Introduction

PASCAL is a programming language named after the 17th century mathematican Blaise Pascal. Pascal

provides a teaching language that highlights concepts common to all computer languages
standardises the language in such a way that it makes programs easy to write

Strict rules make it difficult for the programmer to write bad code!

Basic format of every Pascal program

Every Pascal program has the same essential format, which is illustrated below,

program TITLE ( input, output );

begin
program statements;
program statement
end.

program is the first word of all Pascal programs. It is a keyword (Keywords are reserved, ie, you cannot use
keywords to describe variables).

TITLE is the name the programmer gives to the Pascal program being written.
It is an identifier. Identifiers begin with a letter, then followed by any digit, letter or the underscore
character ( _ ).

Question time. Which of the following are valid Pascal identifiers?

birthday Too_hot? First_Initial
grade 1stprogram down.to.earth
see you OldName case

Answer:
Question time. Which of the following are valid Pascal identifiers?
birthday Too_hot? First_Initial
grade 1stprogram down.to.earth
see you OldName case

birthday
First_Initial
grade
OldName

(input, output) states what the program will do, ie, input and/or output data. Data is inputted from the
keyboard, and outputted to the console screen.

begin defines the starting point of the program, and provides a means of grouping statements together (ie all
statements between a begin and end are considered part of the same group or block).

program statements are commands or instructions to the computer which perform various tasks.

end. This must always be the final statement of a Pascal program.

ALL PROGRAM STATEMENTS AND LINES ARE TERMINATED WITH A SEMI-COLON, EXCEPT
THE BEGIN AND END KEYWORDS. PROGRAM STATEMENTS PRECEEDING AN END
STATEMENT DO NOT REQUIRE A SEMI-COLON.

1
2
A SIMPLE Pascal Program
Write a program to print the words 'Hello. How are you?' on the console screen.

program MYFIRST (output);

begin
writeln('Hello. How are you?')
end.

The keyword writeln writes text to the console screen. The text to be displayed is written inside single
quotes. After printing the text inside the single quotes, the cursor is positioned to the beginning of the next
line.

To print a single quote as part of the text, then use two quotes, eg,

program TWOQUOTES (output);

begin
writeln('Hello there. I''m fine.')
end.

program output is;

Hello there. I'm fine.
_

Note the underscore character represents the position of the cursor

write versus writeln

The write statement leaves the cursor at the end of the current ouput, rather than going to a new line. By
replacing the above program with a write statement, the result is,
program TWOQUOTES (output);
begin
write('Hello there. I''m fine.')
end.

program output is;

Hello there. I'm fine._

Note the underscore character represents the position of the cursor

Write a program to print the the following words on the console screen.
Hello. How are you?
I'm just fine.

Answer:
Hello. How are you?
I'm just fine.

program MYSECOND (output);

begin
writeln('Hello. How are you?');
writeln('I''m just fine.');
end.

3
Comments
are inserted into Pascal programs by enclosing the comment within { and } braces. Comments are ignored
by the computer, but are helpful to explain how the program works to other programmers.

A Pascal program with comments

program DEMOPROG (output);

begin
write('Hello there.');
{the write statement does not set the cursor
to the beginning of the next line. }
writeln('This is getting boring.')
{ This is printed on the same line as Hello
there, but now the cursor moves to the beginning
of the next line, because this time we used writeln
instead of write }
end.

SELF TEST

1: Comments are opened with ___ and closed with ___

2: The end. statement signifies the ______ of a Pascal program.

3: The write statement sets the cursor _______________________________

___________________________________________________________________

4: Using the writeln statement, the cursor is positioned at __________

___________________________________________________________________

5: When printing text using write or writeln, the text is enclosed

using ____________________________________________________________

6: To print a single quote using write or writeln, use ______________

7: Each program statement is terminated with a ______________________

8: If the program is required to input data from the keyboard, the

first line of the program reads

___________________________________________________________________

9: If the program is required to input data from the keyboard, and

also output data to the console screen, the first line of the
program reads

___________________________________________________________________

4
Answers
SELF TEST
1: Comments are opened with { and closed with }

2: The end. statement signifies the end of a Pascal program.

