides of a microindentation which is established in order that
when it occurs at an intermediate composition; the equilib- a true diagonal can be approximated.
rium becomes congruent (univariant) at the minimum point. negative distortion See distortion.
mirror illuminatora thin, half-round opaque mirror inter- negative eyepiecean eyepiece in which the real image of the
posed in a microscope for the purpose of directing an intense object is formed between the lens elements of the eyepiece.
oblique beam of light to the object. The light incident on the
negative, photographica sensitized plate or film which has
object passes through one half the aperture of the objective
been exposed in a camera and which upon development has
and the light reflected from the object passes through the
the lights and shades inverse to those of the original subject.
other half aperture of the objective.
The plate or film does not become a negative until it is
miscibility gapa region of multi-phase equilibrium; com- exposed, after which it may be an undeveloped or a
monly applied to the specific case in which an otherwise developed negative.
continuous series of liquid, or solid, solutions is broken, over
negative printa photograph having approximately the op-
a limited temperature range, by the intrusion of a two phase
posite rendition of light and shade as the original subject.
field that terminates at a critical point. See binodal curve.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
negative replicaSee replica.
mixed grain sizeSee duplex grain size.
network structurea structure in which one constituent
molecular replica See replica.
occurs primarily at the grain boundaries, thus partially or
monochromatic (homogeneous)of the same wavelength. completely enveloping the grains of the other constituents;
monochromatic objectivean objective, usually made of on a two-dimensional section cut through such a structure,
fused quartz, which has been corrected for use only with the grain boundary constituent will appear as a network.
monochromatic light. Neumann bandsSee twin bands.
monochromator (X-rays)a device for producing mono- neutral bodya comparison piece used in the differential
chromatic radiation from heterochromatic radiation. It usu- method of thermal analysis, which has nearly the same
ally consists of a crystal so arranged as to diffract one thermal properties as the test specimen, and which produces
wavelength of particularly high intensity, such as the char- no heat effects within the temperature range through which
acteristic, out of a beam of mixed white and characteristic the specimen is being tested. See Practice E 14.
radiation.
Nicol prisma prism, used for polarizing or analyzing light,
monoclinichaving three axes of any length with two in- made by cementing together, with Canada balsam, two
cluded angles equal to 90 and one included angle not equal pieces of calcite in such a way that the extraordinary ray
to 90. from the first piece passes through the second piece while the
monopackSee color film. ordinary ray is reflected to the side into an absorbing layer of
monotectic equilibriuma reversible binary univariant trans- black print. When two Nicol prisms are crossed, therefore,
formation in which a liquid phase, that is stable only at no light passes through.

