CHAPTER 2

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this chapter, you will be able to
State the differences between an intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor
Explain the use of doping to create p- and n-type semiconductors
Describe the terms majority and minority carriers
Justify the conduction process for a forward-biased p-n junction
Explain why a reverse-biased p-n junction does not permit the current flow
Explain the terms the junction breakdown and the peak-inverse voltage
Sketch the voltage-current characteristic of the diode
Analyze simple circuits containing diodes
Draw half- and full-wave rectifier circuits, sketch the output waveforms, and
determine the output voltage, power factor and rectification ratio
Highlight the differences between a regular diode and a zener diode
Use a zener diode for voltage regulation
Derive expressions for the output voltages with and without capacitors
Select a capacitor for the specified voltage regulation

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2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is now a well-accepted fact that all materials are made of atoms: An atom contains neutrons,
protons, and electrons in addition to few other subatomic particles. The uncharged neutrons and
the positively charged protons form the nucleus of the atom. The atom as a whole is electrically
neutral because it has as many negatively charged electrons as the protons. The electrons revolve
around the nucleus in various elliptical orbits very similar to the revolving of planets around the sun.
Electrons distribute themselves into rings called the shells. The number of shells depends
upon the number of electrons. The innermost shell, the first shell, can have no more than 2
electrons. The second shell can have 8 electrons. Third shell can have 18, and so on. The outmost
shell, called the valence shell, can have no more than 8 electrons. The electrons in valence shell
are referred to as the valence electrons.
The number of valence electrons defines the electrical properties of a material. Materials
with atoms having less than 4 electrons in their valence shells are good conductors. On the other
hand, when the number of valence electrons is more than 4, the material acts as an insulator.
When there are exactly 4 electrons in the valence shell, the material is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator: It is customarily referred to as a semiconductor. The two most commonly
used semiconductors for the manufacturing of diodes and other electronic devices are germanium
(32 electrons) and silicon (14 electrons). The first three shells of a germanium atom are filled with
2, 8, and 18 electrons. The fourth shell, the valence shell for germanium (Ge), has 4 electrons. On
the other hand, the 14 electrons of silicon atom are grouped as 2 in the first shell, 8 in the second,
and the remaining 4 in the third. Once again, the third shell, valence shell for silicon (Si), has 4
electrons.
A very pure semiconductor with 4 electrons in its valence shell is called an intrinsic
semiconductor because it forms a uniform, symmetrical, and cubic crystal. The atoms adjacent to
each other share their valence electrons to form a covalent bond as shown in Figure 2.1 for the
silicon semiconductor. Each silicon atom with four covalent bonds has a stable valence shell
because it has the required number of 8 electrons to completely fill the valence shell. The stability
thus gained by the valence shell restricts the random motion of these electrons.
An electron can, however, be forced to break the covalent bond by supplying energy to it.
There is already sufficient thermal energy at room temperature that causes some electrons to
become free by breaking the covalent bonds. The absence of an electron from the atom leaves a

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positive charge on the atom, which is called a hole. Both the electrons and the holes take part in
the conduction process. When a potential difference is maintained across the terminals of a
semiconductor, the electric field within the semiconductor causes the holes to move toward the
negative terminal and forces the electrons to travel toward the positive terminal. The flow of these
charges is responsible for the current, however small it may be, within the semiconductor.

Figure 2.1: Covalent electrons in an intrinsic silicon

In order to increase the amount of current within the semiconductor for a given potential
difference, other elements are added to it. These elements are often referred to as impurities. The
element used as impurity is either trivalent or pentavalent. The frequently used trivalent elements
with 3 electrons in their valence shells are boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (GA), and Indium
(In). The pentavalent elements with 5 electrons in their valence shells often used as impurities are
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), and phosphorus (P). The process of adding impurities is called
doping. A semiconductor doped with impurities is given the name of extrinsic semiconductor.
When the doping process replaces an atom of silicon with an atom of pentavalent element
such as antimony, it not only completes the four covalent bonds for the 4 silicon atoms but also
leaves a free electron. By properly controlling the doping process, we can create as many free
electrons as are needed to modify the electrical properties of an intrinsic semiconductor. The
extrinsic semiconductor with free electrons is referred to as an n-type semiconductor. Because
the pentavalent element results in free electrons within the semiconductor, it is termed as the
donor. Figure 2.2 shows the presence of a free electron in an n-type semiconductor. Since there
are more free electrons than holes in an n-type semiconductor, the electrons are the majority
charge carriers and the holes are the minority charge carriers.