3: The write statement sets the cursor at the end of the current text

4: Using the writeln statement, the cursor is positioned at the

beginning of the next line

5: When printing text using write or writeln, the text is enclosed

using single quotes

6: To print a single quote using write or writeln, use two single

quotes one after the after, ''

7: Each program statement is terminated with a semi-colon

8: If the program is required to input data from the keyboard, the

first line of the program reads

program name (input);

9: If the program is required to input data from the keyboard, and

also output data to the console screen, the first line of the
program reads

program name (input, output);

5
Pascal Variables
Variables store values and information. They allow programs to perform calculations and store data for later
retrieval. Variables store numbers, names, text messages, etc.

Pascal supports FOUR standard variable types, which are

integer
char
boolean
real

integer
Integer variables store whole numbers, ie, no decimal places. Examples of integer variables are,
34 6458 -90 0 1112

char
Character variables hold any valid character which is typed from the keyboard, ie digits, letters, punctuation,
special symbols etc. Examples of characters are,
XYZ 0ABC SAM_SAID.GET;LOST [ ] { } = + \ | % ( ) * $

boolean
Boolean variables, also called logical variables, can only have one of two possible states, true or false.

real
Real variables are positive or negative numbers which include decimal places. Examples are,

34.265 -3.55 0.0 35.997E+11

Here, the symbol E stands for 'times 10 to the power of'

Types integer, char and boolean are called ORDINAL types

Using Pascal VARIABLES in a program

The basic format for declaring variables is,

var name : type;

where name is the name of the variable being declared, and type is one of the recognised data types for
pascal.

Before any variables are used, they are declared (made known to the program). This occurs after the
program heading, and before the keyword begin, eg,
program VARIABLESINTRO (output);
var number1: integer;
number2: integer;
number3: integer;
begin
number1 := 34; { this makes number1 equal to 34 }
number2 := 43; { this makes number2 equal to 43 }
number3 := number1 + number2;
writeln( number1, ' + ', number2, ' = ', number3 )
end.

The above program declares three integers, number1, number2 and number3.

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To declare a variable, first write the variable name, followed by a colon, then the variable type (int real etc).
Variables of the same type can be declared on the same line, ie, the declaration of the three integers in the
previous program

var number1: integer;

number2: integer;
number3:integer;

could've been declared as follows,

var number1, number2, number3 : integer;

Each variable is seperated by a comma, the colon signifies there is no more variable names, then follows the
data type to which the variables belong, and finally the trusty semi-colon to mark the end of the line.

Some example of variable declarations

program VARIABLESINTRO2 (output);
var number1: integer;
letter : char;
money : real;
begin
number1 := 34;
letter := 'Z';
money := 32.345;
writeln( "number1 is ", number1 );
writeln( "letter is ", letter );
writeln( "money is ", money )
end.

SELF TEST
Are the following valid variable declarations?

var day, month : integer;

time : real;

var time : real;

day : integer;
month: integer;

Classify each of the following according to the four basic data types.
34.276 ____________ -37 __________________

H ____________ < __________________

dd ____________ 5.09E+27 _______________

0 ____________ 0.0 __________________

Answer:
SELF TEST
Are the following valid variable declarations?

7
 var day, month : integer;
time : real;

var time : real;

day : integer;
month: integer;

They are both identical and also valid!

Classify each of the following according to the four basic data types.
34.276 Real -37 Integer
H Character < Character
dd Character 5.09E+27 Real
0 Integer 0.0 Real

VARIABLE NAMES
Variable names are a maximum of 32 alphanumeric characters. Some Pascal versions only recognise the
first eight characters. The first letter of the data name must be ALPHABETIC (ie A to Z ). Lowercase
characters ( a to z ) are treated as uppercase. Examples of variable names are,

RATE_OF_PAY HOURS_WORKED B41 X y Home_score

Give variables meaningful names, which will help to make the program easier to read and follow. This
simplifies the task of error correction.