E 7 03
nitride-carbide inclusion typesa compound with the gen- overdrawn structurea condition, sometimes found to exist
eral formula M x(C, N)y observed generally as colored in very heavily cold-worked rods or wires. (cupping).
idiomorphic cubic crystals, where M includes Ti, Cb, Ta, Zr. Cupping is overdrawn material, but the converse is not true.
nonmetallic inclusionsparticles of impurities (usually ox- overheating(1) in ferrous alloys, heating to an excessively
ides, sulfides, silicates and such) that are held mechanically high temperature such that the properties/structure undergo
or are formed during solidification or by subsequent reaction modification. The resulting structure is very coarse-grained.
within the solid metal (See exogenous inclusions). Unlike burning, it may be possible to restore the original
normal directionthat direction which is perpendicular to the properties/structure by further heat treatment or mechanical
plane of working in a worked material. (See cross direc- working, or a combination thereof.
tion). (2) in aluminum alloys, overheating produces structures
normal segregationa concentration of alloying components that show areas of resolidified eutectic or other evidence that
or constituents that have lower melting points in those indicates the metal has been heated within the melting range.
regions which are the last to solidify. oxidation grain size(1) grain size determined by holding a
numerical aperture (NA)the sine of half the angular specimen at a suitably elevated temperature in a mildly
aperture of an objective lens multiplied by the refractive oxidizing atmosphere. The specimen is polished before
index of the medium between the lens and the sample. oxidation and etched afterwards.
(2) refers to the method involving heating of polished steel
objective apertureSee aperture.
specimen to a specified temperature, followed by quenching
object evaporationSee shadowing. and repolishing. The grain boundaries are sharply defined by
oblique illuminationnonspecular illumination under which the presence of iron oxide. Grain size is expressed as an
the light impinges at an oblique angle to the optical axis. ASTM Number.
(See conical illumination; diffuse illumination; darkfield oxide film replicaSee replica.
illumination.) oxide type inclusionsoxide compounds occurring as non-
ocular micrometera glass disk, of a diameter which permits metallic inclusions in metals usually as a result of deoxidiz-
introducing it into standard oculars, upon one surface of ing additions. In wrought products, that is, steel, they may
which a fine scale is engraved accurately. occur as a stinger formation composed of distinct granular
optical pyrometeran instrument with the temperature of an or crystalline appearing particles.
object is determined by comparing its brightness at some panchromaticsensitive, as a film or plate, to light of all
fixed wavelength with that of a standardized source. hues.
order (in X-ray reflection)the factor n in the Bragg equa- parallax factor (used in electron stereomicroscopy)
tion (see Bragg equation). In X-ray reflection from a parallax factor (f) is the rate of change of elevation with
crystal, the order is an integral number which is the path respect to parallax:
difference measured in wavelengths between reflections
from adjacent planes.
f = dx/dy = csc s/2M3 10 3m/mm
order-disorder transformationa phase change among two
x = elevation
solid solutions having the same crystal structure but in which y = parallax, the apparent lateral displacement of an image
the atoms of one phase, the disordered one, are randomly point.
distributed and in the other, the different kinds of atoms
occur in a regular sequence upon the crystal lattice, that is,
where s is the stereo angle and M is the final magnification
in an ordered arrangement.
of the image.
ordered structurethat crystal structure of a solid solution in parameter (in crystals)See lattice parameter.
which the atoms of different elements seek preferred lattice partial pressurethe contribution of one component of a
positions. system to the total pressure of its vapor at a specified
order of a systemthe number of components; for example, temperature and gross composition.
a system of binary order is made up of two components. partition coefficientwhen, to a polyphase mixture there is
orientationthe angular position of a crystal described by the added a definite quantity of a new component that is
angles which certain crystallographic axes make with the insufficient to bring about a phase change, the proportioning
frame of reference. In hardness measurements, the relation- of the new component among the several phases at equilib-
ship between the direction of the axes of the indenter of a rium may be expressed by means of a ratio known as a
hardness tester and the direction of non-homogeneous prop- partition coefficient; since the ratio often changes very little
erties of the specimen. over small ranges of variation in the amount of the added
orthochromatic(1) of, pertaining to, or producing tone component, it is customary simply to refer to the partition
values (of light or shade) in a photograph, corresponding to coefficient of the added component without reference to the
the tones of nature. quantity of the addition, provided the latter is small.
(2) photographic use; designating a film made sensitive to patternSee diffraction pattern.
green and blue, but not red, light. pearlitea metastable microstructure formed, when local
orthorhombichaving three mutually perpendicular axes of austenite areas attain the eutectoid composition, in alloys of
unequal lengths. iron and carbon containing greater than 0.025 percent but
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less than 6.67 percent carbon. The structure is an aggregate therefore the number of ionizing collisions, is increased by
consisting of alternate lamellae of ferrite and cementite means of a magnetic field. Also known as a cold-cathode
formed on slow cooling during the eutectoid reaction. In an discharge gage.
alloy of given composition, pearlite may be formed isother- photographic densitySee density.
mally at temperatures below the eutectoid temperature by photomacrographa macrograph made by photographic
quenching austenite to a desired temperature (generally means.
above 550C) and holding for a period of time necessary for photomicrographa micrograph made by photographic
transformation to occur. The interlamellar spacing varies means.
directly with the transformation temperature; that is, the Phragmen methodSee focusing camera.
higher the temperature the greater the spacing. physical objective apertureSee aperture, electron.
pearlite colonya circumscribed aggregate within which pincushion distortionSee distortion.
lamellae of corresponding phases have the same orientation. pinholesvery small holes; sometimes found as a type of
pearlite nodulecluster of wedge-shaped pearlite colonies. porosity in a casting because of microshrinkage or of gas
pearlitic structurea microstructure resembling that of the evolution during solidification; or, in wrought products, due
pearlite constituent in steel, therefore, a lamellar type of to removal of inclusions or microconstituents during mac-
structure of varying degrees of coarseness. roetching of transverse sections. In photography, a very
pellicle mirrora thin transparent membrane used in place of small circular aperture.
a transparent flat glass disk of a plane glass illuminator. pinhole eyepiecean eyepiece, or a cap to place over an
penetratorSee indenter. eyepiece, which has a small central aperture instead of an
peritectic equilibriuma reversible univariant transforma- eye lens. Used in adjusting or aligning microscopes.
tion in which a solid phase, that is stable only at lower pinhole ocularSee pinhole eyepiece.
temperature, decomposes into a liquid and a solid phase that pinhole systema group of two or more pinholes arranged to
are conjugate at higher temperature, or the reverse; for define a beam.
example: a + L = b, a + b + L = g, etc. pirani vacuum gagea thermal conductivity or hot-wire gage
peritectoid equilibriuma reversible univariant transforma- in which the temperature of an electrically heated fine wire
tion in which a solid phase, that is stable only at low varies as the thermal conductivity of the residual gas. The
temperature, decomposes with rising temperature into two or wire has a high temperature coefficient of electrical resis-
more conjugate solid phases; for example: a + b = g, tance and the change in resistance is usually measured in a
a + b + g = d, etc. bridge circuit. (See thermocouple vacuum gage.)
permanent magnet lensan electron lens consisting of per- pixel (picture element)smallest spatial unit of an image.
manent magnets. planar grindingthe first step in a preparation procedure
petrographic examinationmethods of examining nonmetal- used to bring all specimens into the same plane of polish. It
lic matter under suitable microscopes to determine structural is unique to semi or fully automatic preparation equipment
relationships and to identify the phases or minerals present. that utilize specimen holders.
With transparent materials, the determination of the optical plane (crystal)an idiomorphic face of a crystal. Any atom-
properties, such as the indices of refraction and the behavior containing plane in a crystal.
in transmitted polarized light, serve as means of identifica- plane glass illuminatora thin transparent flat glass disk
tion. With opaque materials, the color, hardness, reflectivity, interposed in a microscope or a lens imaging system for the
shape and etching behavior in polished sections serve as purpose of directing light to the object without causing a
means of identification. Metallographic applications include reduction of the useful aperture of the lens system.
examination of particles mechanically or chemically sepa- plane of workingthe plane of maximum area extension.
rated from the metal by these methods. planimetric method See Jeffries method.
phasea physically homogeneous, mechanically separable plastic replicaSee replica.
portion of a material system. plate cassetteSee cassette.
phase contrast microscopya special method of controlled plate chamberthe chamber within the vacuum system of an
illumination, ideally suited for observing thin, transparent electron microscope in which is placed the plate cassette.
objects whose structural details vary only slightly in thick- polarized light illuminationa method of illumination in
ness or refractive index. This can also be applied to the which the incident light is plane polarized before it impinges
examination of opaque materials to determine surface eleva- on the specimen.
tion changes. polarizera Nicol prism, polarizing film, or similar device
phase diagramSee constitutional diagram. into which normal light passes and from which polarized
phase rulethe maximum number of phases (P) that may light emerges.
coexist at equilibrium is equal to 2, plus the number of pole figure (for crystalline aggregates) a graphical repre-
components (C) in the mixture, minus the number of degrees sentation of the crystal orientations present in an aggregate.
of freedom (F); P + F = C + 2. pole piecea part of a magnetic electron lens made of a
Philips (Penning) vacuum gagea sensitive cold cathode magnetically permeable material for the purpose of concen-
ionization gage in which the electron path length, and trating and shaping the magnetic field within the lens.
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E 7 03
pole piece spacerthe central part of a magnetic electron lens illuminator with an attending loss of resolution over that