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 When a trivalent element is used as impurity, it helps complete three covalent bonds with
the adjacent silicon atoms. There are now 7 electrons in its valence shell as shown in Figure 2.3,
where the absence of an electron is indicated by the presence of a hole. Owing to the thermal
activity, an electron from the nearby atom may move over to fill the valence shell. Having lost an
electron, the nearby shell acquires a positive charge. Since the trivalent element requires one
additional electron to complete the covalent bond, it is called an acceptor. As the doping process
with atoms of a trivalent element progresses, more atoms of the semiconductor loose their
electrons and become positively charged. A semiconductor having excess positively-charged
atoms (or holes) is referred to as the p-type semiconductor. Since there are more holes than the
free electrons in a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority charge carries and the
electrons are the minority charge carriers.

Figure 2.2: An n-type semiconductor

Figure 2.3: A p-type semiconductor

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 Although an n-type semiconductor has more free electrons than holes, it is electrically
neutral because the total positive charge within the extrinsic semiconductor is equal to the total
negative charge. Likewise, a p-type semiconductor is also electrically neutral even though it has
more positive charges (holes) than free electrons.

2.2 THE p-n JUNCTION DIODE

When a p-type semiconductor is brought in contact with an n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is
formed and the diffusion process begins. Owing to the force of attraction between the unlike
charges on either side of the junction, the holes, majority carriers on the p-side, begin to diffuse
into the n-type and at the same time, the electrons, the majority carriers on the n-side, diffuse into
the p-side. The movement of these charges gives rise to the diffusion current. Following the
passive convention for the current, the diffusion current is from the p-side into the n-side.
The free electrons diffused from the n-side into the p-side combine with the holes and the
two charges disappear. Likewise, the diffused holes from the p-side into the n-side cancel out the
free electrons. Therefore, the diffusion process causes depletion in the majority carriers on either
side as shown in Figure 2.4. As the holes deplete on p-side, the region next to the junction is left
with bound negative charges. Likewise, the depletion of electrons on the n-side leaves the region
next to junction with bound positive charges (holes). The presence of bound positive charges on
the n-side and the bound negative charges on the p-side in the near vicinity of the junction creates
a potential difference across the junction. This potential difference is usually termed as the contact
potential or the barrier voltage.

Figure 2.4: A p-n junction

The contact potential is also responsible for creating an electric field pointing from the n-
side toward the p-side. The electric field causes the holes in the depletion region on the n-side to
move back into the p-region. Similarly, it forces the electrons from the depletion region on the p-
side to retreat into the n-region. The motion of the holes and the electrons under the influence of

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the electric field creates a current, called the drift current, which is in opposition to the diffusion
current.
Keep in mind that the diffusion current is responsible for the creation of the electric field,
which in turn redirects the charges to go back to their original sides. At the outset, the drift current
is negligibly small because the diffusion process has just begun. As more charges diffuse from one
side into the other, the drift current builds up. As the drift current increases, the diffusion current
decreases. As soon as the drift current becomes equal and opposite to the diffusion current, the
net current through the junction becomes zero and the p-n junction attains its equilibrium state.

2.3 BIASING THE JUNCTION DIODE

A p-n junction is said to be biased when an external source maintains a voltage across its
terminals. One such biasing circuit is shown in Figure 2.5, where the positive terminal of a battery
is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side.

Figure 2.5: A forward-biased p-n junction

The positive terminal of the battery removes the free electrons from the p-side and forces
the holes to move toward the depletion region. As soon as the holes enter the depletion region,
they end up neutralizing the negative charge. The reduction in the negative charge causes a
decrease in the depletion region on the p-side. A similar phenomenon occurs on the n-side where
the negative terminal of the battery removes the holes from the n-side and pushes the free
electrons toward the depletion region. As the electrons migrate into the depletion region, they
neutralize the positive charges (holes) causing a reduction in the depletion region as shown in the
figure. The shrinkage of the depletion region is an invitation for the diffusion process to begin all
over again. How many charges take part in the forced diffusion process due to the externally
applied voltage, depend upon the applied voltage. In other words, the diffusion of charges across
the junction, which results in a diffusion current, is a function of the voltage across the p-n junction

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as long as the p-side is at a higher potential than the n-side. When the p-side voltage is higher than
the n-side, we say that a forward bias exists across the diode. In summary, the diode conducts
only when it is forward biased. The conduction current is simply the diffusion current from the p-
side toward the n-side within the diode. As the forward bias increases so does the current through
the diode.