ASSIGNING VALUES TO VARIABLES

Having declared a variable, you often want to make it equal to some value. In pascal, the special operator
:=

provides a means of assigning a value to a variable. The following portion of code, which appeared earlier,
illustrates this.
var number1, number2, number3 : integer;
begin
number1 := 43; { make number1 equal to 43 decimal }
number2 := 34; { make number2 equal to 34 decimal }
number3 := number1 + number2; { number3 equals 77 }

SELF TEST

1. Declare an integer called sum

2. Declare a character called letter

3. Declare a variable called money which can be used to hold currency

4. Declare a variable called arctan which will hold scientific notation values (+e)

5. Declare an integer variable called total and initialise it to zero.

6. Declare a variable called loop, which can hold any integer value.

8
Answer:

SELF TEST: ANSWERS

1. Declare an integer called sum

sum : integer;

2. Declare a character called letter

letter : char;

3. Declare a variable called money which can be used to hold currency

money : real;

4. Declare an integer variable called total and initialise it to zero

total : integer;
total := 0;

5. Declare a variable called loop, which can hold any integer value

loop : integer;

9
ARITHMETIC STATEMENTS
The following symbols represent the arithmetic operators, ie, use them when you wish to perform
calculations.

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division

Addition Example
program Add (output);
var number1, number2, result : integer;
begin
number1 := 10;
number2 := 20;
result := number1 + number2;
writeln(number1, " plus ", number2, " is ", result )
end.

Subtraction Example
program Subtract (output);
var number1, number2, result : integer;
begin
number1 := 15;
number2 := 2;
result := number1 - number2;
writeln(number1, " minus ", number2, " is ", result )
end.

Multiplication Example
program Multiply (output);
var number1, number2, result : integer;
begin
number1 := 10;
number2 := 20;
result := number1 * number2;
writeln(number1, " multiplied by ", number2, " is ", result )
end.

Division Example
program Divide (output);
var number1, number2, result : integer;
begin
number1 := 20;
number2 := 10;
result := number1 / number2;
writeln(number1, " divided by ", number2, " is ", result )
end.

10
SELF TEST
The following program contains a few errors. Identify each error (there are seven), and show the correct
version on the right.
progam TEST (output) _______________________________

var number1, number2; integer; _______________________________

begin; _______________________________

number1 = 24; _______________________________

number2 := number1 * 4; _______________________________

writeln('Help ) _______________________________

end _______________________________

Answers:

SELF TEST
The following program contains a few errors. Identify each error (there are seven), and show the correct
version on the right.
progam TEST (output)
var number1, number2; integer;
begin;
number1 = 24;
number2 := number1 * 4;
writeln('Help )
end

program TEST (output);

var number1, number2 : integer;
begin
number1 := 24;
number2 := number1 * 4;
writeln('Help' )
end.

11
DISPLAYING THE VALUE OR CONTENTS OF VARIABLES
The write or writeln statement displays the value of variables on the console screen. To print text, enclose
inside single quotes. To display the value of a variable, do NOT enclose using single quotes, eg, the
following program displays the content of each of the variables declared.

program DISPLAYVARIABLES (output);

var number1 : integer;
letter : char;
money : real;
begin
number1 := 23;
letter := 'W';
money := 23.73;
writeln('number1 = ', number1 );
writeln('letter = ', letter );
writeln('money = ', money )
end.

The display output from the above program will be,

number1 = 23
letter = W
money = 2.3730000000E+01

SELF TEST
Each of the following expressions is wrong. Rewrite each using correct Pascal, in the space provided.
Firstletter := A; ___________________________________

StartCount:= Initial := 0; ___________________________________

Taxrate := 5%; ___________________________________

Total := 5 plus 7; ___________________________________

Effeciency := .35; ___________________________________

Answer:
SELF TEST
Each of the following expressions is wrong. Rewrite each using correct Pascal, in the space provided.
Firstletter := A; Firstletter := 'A';

StartCount := Initial := 0; StartCount := 0;

Initial := 0;

Taxrate := 5%; Taxrate := 0.05;

Total := 5 plus 7; Total := 5 + 7;

Effeciency := .35; Effeciency := 0.35;

12
CLASS EXERCISE
What is displayed by the following program.

program EXERCISE1 (output);

var a, b : integer;
c : real;
begin
a := 1; b := 5; c := 1.20;
writeln('A = ', a + 3 );
writeln('B = ', b - 2 );
writeln('C = ', c / 2 )
end.