pole piece assembly made of nonmagnetic material for the obtainable with either a plane glass illuminator or a pellicle
purpose of rigidly defining the separation of the pole pieces mirror.
of a lens. The length of the spacer affects the strength and process anneala heat treatment used to soften metal for
shape of the magnetic field in the lens. further cold working; in ferrous sheet and wire industries,
polishinga mechanical, chemical, or electrolytic process or heating to a temperature close to but below the lower limit of
combination thereof used to prepare a smooth reflective the transformation range and subsequently cooling for work-
surface suitable for microstructure examination, free of ing; in the nonferrous industries, heating above the recrys-
artifacts or damage introduced during prior sectioning or tallization temperatures at a time and temperature sufficient
grinding. to permit the desired subsequent cold working.
polycrystallinecharacteristic of an aggregate composed of proeutectoid carbideprimary crystals of cementite formed
more than one, and usually of a large number, of crystals. directly from the decomposition of austenite exclusive of
polymorphic substancean element, or compound, capable that cementite which results from the eutectoid reaction.
of stable existence in different temperature and pressure proeutectoid ferriteprimary crystals of ferrite formed di-
ranges in two, or more, different crystalline states. rectly from the decomposition of austenite exclusive of that
polynary systemSee multicomponent system. ferrite which results from the eutectoid reaction.
porosityholes in a solid, not necessarily connected. program controllera device which can automatically ex-
positive distortion See distortion. ecute a pre-determined schedule of control.
positive eyepiecean eyepiece in which the focal plane is projection distancedistance from the eyepiece to the image
external to its lenses. screen.
positive, photographica photograph having approximately projection lensthe final lens in the electron microscope
the same rendition of light and shade as the original subject. corresponding to an ocular or projector in a compound light
positive replicaSee replica. microscope. This lens forms a real image on the viewing
positive transparencya photographic print made on a trans- screen or photographic film.
parent base from a negative. In electron microscopy this is protection tubea tube made of a specially selected material
used as an intermediate step to prepare a negative print. which can be used to protect a thermocouple from adverse
potentiometeran instrument for the measurement of elec- effects of the environment.
tromotive force by balancing against it an equal and opposite pseudobinarya term of indefinite meaning, sometimes used
electromotive force across a calibrated resistance carrying a synonymously with quasibinary, sometimes used to des-
definite current. Potentiometers can be made manual or with ignate an isopleth.
automatic self-balancing features.
pseudomonotropyan irreversible solid state transformation
powder methodany method of X-ray diffraction involving a which occurs below the melting points of both the stable and
polycrystalline and preferably randomly oriented powder metastable solid states.
specimen and a narrow beam of monochromatic radiation.
pseudoreplicaSee replica.
precipitationseparation of a new phase from solid, liquid,
orgaseous solutions, usually with changing conditions of P-T diagrama two-dimensional, graphical representation of
temperature or pressure, or both. phase relationships in a system of any order, by means of the
pressure and temperature variables.
preferred orientationa condition of polycrystalline aggre-
gate in which the crystal orientations are not distributed at P-T-X diagrama three-dimensional, graphical representa-
random. tion of the phase relationships in a binary system, by means
preshadowed replica See replica. of the pressure, temperature and concentration variables.
primary (X-ray)the beam incident on the sample. pullout, nvoid existing on the plane of polish of a metal-
primary crystalsthe first type of crystals that separates from lographic specimen caused by the dislodging of a particle or
a melt on cooling. constituent during the grinding or polishing operation.
primary extinctiona decrease in intensity of a diffracted P-V diagrama graphical representation of the variation of
X-ray beam caused by perfection of crystal structure extend- the specific volume of a substance, with change in pressure.
ing over such a distance (about 104 cm or greater) that P-V-T diagrama three-dimensional, graphical representa-
interference between multiply reflected beams inside the tion of a surface, describing the variation of the specific
crystal causes a decrease in the intensity of the externally volume of a substance, with independent change of pressure
diffracted beam. and temperature.
principal pointa point on the axis of symmetry of a lens or P-X diagrama two-dimensional, graphical representation of
lens system from which any ray entering the lens or lens the isothermal phase relationships in a binary system; the
system will emerge in a parallel direction. coordinates of the graph are pressure and concentration.
prism illuminatora 45 to 90 prism interposed in a micro- P-X projectiona two-dimensional, graphical representation
scope for the purpose of directing an intense oblique beam of of the phase relationships in a binary system produced by
light to the object. The prism illuminator utilizes only one making an orthographic projection of the phase boundaries
half the aperture of the microscope as does the mirror of a P-T-X diagram upon a pressure-concentration plane.
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E 7 03
pyrometeran instrument for measuring temperatures (see that, while recrystallization is complete, essentially no grain
pyrometry). An autographic or recording pyrometer auto- growth has occurred.
matically measures and records temperatures. (2) in aluminum and magnesium alloys, the grain size
pyrometrythe measurement of temperatures: for example, after recrystallization, without regard to grain growth or the
by measuring the electrical resistance of wire, the thermo- recrystallization conditions.
electric force of a couple, the expansion of solids, liquids or recrystallizationthe formation of a new grain structure
gases, the specific heat of solids, or the intensity of radiant through nucleation and growth commonly produced by
energy per unit area. subjecting a metal, that may be strained, to suitable condi-
quadrivariant equilibriuma stable state among a number tions of time and temperature.
of conjugate phases equal to two less than the number of reference junctionthat junction of a thermocouple which is
components, that is, having four degrees of freedom. held at a known temperature.
quadruple curvein a P-T diagram, a line representing the reference junction correctiona correction in terms of
sequence of pressure and temperature values along which electromotive force (millivolts) to be applied to the electro-
three conjugate phases occur in univariant equilibrium. motive force generated by a thermocouple to compensate for
quadruple pointin a P-T diagram the pressure and tempera- the difference between the actual temperature of the refer-
ture at which four conjugate phases occur in invariant ence junction and that used as the basic reference junction
equilibrium. temperature in standard conversion tables.
quarter wave platea device used with a polarizer and reference materiala material or substance, one or more
analyzer designed to produce circularly polarized light. properties of which are sufficiently well established to be
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quasi-binary systemin a ternary or higher order system, a used for the assessment of a measurement method or for
linear composition series between two congruent substances, assigning values to materials.
wherein all equilibria, at all temperatures or pressures, reference standarda material or device whose properties
involve only phases having compositions occurring in the are determined by comparison to another standard, such as a
linear series, so that the series may be represented as binary certified reference material.
on a phase diagram. reflection (X-ray)See diffraction.
quasi-isotropicSee isotropic. reflection methodthe technique of producing a diffraction
quasi-ternary systemin a quaternary or higher order sys- pattern by X-rays or electrons which have been reflected
tem, a planar composition series among three congruent from a specimen surface.
substances, wherein all equilibria, at all temperatures and refractive index (electrons)the ratio of electron wavelength
pressures, involve only phases having compositions occur- in free space to its wavelength in a material medium.
ring upon the plane, so that they may be represented
replicaa reproduction of a surface in a material, for example,
completely upon a ternary phase diagram.
a plastic.
quaternary systemthe complete series of compositions (1) atomica thin replica devoid of structure on the
produced by mixing four components in all proportions. molecular level, prepared by the vacuum or hydrolytic
quenching cracka crack formed as a result of thermal deposition of metals or simple compounds of low molecular
stresses produced by rapid cooling from a high weight.
temperaturenot to be confused with fire crack. ( 2) casta reproduction of a surface in plastic made by
radiation pyrometeran instrument for determining tem- the evaporation of the solvent from a solution of the plastic
peratures by measuring the radiance (radiant energy per unit or by polymerization of a monomer on the surface.
area) from an object. ( 3) collodiona replica of a surface cast in nitro-
random orientationa condition of a polycrystalline aggre- cellulose.
gate in which the constituent crystals have orientations (4) Formvara reproduction of a surface in a plastic
completely random with respect to one another. Formvar film.
range, exposureSee exposure scale. (5) gelatina reproduction of a surface prepared in a film
reaction isothermin a temperature-concentration phase dia- composed of gelatin.
gram, a tie-element at constant temperature, representing ( 6) impressiona surface replica which is made by
univariant equilibrium among three or more phases. impression. The results of making an impression.
recalescencethe increase in temperature which occurs after (7) molecularthe reproduction of a surface in a high
undercooling because the rate of liberation of heat during polymer such as collodion and other plastics.
transformation of a material exceeds the rate of dissipation (8) negativethat replica which is obtained by the direct
of heat. contact of the replicating material with the specimen. In it,
reciprocal latticea lattice of points each of which represents the contour of the replica surface is reversed with respect to
a set of planes in the crystal lattice, such that a vector from that of the original.
the origin of the reciprocal lattice to any point is normal to (9) oxide filma thin film of an oxide of the specimen to
the crystal planes represented by that point and has a length be examined. The replica is prepared by air, oxygen,
which is the reciprocal of the plane spacing. chemical, or electrochemical oxidation of the parent metal
recrystallized grain size( 1) the grain by heating following and is subsequently freed either mechanically or chemically
cold work where the time and temperature are so chosen for purposes of examination.