Figure 2.6: A reverse-biased p-n junction

A reverse biased p-n junction is shown in Figure 2.6. In this case, the positive end of
the battery removes electrons from the n-side and forces holes to move toward its depletion region.
Likewise, the negative end of the battery removes the holes from the p-side and makes the
electrons to move toward its depletion region. As the depletion region widens on both sides of the
junction, it further restricts any diffusion activity that might be taking place due to the thermal
energy. Thus, in a reverse biased p-n junction, the current is essentially zero. Keep in mind that the
reverse current in a reverse biased p-n junction can never be zero because of the thermally
produced free electrons and holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. The reverse current that does
exist, however small it may be, is labeled as the reverse saturation current.
The reverse biased voltage creates an electric field than points from the n-side toward the
p-side. As the reverse biased voltages increases, so does the electric field. Because of the
increase in the electric field, the thermally produced electron gains speed, and therefore energy, as
it moves toward the positive terminal of the supply. On the way, it collides with other electrons and
loose part of its energy. When the speeding electron has gained enough energy from the electric
field, it dislodges another electron from the valence shell when it collides with it. Now there are two
free electrons to gain energy from the electric field and dislodge two more electrons from the
valence shells of other items. As this regenerative process takes hold, an all-out avalanche takes
place, and the diode begins to conduct heavily in the reverse direction. The voltage at which the p-

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n junction diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction is defined as the breakdown voltage,
zener voltage, or the peak-inverse voltage.
In summary, the current in a reverse biased p-n junction diode is essentially zero as long
as the reverse biased voltage is less than its breakdown voltage. When the p-n junction is forward
biased, it is ready to conduct and the direction of current is from the p-side toward the n-side. This
is the reason why the arrow in the symbols of p-n junction diode, shown in Figure 2.7, points from
the p-type to n-type semiconductor. In this figure, v D is the forward voltage drop across the diode
when the current through it is i D . The contact point on the p-side is called the anode (A) and that
on the n-side is the cathode (K). The vertical line at the tip of the arrow represents the p-n
junction.

Figure 2.7: Typical symbol for a p-n junction diode

2.4 VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC OF A DIODE

The voltage-current characteristic of a device may be obtained by applying a voltage in small
increments and measuring the current through the device. In the forward biased region, when
v D 0 , the current is very small (less than 1 mA) until the applied voltage reaches the contact

potential as shown in Figure 2.8. Once the applied voltage exceeds the barrier voltage, free
electrons and holes begin crossing the junction in large numbers causing an exponential increase
in the current. The voltage at which the current begins to increase rapidly is called the knee
voltage or offset voltage ( v ). The knee voltages for various diodes are as follows: 0.7 V for
silicon, 0.2 for germanium, 1.2 V for gallium arsenide, and 0.3 for Schottky.
When the voltage across the diode is reversed, the diode current is extremely small (less
than 1 nA). As mentioned earlier, this is the reverse saturation current or the leakage current
I S . There is practically no increase in this current until the applied voltage reaches the
breakdown voltage VBD . Note that we have changed both the voltage and current scales in
order to show extremely small reverse saturation current and relative large breakdown voltage. The

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breakdown voltage depends upon the level of doping process. Therefore, the breakdown voltage
for a diode can be anywhere from few volts to few kilovolts. As soon as the applied voltage
exceeds the breakdown voltage, the diode begins to conduct heavily owing to the avalanche effect
explained earlier.

Figure 2.8: Voltage-current characteristic of a junction diode

After making several assumptions, Shockley was able to theoretically explain the voltage-
current characteristic in the forward biased region of a p-n junction diode. The theoretical
relationship between the applied voltage across and the current through the diode is now known as
Shockley equation and is given as
vD
i D I S e nVT 1 (2.1)

where i D is the current through the diode, v D is the voltage across the diode, I S is the reverse
saturation (or leakage) current, n is the emission coefficient between 1 and 2, and VT is the

thermal voltage.
The thermal voltage is given as
KT
VT (2.2)
q

where q is the magnitude of the charge on an electron 1.6 10 19 C , K is the Boltzmanns

constant 1.38 10 23 J / o K , and T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin. It is a

common practice to assume that the thermal voltage is about 25 mV at room temperature of
20 o C . We will also assume that n 1 when its value is not specified.

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 When the diode operates at room temperature, it is quite satisfactory to use the
approximate expression for the current as
vD

i D IS e nVT (2.3)

EXAMPLE 2.1
__________________________________________________________________
Determine the reverse saturation (or leakage) current of a silicon diode when it carries a current of
1 mA and has a forward voltage drop of 0.7 V.
Solution:
Since no information is given for the emission coefficient and the thermal voltage, let us assume
them as follows:
n 1
VT 25 mV

Using the approximate expression (2.3), we compute the reverse saturation current as
1 10 3
IS 0 .7
6.91 10 16 A
10.025
e

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