Answer:
CLASS EXERCISE
What is displayed by the following program.
program EXERCISE1 (output);
var a, b : integer;
c : real;
begin
a := 1; b := 5; c := 1.20;
writeln('A = ', a + 3 );
writeln('B = ', b - 2 );
writeln('C = ', c / 2 )
end.

Class Exercise .. program display is

A = 4
B = 3
C = 6.0000000000E-01

PROGRAM ONE
You are to write a program which calculates and prints on the screen, the time required to travel 3000 miles
at a speed of 500 mph.

PROGRAM TWO
Write a program to calculate the gross pay for a worker named FRED given that FRED worked 40 hours at
$2.90 per hour.

Answer:
PROGRAM ONE
You are to write a program which calculates and prints on the screen, the time required to travel 3000 miles
at a speed of 500 mph.
program PROG1 (output);
var Time, Distance, Speed : real;
begin
Distance := 3000;
Speed := 500;
Time := Distance / Speed;
writeln('It takes ',Time,' hours.')
end.

13
PROGRAM TWO
Write a program to calculate the gross pay for a worker named FRED given that FRED worked 40 hours at
$2.90 per hour.

program PROG2 (output);

var grosspay, hoursworked, hourlyrate : real;
begin
hoursworked := 40;
hourlyrate := 2.90;
grosspay := hoursworked * hourlyrate;
writeln('FRED''s gross pay is $', grosspay )
end.

14
GETTING INFORMATION/DATA FROM THE KEYBOARD INTO A PROGRAM
It is convenient to accept data whilst a program is running. The read and readln statements allow you to read
values and characters from the keyboard, placing them directly into specified variables.

The program which follows reads two numbers from the keyboard, assigns them to the specified variables,
then prints them to the console screen.

program READDEMO (input, output);

var numb1, numb2 : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter two numbers separated by a space');
read( numb1 );
read( numb2 );
writeln;
writeln('Numb1 is ', numb1 , ' Numb2 is ', numb2 )
end.

When run, the program will display the message

Please enter two numbers separated by a space
then wait for you to enter in the two numbers. If you typed the two numbers, then pressed the return key, eg,
237 64
then the program will accept the two numbers, assign the value 237 to numb1 and the value 64 to numb2,
then continue and finally print
Numb1 is 237 Numb2 is 64

Differences between READ and READLN

The readln statement discards all other values on the same line, but read does not. In the previous program,
replacing the read statements with readln and using the same input, the program would assign 237 to
numb1, discard the value 64, and wait for the user to enter in another value which it would then assign to
numb2.

The is read as a blank by read, and ignored by readln.

SELF TEST on READ

Assuming that we made the following declaration
var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
and that the user types
ABCDE
then what would each of the following statements assign to the various variables,
read( C1 ); C1 = __
read( C2 ); read( C3 ); C2 = __ C3 = __
read( C4, C5, C6 ); C4 = __ C5 = __ C6 = __

Answer:

15
SELF TEST on READ
Assuming that we made the following declaration
var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
and that the user types
ABCDE
then what would each of the following statements assign to the various variables,
read( C1 ); C1 = __
read( C2 ); read( C3 ); C2 = __ C3 = __
read( C4, C5, C6 ); C4 = __ C5 = __ C6 = __

C1 = A
C2 = B C3 = C
C4 = D C5 = E C6 =

SELF TEST on READLN

Assuming that we made the following declaration
var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
and that the user types
ABCDE
FOR EACH LINE, then what would each of the following statements assign to the various variables,
readln( C1 ); C1 = __
readln( C2 ); readln( C3 ); C2 = __ C3 = __
readln( C4, C5, C6 ); C4 = __ C5 = __ C6 = __
readln; _________________________

Answer:

SELF TEST on READLN

Assuming that we made the following declaration
var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
and that the user types
ABCDE
FOR EACH LINE, then what would each of the following statements assign to the various variables,
readln( C1 ); C1 = __
readln( C2 ); readln( C3 ); C2 = __ C3 = __
readln( C4, C5, C6 ); C4 = __ C5 = __ C6 = __
readln; _________________________

C1 = A
C2 = A C3 = Waits for new input line
C4 = A C5 = B C6 = C

16
SELF TEST...Match the inputs and outputs for the following.....

program READCHARACTERS (input, output);

var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
begin
readln( C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 );
writeln(C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 )
end.