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(10) plastica reproduction in plastic of the surface to be then a full return to the vapor state, called retrograde
studied, prepared by evaporation of the solvent from a condensation.
solution of plastic, by polymerization of a monomer, or retrograde vaporizationthe inverse of retrograde conden-
solidification of a plastic on the surface. sation.
(11) positivea replica, the contours of which correspond reversal plate, film, or papera photographic material
directly to the surface being replicated; that is, elevations on which, after exposure to a subject, is processed to give a
the surface are elevations on the replica. positive reproduction without transfer of the image to
(12) preshadoweda replica formed by the application of another sheet material.
the shadowing material to a surface to be replicated, before reversed printa print prepared from a positive transparency.
the thin replica film is cast or otherwise deposited on the (See also negative print.)
surface. reversed transparency See positive transparency.
(13) pseudoa replica which has portions of the material rhombohedralhaving three equal axes, with the included
being replicated embedded in it. angles equal to each other but not equal to 90.
(14) tape replica method (faxfilm)a method of produc-
rigid grinding diska non-fabric support surface, such as a
ing a replica by pressing the softened surface of a tape or
composite of metal/ceramic or metal/polymer, charged dur-
sheet of a plastic material on the surface to be replicated.
ing use with an abrasive (usually 6 to 15 micrometer
(15) vapor depositeda replica formed of a metal or a salt
diamond particles) and used for grinding operations in a
by the condensation of the vapors of the material onto the
metallographic preparation.
surface to be replicated.
ridging indentationa hardness indentation around which
replicatein electron microscopy, to reproduce by means of a
metal has been piled up above the plane of the specimen.
replica.
rolling direction (in rolled metals)See longitudinal direc-
resistance thermometeran instrument for determining tem- tion.
perature by measuring the electrical resistance of a standard-
saddle curvein a phase diagram, the locus of a series of
ized material exposed to that temperature.
maximum points which itself passes through a minimum
resolutionthe fineness of detail in an object which is value.
revealed by an optical device. Resolution is usually specified saddle pointthe minimum point on a saddle curve, which is
as the minimum distance by which two lines or points in the a univariant point, a composition of congruent melting.
object must be separated before they can be revealed as
saturated guna self-biased electron gun in which electron
separate lines or points in the image (see resolving power
emission is limited by space charge rather than filament
and shape resolution). The theoretical limit of resolution is
temperature.
determined from the equation:
scanning microscopean electron microscope in which the
d 5 0.61 l/~n sin A.A./2! (7) image is formed by a beam operating in synchronism with an
where: electron probe scanning the object. The intensity of the
d = minimum distance between object points observed image forming beam is proportional to the scattering or
as distinct points in the image. secondary emission of the specimen where the probe strikes
l = wavelength of the radiation employed. it.
n = the minimum refractive index of the media be- scattering (X-ray)a general term which includes both
tween the object and the objective lens. Compton and coherent scattering.
A.A. = the angular aperture. scratchin micro-indentation hardness testing, a mark or
resolving powerthe ability of a given lens system to reveal groove cut in the specimen by moving a loaded indenter
fine detail in an object. (See also Resolution.) across the surface.
retardation platea plate placed in the path of a beam of screen lensan electrostatic electron lens consisting of a
polarized light for the purpose of introducing a difference in combination of screens or foils at different potentials.
phase. Usually quarter-wave or half-wave plates are used, screen plate or film See color film.
but if the light passes through them twice the phase screw stockmetal in the form of wire or rod, usually a
difference is doubled. free-machining alloy used for automatic screw machine
reticlea system of lines, circles, dots, cross hairs or wires, or work.
some other pattern, placed in the eyepiece or at an interme- seaman unwelded fold or lap on the surface of a metal which
diate plane on the optic axis which is used as a measuring appears as a crack, usually the result of defects in casting or
reference, focusing target, or to define a camera field of view working which have not welded shut.
(a reticle is different than a graticule, see graticule). secondary (concerning X-rays)the X-rays emitted by a
retrograde condensationwhere the critical point of multi- specimen irradiated by a primary beam.
component liquid-vapor equilibrium occurs below the maxi- secondary extinctiona decrease in the intensity of a dif-
mum in temperature and pressure of the two-phase region, a fracted X-ray beam caused by parallelism or near-
sequence of increasing pressure change, at a temperature parallelism of mosaic blocks in a mosaic crystal; the lower
between the temperature maximum and the critical point, blocks are partially screened from the incident radiation by
will cause a partial condensation of the vapor to liquid and the upper blocks, which have reflected some of it.
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E 7 03
sectionin a phase diagram, a planar cut through a space material onto a substrate which is inclined to the direct line
diagram; sections are commonly isotherms, isobars or isop- of the vapor stream in order to produce shadows.
leths. shadow microscopean electron microscope which forms a
segregationconcentration of alloying elements in specific shadow image of an object using electrons emanating from
regions in a metallic object. a point source located close to the object.
selenide-type inclusions See sulfide-type inclusions. shape resolutionan electron image exhibits shape resolution
self-balancing potentiometerSee potentiometer. when a polygon can be recognized as such in the image.
self-biased gunan electron gun in which the cathode cap is Roughly, the particle diameter (defined as the diameter of a
biased with respect to the filament by means of a bias resistor circle of the same area as the particle) must exceed the
through which the emission current flows between the resolution by a factor equal to the number of sides on the
filament and cap. This type of gun provides high intensity at polygon.
low angular apertures. (See biased gun, unbiased gun, shatteringa phenomenon observed in hardness testing in
saturated gun.) which fissures or subsurface cracks originate in a hardness
semiapochromatic objectivea compromise, in the correc- indentation and spread to adjacent parts of the specimen.
tion for chromatic and spherical aberration, between achro- shieldingin an electron-optical instrument, the protection of
matic and apochromatic objectives; frequently called fluorite the electron beam from distortion due to extraneous electric
objectives. and magnetic fields. Since the metallic column of the
semiapochromatic objective lensan objective lens with microscope is at ground potential, it provides electrostatic
both longitudinal and spherical chromatic correction for shielding. Magnetic shields may be made of a high perme-
green and blue. Should be used with green or blue filters. ability material.
semiautomatic image analyzera device which can detect shuttera mechanical device which permits regulation of the
and measure features of interest in an image but requires the time during which light is allowed to act on a light sensitive
operator to perform feature discrimination. medium.
sensitive tint platea gypsum plate (better known as a red I side centeredequivalent to end centered with a different
or full wave plate), used with cross polarized light producing choice of axes. (See end centered.)
circularly polarized light. For anisotropic materials, colors sigma (s)solid phase found originally in binary iron-
are enhanced, for isotropic materials, a magenta hue is chromium alloys which is in stable equilibrium at tempera-
produced. tures below 820C. Now used to identify any structure which
possesses the same complex body-centered crystal structure.
sensitivity, photographicthe degree to which a photo-
graphic material responds by a change in its chemical or silicate type inclusionsinclusions composed essentially of
physical state to the action of both light and chemical silicate glass, normally plastic at foraging and hot-rolling
development. The sensitivity of a given photographic mate- temperatures, which appear in steel in the wrought condition
rial varies with wavelength of the incident radiation. The as small elongated inclusions usually dark in color under
average degree of response is commonly referred to as reflected light as normally observed.
speed. simple (concerning lattices)having similar atoms or groups
sensitometric curve See characteristic curve. of atoms separated by integral translations only.
series (in x-ray spectra)the group of characteristic X-ray sinking indentationa hardness indentation around which
lines which results when a vacancy in one particular electron the metal has been depressed below the plane of the
level is filled from outside levels. Thus, the K series lines are specimen.
emitted when a K level vacancy is filled. sliptranslation of a portion of a crystal relative to the
shadow anglethe angle between the line of motion of the adjacent portion.
evaporated atoms and the surface being shadowed. The slip bandsSee slip lines.
angle is analogous to the angle of incidence in optics. May slip lines (slip bands)traces of slip planes observed at low
be specified as an arc tangent a so that a is in the ratio magnifications on the polished surface of a crystal which has
between the height of the object casting the shadow over the been deformed after polishing; since no differences in
length of the shadow (see shadowing). orientation exist, repolishing will remove the traces. With
shadow cast replicaa replica which has been shadowed. increasing resolving power and magnification, an individual
(See also shadowing.) line may be revealed as a series of parallel lines. The line
which is visible at low magnifications is then described as a
shadowinga process by which a metal or salt is deposited on
slip band.
a specimen at an angle (see shadow angle) from a heated
filament in a vacuum to enhance image contrast by inhibiting slip planesin a given metal, slip occurs most easily along
the deposition of the shadowing material behind projections. certain crystallographic planes. Hence, these planes are
(1) metal shadowingthe enhancement of contrast in a termed slip planes.
microscope specimen by the vacuum deposition of a dense slita narrow aperture, usually rectangular in shape.
metal at an angle generally not perpendicular to the surface slit systema group of two or more slits arranged to define a
of the object. beam.
(2) oblique evaporationthe condensation of evaporated soft (X-rays)of long wavelength.
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E 7 03
solder embrittlementreduction in ductility of a metal or specimen contamination (electron optics) the contamina-
alloy associated with local penetration by molten solder long tion of the specimen caused by the condensation upon it of
grain boundaries. residual vapors in the microscope under the influence of
solidification rangethe temperature range between the liq- electron bombardment.
uidus and the solidus. specimen distortion (electron optics) a physical change in
solidification shrinkage cracka crack that forms, usually at the specimen caused by desiccation or heating by the
elevated temperature because of the shrinkage stresses built electron beam.
up during solidification of a metal casting; a hot crack. specimen gridSee specimen screen.
solid solutiona solid phase in which the composition and specimen holder (electron optics)a device which supports
properties including lattice parameter can vary continuously the specimen and specimen screen in the correct position in
without changing the crystal structure; a primary or terminal the specimen chamber of the microscope.
solid solution is limited by and has the crystal structures of specimen screen (electron optics)a disk of fine screen,
a pure metal, a secondary or intermediate solid solution has usually 200-mesh stainless steel, copper, or nickel, which
the basic crystal structure of an intermetallic compound but supports the replica or specimen support film for observation
does not necessarily include its stoichiometric composition. in the microscope.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
solidusthe locus of points in a phase diagram, representing

specimen stagethe part of the microscope which supports
the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each
the specimen holder and specimen in the microscope, and
composition in the system begins to melt during heating, or
can be moved in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis from
completes freezing during cooling.
outside the column.
soller slita slit containing a set of thin, closely spaced,
parallel metal plates used for the purpose of largely elimi- specimen stage controlsthe external controls by means of
nating convergent and divergent rays. which the stage can be moved.
solutionin a chemical system, a phase existing over a range specimen straina distortion of the specimen resulting from
of composition. stresses occurring during preparation or observation. In
solvusthe locus of points in a phase diagram, representing electron metallography, strain may be caused by stretching
the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each during removal of a replica or during subsequent washing or
composition of a solid phase becomes capable of coexistence drying. Also, electrical and thermal stresses caused by the
with another solid phase, that is, a solid-solubility limit. electron beam may arise during observation.
Usually applied to the terminal solid solution. spectrograph (X-ray)an instrument for recording photo-
sorbitean aggregate of carbide and ferrite produced by graphically at predetermined angles the results of diffraction
tempering martensite at temperatures in the vicinity of experiments.
600C and which may be resolved readily at relatively low spectrometer (X-ray)( 1) an instrument similar to a spec-
magnification (for example, 5003). trograph but employing a movable X-ray measuring device,
(Contemporary) With reference to tool steels, an aggre- such as a Geiger-Mller counter or ionization chamber,
gate of carbide and ferrite produced by cooling at a rate too instead of a photographic film. The measuring device moves
slow for martensite formation and too fast for pearlite on a circle centered on the spectrometer axis.
formation. (2) An instrument for recording, similar to the spec-
source (X-rays)the area emitting primary X-rays in a trograph, except that a Geiger-Mller counter, scintillation
diffraction experiment. The actual source is always the focal counter, proportional counter, or ionization chamber substi-
spot of the X-ray tube but the virtual source may be a slit or tutes for the photographic recording.
pinhole, depending on the conditions of the experiment. speed (photographic or film) (see sensitivity)a measure of
space charge aberrationan aberration resulting from the the response of sensitivity of the material to light, often
mutual repulsion of the electrons in a beam. This aberration expressed numerically according to one of several systems,
is most noticeable in low-voltage, high-current beams. This for example, H. and D., D.I.N., Scheiner, and American
repulsion acts as a negative lens causing rays which were Standard speed.
originally parallel to diverge. spherical aberrationa lens defect in which image-forming
space latticeSee lattice. rays passing through the outer zones of the lens focus at a
spacing (between lattice planes)See interplanar distance. distance from the principal plane different from that of the
spatial grain sizethe average size of the three-dimensional rays passing through the center of the lens.
grains, as opposed to the more conventional grain size spherical projectiona projection in which the orientation of
determined by a simple average of observations made on a a crystal plane is represented by the point where the plane
cross section of the material. normal intersects a sphere drawn with the crystal as the
specimen chamber (electron optics)the compartment lo- center.
cated in the column of the electron microscope in which the spheroiditea coarse aggregate of carbide and ferrite usually
specimen is placed for observation. produced by tempering martensite at temperatures slightly
specimen charge (electron optics)the electrical charge below the eutectoid temperature. Generally, any aggregate of
resulting from the impingement of electrons on a noncon- ferrite and large spheroidal carbide particles no matter how
ducting specimen. produced.