Inputs Outputs ( spaces shown as _ )

a) Hi there a) A1_B2_

b) Hi b) 57_4_3
there
c) 694 c) Hi_the
827
d) 57 4 d) Hi_the
329
e) A1 e) 694_82
B2 C3
Answer:

SELF TEST...Match the inputs and outputs for the following.....

program READCHARACTERS (input, output);
var C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 : char;
begin
readln( C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 );
writeln(C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 )
end.

Inputs Outputs ( spaces shown as _ )

a) Hi there a) A1_B2_

b) Hi b) 57_4_3
there
c) 694 c) Hi_the
827
d) 57 4 d) Hi_the
329
e) A1 e) 694_82
B2 C3

a) Hi there c) Hi_ther
b) Hi d) Hi_ther
there
c) 694 e) 694_82
827
d) 57 4 b) 57_4_3
329
e) A1 a) A1_B2_
B2 C3

17
PROGRAM THREE
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) in a circuit is equal to the current flowing in amperes (I) multiplied by
the resistance in the ciruit (R) [ ie, E = I * R ]. Write a program to enter in the values of resistance and
current, displaying the voltage which would exist.
Answer:
PROGRAM THREE
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) in a circuit is equal to the current flowing in amperes (I) multiplied by
the resistance in the ciruit (R) [ ie, E = I * R ]. Write a program to enter in the values of resistance and
current, displaying the voltage which would exist.
program OHMSLAW (input, output);
var resistance, current, volts : real;
begin
writeln('Please enter resistance value');
readln( resistance );
writeln('Please enter current value');
readln( current );
volts := current * resistance ;
writeln('The voltage is ', volts )
end.

PROGRAM FOUR
Write a program which inputs two resistance values, and then displays their sum value when placed in series
and then in parallel. [ The total series resistance is R1 + R2, whilst the parallel resistance is (R1 * R2) / (R1
+ R2) ]

SPECIFYING THE DISPLAY FORMAT FOR THE OUTPUT OF VARIABLES

When variables are displayed, our version of Pascal assigns a specified number of character spaces (called a
field width) to display them. The field widths for the various data types are,

INTEGER - Number of digits + 1 { or +2 if negative }

CHAR - 1 for each character
REAL - 12
BOOLEAN - 4 if true, 5 if false

Often, the allotted field size is too big for the majority of display output. Pascal provides a way in which the
programmer can specify the field size for each output.
writeln('WOW':10,'MOM!':10,'Hi there.');
The display output will be as follows,
WOW.......MOM!......Hi there. ... indicates a space.

Note that to specify the field width of text or a particular variable, use a colon (:) followed by the field size.
'text string':fieldsize, variable:fieldsize

18
INTEGER DIVISION
There is a special operator, DIV, used when you wish to divide one integer by another (ie, you can't use / ).
The following program demonstrates this,

program INTEGER_DIVISION (output);

var number1, number2, number3 : integer;
begin
number1 := 4;
number2 := 8;
number3 := number2 DIV number1;
writeln( number2:2,' divided by ',number1:2,' is ',number3:2)
end.

Sample Output
8 divided by 4 is 2

MODULUS
The MOD keyword means MODULUS, ie, it returns the remainder when one number is divided by another,
The modulus of 20 DIV 5 is 0
The modulus of 21 DIV 5 is 1

program MODULUS (output);

var number1, number2, number3 : integer;
begin
number1 := 3;
number2 := 10;
number3 := number2 MOD number1;
writeln( number2:2,' modulus ',number1:2,' is ',number3:2)
end.