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spinodal curvea graphical representation of the realizable the combined action of corrosion and stress, either external
limit of the super-saturation of a solution. (applied) or internal (residual).
sputteringthe production of specimens in the form of thin stringera single, high-aspect ratio, elongated inclusion, two
films by deposition from a cathode subjected to positive ion or more elongated inclusions, or a number of small non-
bombardment. deformable inclusions aligned in a linear pattern due to
stagea device for holding a sample in the desired position in deformation.
the optical path. structureas applied to a crystal, the shape and size of the
stage micrometera graduated scale used on the stage of a unit cell and the location of all atoms within the unit cell. As
microscope for calibration. applied to microstructure, the size, shape and arrangement of
standard1) a physical reference used as a basis for com- phases.
parison or calibration; structure factorthe ratio of the amplitude of the wave
2) a concept that has been established by authority, custom, scattered by all the atoms of a unit cell to the amplitude of
or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement the wave scattered by a single electron. Symbol = F.
of quality or establishment of a practice or procedure. sublimation pressureat a stated temperature, that pressure
standard (hardness) blocka carefully prepared metal block at which congruent equilibrium between a solid substance
used to calibrate hardness test machines. and its vapor occurs.
standard grain-size micrographa micrograph taken of a sublimation temperatureat a stated pressure, that tempera-
known grain size at a known magnification, which is used to ture at which congruent equilibrium between a solid sub-
determine grain size by direct comparison with another stance and its vapor occurs.
micrograph or with the image of a specimen. submicroscopicSee ultramicroscopic.
steadite(1) ternary eutectic found in alloys of iron, carbon substrate(substratum) that which lies under; foundation.
and phosphorus. In cast irons it consists of austenite, sulfide-type inclusionsin steels, nonmetallic inclusions
cementite and iron phosphide or austenite and iron- composed essentially of manganese iron sulfide solid solu-
phosphide. If conditions are such that carbon is deposited as tions (Fe, Mn) S. They are characterized by plasticity at
cementite, the three constituents of the eutectic are present. hot-rolling and forging temperatures and, in the hot worked
If, however, the carbon is deposited as graphite, that precipi- product, appear as dove gray elongated inclusions varying
tated from the ternary eutectic crystallizes on existing flakes from a threadlike to oval outline. Selenide type inclusions
and the eutectic consists of two constituents only, namely, may behave similarly.
austenite and iron-phosphide. superlatticeSee ordered structure.
(2) Binary eutectic found in alloys of iron and phosphorus symmetrya property of a crystal in virtue of which equiva-
consisting of ferrite and iron-phosphide. lent lattice points can be brought into coincidence by
stepdown testa test involving the preparation of a series of operations such as rotation, inversion, or reflection. Such
machined steps progressing inward from the surface of a bar operations, are called symmetry operations or elements.
for the purpose of detecting by visual inspection internal syntectic equilibriuma reversible univariant transformation
laminations caused by inclusion segregates. See Practice in which a solid phase, that is stable only at lower tempera-
E 45. ture, decomposes into two conjugate liquid phases that
stereo angleone half of the angle through which the speci- remain stable at higher temperature; for example:
men is tilted when taking a pair of stereomicrographs. The L1 + L2 = a.
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axis of rotation lies in the plane of the specimen. system (crystal)See crystal system.
stereographic projectionthe projection to a plane from a tape replicaSee replica.
spherical projection, customarily using the South Pole as the target (in X-ray tubes)that part of an X-ray tube which the
eye point. electrons strike and from which X-rays are emitted.
stereologythe study of mathematical procedures used to temper carbonclusters of finely divided in malleable iron,
derive three-dimensional parameters describing a structure that are formed as a result of decomposition of cementite, for
from two-dimensional measurements. example, by heating white cast iron to temperatures above
stereomicroscopea light optical microscope that permits the ferrite-austenite transformation temperature and holding
each eye to examine the specimen at a slightly different at these temperatures for a considerable period of time
angle, thereby retaining its three-dimensional relationship. (graphite, nodular).
stereoscopic micrographsa pair of micrographs of the same tempered martensitethe decomposition products which
area but taken from different angles so that the two micro- result from heating martensite to temperatures below the
graphs when properly mounted and viewed reveal the ferrite austenite (Ae1) transformation temper. Under the light
structures of the objects in their three-dimensional relation- microscope, darkening of the martensite needles is observed
ships. in the initial stages of tempering. Prolonged tempering at
stereoscopic specimen holdera specimen holder designed high temperatures produces spheroidized carbides in a ma-
for the purpose of making stereomicrographs. It makes trix of ferrite. At the higher resolution of the electron
possible the tilting of the specimen through the stereo angle. microscope, the initial stage of tempering is observed to
stress-corrosion cracka crack which may be intergranular result in a structure containing a precipitate of fine epsilon
or transgranular depending on the material, resulting from iron carbide particles. At about 500F (260C), there is a

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transition to a structure of larger and elongated cementite tie trianglein a ternary or higher order phase diagram, an
particles in a ferrite matrix. With further tempering at higher isothermal, isobaric plane three-cornered, straight-sided fig-
temperature, the cementite particles become spheroidal, ure connecting the compositions of three conjugate phases.
decreased in number, and increased in size. time-temperature curvein thermal analysis, a curve pro-
terminal solid solutionin a multicomponent system, any duced by plotting time against the temperature.
solid phase, of limited composition range, which includes traceabilitythe ability to demonstrate by means of an
the composition of one of the components of the system. unbroken chain of comparisons that a measurement is in
ternary systemthe complete series of compositions pro- agreement within acceptable limits of uncertainty with
duced by mixing three components in all proportions. comparable nationally or internationally recognized stan-
tervariant equilibriuma stable state among a number of dards.
conjugate phases equal to one less than the number of transcrystalline crackingcracking or fracturing which oc-
components, that is, having three degrees of freedom. curs through or across a crystal; intracrystalline cracking.
Tessartrade name for a photographic objective made by transformation temperaturethe temperature at which a
combining a positive lens, a negative lens, and a doublet, change in phase occurs. The term is sometimes used to
which is used for making macrographs. denote the limiting temperature of a transformation range.
Sometimes incorrectly and loosely referred to as Critical
tetragonalhaving three mutually perpendicular axes, two
Point.
equal in length and unequal to the third.
transition curvein a P-T diagram, the locus of the tempera-
texture (cube)See preferred orientation. ture and pressure values at which a congruent equilibrium
texture (deformation)See preferred orientation. between two solid phases exists.
thermal arrestSee arrest. transition phasea non-equilibrium state that appears in a
thermal electromotive forcethe voltage generated when chemical system in the course of transformation between
one junction of two dissimilar metal wires is at a different two equilibrium states.
temperature than the other junction. transition pointat a stated pressure, the temperature, or at a
thermal expansionthe increase in the dimensions or the stated temperature, the pressure, at which two solid phases
volume of a body due to a change in temperature. (See exist in congruent equilibrium, that is, an allotropic trans-
coefficient of thermal expansion.) formation temperature, or pressure.
thermionic cathode gun(hot cathode gun). An electron gun transition structurein precipitation from solid solution, a
which derives its electrons from a heated filament which metastable precipitate which is coherent with the matrix.
may also serve as the cathode. transmission methoda method of X-ray or electron diffrac-
thermionic emissionthe ejection of a stream of electrons tion in which the recorded diffracted beams emerge on the
from a hot cathode, usually under the influence of an same side of the specimen as the transmitted primary beam.
electrostatic field. transmission microscopea microscope in which the image
thermocoupletwo dissimilar electrical conductors so joined forming rays pass through (are transmitted by) the specimen
as to produce a thermal electromotive force when the being observed.
junctions are at different temperatures. transverse direction See cross direction.
triclinichaving three axes of any length, none of the in-
thermocouple vacuum gagea thermal conductivity or hot-
cluded angles being equal to one another or equal to 90.
wire gage in which the temperature of an electrically heated
fine wire varies as the thermal conductivity of the residual triple curvein a P-T diagram, a line representing the
gas. The thermocouple measures the temperature change. sequence of pressure and temperature values among which
two conjugate phases occur in univariant equilibrium.
thermoelectric pyrometera device with which tempera-
triple pointin a P-T diagram, the temperature and pressure
tures are measured by utilizing the thermoelectric effects. In
at which three phases occur in invariant equilibrium.
its simplest form, it consists of a thermocouple of two
dissimilar metals which develop an emf when the junctions troostitea previously unresolvable, fine aggregate of carbide
are at different temperatures and an instrument for measuring and ferrite produced by tempering martensite at tempera-
the emf developed by the thermocouple. tures in the vicinity of 400C. Term variously and errone-
ously applied to bainite and nodular fine pearlite. Confusion
thermomechanical process, ncontrolled thermal and defor- arose because of similarity in appearance among the three
mation treatment performed at an elevated temperature. structures before the advent of high-power microscopy.
threshold setting, in image analysisthe selected range of (Contemporary). With reference to tool steels, synony-
gray levels corresponding to a constituent in the field of the mous with upper bainite.
view. twin bandsbands across a crystal grain, observed on a
tie linein a binary or higher order phase diagram, an polished and etched section, the crystallographic orientations
isothermal, isobaric straight line connecting the composi- of which have a mirror image relationship to the orientation
tions of a pair of conjugate phases. of the matrix grain across a composition plane which usually
tie tetrahedronin a quaternary or higher order phase dia- is parallel to the sides of the band.
gram, an isothermal, isobaric four-cornered space figure (1) annealing twintwin bands which are produced
connecting the compositions of four conjugate phases. during annealing following cold work.
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(2) mechanical twinstwin bands which are produced by vertical illuminationlight incident on an object from the
cold work. objective side such that smooth planes perpendicular to the
(3) Neumann bandsmechanical twins in ferrite. optical axis of the objective appear bright.
T-X diagrama two-dimensional, graphical representation of VickersSee micro penetration tester. In a more restricted
the isobaric phase relationships in a binary system; the sense, the 136 diamond pyramid indenter used in microin-
coordinates of the graph are temperature and concentration. dentation hardness tests.
ultramicroscopicbelow the resolution of the microscope. voltage alignment See alignment.
ultravioletinvisible light radiation, adjacent to the violet end V-X diagrama graphical representation of the isothermal or
of the visible spectrum, with wavelengths from about 200 to isobaric phase relationships in a binary system, the coordi-
400 nm (nanometres). nates of the graph being specific volume and concentration.
unary systemcomposed of one component. wavelength (X-rays)the minimum distance between points
unbiased gun(zero biased gun) an electron gun in which the at which the electric vector of an electromagnetic wave has
cathode cap is at the same potential as the filament (see the same value, measured along the direction of propagation
self-biased gun). This type of gun provides a low-intensity of the wave. It is equal to the velocity divided by the
illumination with large angular aperture. frequency. (See also electron wavelength.)
under-coolinga decrease in temperature below that at which Weissenberg cameraan X-ray diffraction camera used
an equilibrium phase change exists, without the occurrence mainly for the determination of unknown crystal structures.
of the transformation. A variation of the rotating crystal camera, it has a shield in
unit cella parallelepiped element of crystal structure, con- front of the film which admits the diffracted beams of only
taining a certain number of atoms, the repetition of which one layer line. The film moves parallel to the camera axis
through space will build up the complete crystal. (See and in synchronism with the rotation of the crystal. Over-
lattice.) lapping spots are thus prevented and the film records not
unit of structure (in crystals)the unit cell, or the group of only the position of a diffraction spot but also the position of
atoms associated with a unit cell. the crystal at the time the spot was produced.
univariant equilibriuma stable state among a number of weld structurethe microstructure of a weld deposit and
phases equal to one more than the number of components, heat-affected base metal.
that is, having one degree of freedom. white (X-rays)containing a large number of wavelengths.
upper critical pointin a phase diagram, a specific value of widefield eyepiecean eyepiece that permits the observation
composition, temperature and pressure, or combinations of an extended field of view of the specimen.
thereof, occurring as a maximum in temperature, or pressure, Widmannsttten structurea precipitate structure, resulting
for the coexistence of two or more conjugate phases and at from the precipitation of a new phase along certain crystal-
which the conjugate phases become identical. lographic planes of the parent solid solution and character-
vacuum lockSee air lock. ized by a geometrical pattern appearance in the microstruc-
Vant Hoffs lawequilibrium shifts with increasing temperature, originally observed in meteorites but readily produced
ture so as to absorb heat, or with decreasing temperature so in many other alloys with proper heat treatment.
as to liberate heat. work hardeninga change in the hardness of a material as a
vapor-deposited replica See replica. result of plastic deformation.
vaporization curvein a P-T diagram the locus of pressure working distancethe distance between the surface of the
and temperature values at which a congruent liquid is in specimen being examined and the front surface of the
equilibrium with its vapor. objective lens.
vaporization pointat a stated pressure, the temperature at Wratten filterthe trade name for a specific type of color
which a congruent liquid is in equilibrium with its vapor, or, filter.
at a stated temperature, the pressure at which the same event X-radiationelectromagnetic radiation of the same nature as
occurs. visible light but having a wavelength approximately 1/1000
variabilityalso called variance; the number of degrees of that of visible light.
freedom of a heterogeneous phase equilibrium. X-ray tubea device for the production of X-rays by the
varianceSee variability. impact of high-speed electrons on a metal target.
verificationconfirmation by examination and provision of X-raysSee X-radiation.
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
evidence that an instrument, material, reference, or standard zoneany group of crystal planes which are all parallel to one
is in conformance with a specification. line, called the zone axis.