Sample Output
10 modulus 3 is 1

SELF TEST

1. Write a Pascal statement which sums the two integer variables digit and value into the variable total

2. Write a Pascal statement which subtracts the value 10 from the variable loop, leaving the result in the
variable sum

3. Write a Pascal statement to display the value of the integer variable total

4. Write a Pascal statement to read in a character value into the variable letter

5. Write a Pascal statement to display the value of the real variable small_value using a field width of three
places

19
Answers:

SELF TEST

1. Write a Pascal statement which sums the two integer variables digit and value into the variable total

total := digit + value;

2. Write a Pascal statement which subtracts the value 10 from the variable loop, leaving the result in the
variable sum
sum := loop - 10;

3. Write a Pascal statement to display the value of the integer variable total
writeln( total );

4. Write a Pascal statement to read in a character value into the variable letter
readln( letter );

5. Write a Pascal statement to display the value of the real variable small_value using a field width of three
places
writeln( small_value:3 );

MAKING DECISIONS
Most programs need to make decisions. There are several statements available in the Pascal language for
this. The IF statement is one of the them. The RELATIONAL OPERATORS, listed below, allow the
programmer to test various variables against other variables or values.

= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
<> Not equal to
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to

The format for the IF THEN Pascal statement is,

if condition_is_true then
execute_this_program_statement;

The condition (ie, A < 5 ) is evaluated to see if it's true. When the condition is true, the program statement
will be executed. If the condition is not true, then the program statement following the keyword then will be
ignored.
program IF_DEMO (input, output); {Program demonstrating IF THEN statement}
var number, guess : integer;
begin
number := 2;
writeln('Guess a number between 1 and 10');
readln( guess );
if number = guess then writeln('You guessed correctly. Good on you!');
if number <> guess then writeln('Sorry, you guessed wrong.')
end.

20
Executing more than one statement as part of an IF
To execute more than one program statement when an if statement is true, the program statements are
grouped using the begin and end keywords. Whether a semi-colon follows the end keyword depends upon
what comes after it. When followed by another end or end. then it no semi-colon, eg,

program IF_GROUP1 (input, output);

var number, guess : integer;
begin
number := 2;
writeln('Guess a number between 1 and 10');
readln( guess );
if number = guess then
begin
writeln('Lucky you. It was the correct answer.');
writeln('You are just too smart.')
end;
if number <> guess then writeln('Sorry, you guessed wrong.')
end.

program IF_GROUP2 (input, output);

var number, guess : integer;
begin
number := 2;
writeln('Guess a number between 1 and 10');
readln( guess );
if number = guess then
begin
writeln('Lucky you. It was the correct answer.');
writeln('You are just too smart.')
end
end.

IF THEN ELSE
The IF statement can also include an ELSE statement, which specifies the statement (or block or group of
statements) to be executed when the condition associated with the IF statement is false. Rewriting the
previous program using an IF THEN ELSE statement,

{ Program example demonstrating IF THEN ELSE statement }

program IF_ELSE_DEMO (input, output);
var number, guess : integer;
begin
number := 2;
writeln('Guess a number between 1 and 10');
readln( guess );
if number = guess then
writeln('You guessed correctly. Good on you!')
else
writeln('Sorry, you guessed wrong.')
end.

There are times when you want to execute more than one statement when a condition is true (or false for that
matter). Pascal makes provison for this by allowing you to group blocks of code together by the use of the
begin and end keywords. Consider the following portion of code,
writeln('You guessed correctly. Good on
if number = guess then you!');
begin