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APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
X1.1 The following abbreviations are frequently used in the ODF orientation distribution function
field of metallography. PAGS prior austenite grain size
PFZ precipitate free zone
A Angstrom unit. RA relative accuracy
K X-rays (See K radiation.) ROI region of interest
SAD selected area diffraction
X1.2 The following abbreviations and acronyms are fre- SAECP selected area electron channeling pattern
quently used in the area of metallography. SAED selected area electron diffraction
SAM scanning auger microscopy
AEM analytical electron microscope
SANS small angle neutron scattering
AES auger electron spectroscopy
SE secondary electrons
AFM atomic force microscope
SEI secondary electron image
AGS average grain size
SEM scanning electron microscope
AI anisotropy index
SIM scanning ion microprobe
AIA automatic image analysis
SIMS secondary ion mass spectroscopy
ALA as large as
SLAM scanning laser acoustic microscope
APFEM atomic probe field emission microscopy
SRMN Standard Reference Manual
ASM acoustic scanning microscope
STEM scanning transmission electron microscopy
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BEKP back scattered electron kikuchi pattern

STIM scanning transmission ion microscopy
BSE back scattered electrons
STM scanning tunneling microscope
BSI back scattered electron image
TCP topologically close-packed
CBED convergent beam electron diffraction
TEM transmission electron microscope
CCD charge coupled device
TOF SIMS time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrom-
CI confidence interval
eter
CL confidence limit
TSC thermal sprayed coating
CLM cathoodo luminescence
UV ultraviolet
CM confocal microscopy
WDS wavelength dispersive spectrometry
CV coefficeient of variation
WORM write once read many
DIC differential interference contrast
XRD X-ray diffraction
EBIC electron beam induced current
XRF X-ray fluorescence
EBSP Electron Back Scattered Pattern
XRM X-ray microscopy
ECP electron channeling pattern
ZAF Z-Absorption fluorescence
EDS energy dispersive spectroscopy
ZAP zone axis pattern
EDXA energy dispersive X-ray analysis
ZOLZ zero order laue zone
EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy
EMMA electron microscopy micro analyzer
EMPA electron microprobe micro analysis X1.3 The following are abbreviations of societies and
EPMA electron probe micro analysis
ESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
institutes applicable to the field of metallography.
FEM field electron microscopy AIME American Institute of Mining and Metallur-
FFT fast Fourier transform gical Engineers
FIM field ion microscopy AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
GCP geometrically close-packed ANSI American National Standards Institute
HB Brinell hardness number ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
HEED high energy electron diffraction ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
HK Knoop hardness number DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm
HOLZ high order laue zone ICDD International Center for Diffraction Data (see
HR Rockwell hardness number (requires a scale JCPDS)
designation; for example HRC) IEC International Electrochemical Commission
HV Vickers hardness number IMS International Metallographic Society
HVDF high velocity oxy-fuel ISO International Organization for Standardiza-
IA image analysis tion
IR infrared JCPDS Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction
JK Jernkontoret Standards (see ICDD)
LaB6 lanthanum-hexaboride cathode JIS Japanese Industry Standard
LEED low energy electron diffraction MRS Materials Research Society
LM light microscopy MSA Microscopy Society of America
LOM light optical microscopy NIST National Institute for Standards &
LP lorentz polarization Technology
LSCM laser scanning confocal microscope RMS Royal Microscopical Society
OCC ALA occasional as large as SAE Society of Automative Engineers
OCF orientation correlation function TMS The Metals Society

E 7 03
The following documents and publications may provide additional definitions of terminology in the field of metallography or
closely related fields.
(1) ASTM Standards: (6) Dictionary of Light Microscopy, 1989, Royal Microscopical Soci-
E 44 Definitions of Terms Relating to the Heat Treatment of ety.
Metals (7) Glossary of Metallurgical Terms and Engineering Tables, 1984,
(2) E 175 Terminology of Microscopy ASM International.
(3) E 456 Terminology Relating to Quality and Statistics
(4) Other ASTM Literature:Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions (8) Glossary of Microscopical Terms and Definitions, 2nd ed., 1989,
(5) Other Publications: New York Microscopical Society.
ASTM International takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any item mentioned
--`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the risk
of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.
This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years and
if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of this standard or for additional standards
and should be addressed to ASTM International Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of the
responsible technical committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not received a fair hearing you should
make your views known to the ASTM Committee on Standards, at the address shown below.
This standard is copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959,
United States. Individual reprints (single or multiple copies) of this standard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the above
address or at 610-832-9585 (phone), 610-832-9555 (fax), or [email protected] (e-mail); or through the ASTM website
(www.astm.org).


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Designation: E 7 03

Standard Terminology Relating to

1. Scope testing in the field of metallography. In order for one to

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average coefficient of linear expansion average change in sharp edges.

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away and the salt residue itself melts. electron microscope.

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epsilon structurestructurally analogous close-packed exogenous inclusiona nonmetallic constituent produced by

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gelatin replicaSee replica.

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tant, see hypereutectic alloy. silicates, etc.

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solidusthe locus of points in a phase diagram, representing

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X1. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BEKP back scattered electron kikuchi pattern

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