21
 writeln('It may have been a lucky guess end
though') end.
end {no semi-colon if followed by
an else }
Answer:
else CLASS EXERCISE
begin What is displayed when the following program is executed?
writeln('Sorry, you guessed wrong.');
writeln('Better luck next time') program IF_THEN_ELSE_TEST (output);
end; {semi-colon depends on next var a, b, c, d : integer;
keyword } begin
a := 5; b := 3; c := 99; d := 5;
if a > 6 then writeln('A');
CLASS EXERCISE if a > b then writeln('B');
What is displayed when the following program is if b = c then
begin
executed? writeln('C');
writeln('D')
program IF_THEN_ELSE_TEST (output); end;
var a, b, c, d : integer; if b <> c then writeln('E') else
begin writeln('F');
a := 5; b := 3; c := 99; d := 5; if a >= c then writeln('G') else
writeln('H');
if a > 6 then writeln('A');
if a <= d then
if a > b then writeln('B'); begin
if b = c then writeln('I');
begin writeln('J')
writeln('C'); end
writeln('D') end.
end;
if b <> c then writeln('E') else
writeln('F'); Class Exercise .. Program output of
if a >= c then writeln('G') else IF_THEN_ELSE_TEST is...
B
writeln('H');
E
if a <= d then H
begin I
writeln('I'); J
writeln('J')

CONSTANTS
When writing programs, it is desirable to use values which do not change during the programs execution. An
example would be the value of PI, 3.141592654

In a program required to calculate the circumference of several circles, it would be simpler to write the
words PI, instead of its value 3.14. Pascal provides CONSTANTS to implement this.

To declare a constant, the keyword const is used, followed by the name of the constant, an equals sign, the
constants value, and then a semi-colon, eg,

const PI = 3.141592654;

From now on, in the Pascal program, you use PI. When the program is compiled, the compiler replaces
every occurrence of the word PI with its actual value.

Thus, constants provide a short hand means of writing values, and help to make programs easier to read. The
following program demonstrates the use of constants.

program CIRCUMFERENCE (input,output);

const PI = 3.141592654;
var Circumfer, Diameter : real;

22
 begin
writeln('Enter the diameter of the circle');
readln(Diameter);
Circumfer := PI * Diameter;
writeln('The circles circumference is ',Circumfer)
end.

SPECIFYING THE NUMBER OF DECIMAL PLACES FOR DISPLAYING REALS

The following change to the above program will print out the circumference using a fieldwidth of ten, and
two decimal places.

writeln('The circles circumference is ',Circumference:10:2);

PROGRAM EIGHT
Write a program which inputs the ordinary time and overtime worked, calculating the gross pay. The rate is
4.20 per hour, and overtime is time and a half.

Answer:
PROGRAM EIGHT
Write a program which inputs the ordinary time and overtime worked, calculating the gross pay. The rate is
4.20 per hour, and overtime is time and a half.
program PROG8 ( input, output );
var grosspay, ordinary_time, hourlyrate, overtime, ot_rate: real;

begin
hourlyrate := 4.20;
ot_rate := hourlyrate * 1.5;
writeln('Please enter the number of hours worked');
readln( ordinary_time );
writeln('Please enter the number of overtime hours');
readln( overtime );
grosspay := (ordinary_time * hourlyrate) + (overtime * ot_rate);
writeln('The gross pay is $', grosspay:5:2 )
end.

SELF TEST

1. Which of the following is an invalid Pascal relational operator

==
<>
<
>
2. Write a Pascal statement which compares the integer variable sum to the constant value 10, and if it is the
same prints the string "Good guess"

3. Write a Pascal statement which compares the character variable letter to the character variable chinput,
and if it is not the same, prints the value of letter

23
4. Write a Pascal statement to compare the character variable letter to the character constant 'A', and if less,
prints the text string "Too low", otherwise print the text string "Too high"

5. Write a Pascal statement to display the text string "Valve open", if the variable waterflow is equal to 1,
AND the variable outputvalue is equal to 0

6. Write a Pascal statement which declares a constant called MAXSIZE with a value of 80

7. Write a Pascal statement which will display the value of the real variable degrees using a fieldwidth of 5
with three decimal places

Answers:

SELF TEST

1. Which of the following is an invalid Pascal relational operator

==
<>
<
>
2. Write a Pascal statement which compares the integer variable sum to the constant value 10, and if it is the
same prints the string "Good guess"
if sum = 10 then writeln('Good guess');

3. Write a Pascal statement which compares the character variable letter to the character variable chinput,
and if it is not the same, prints the value of letter
if letter <> chinput then writeln( letter );

4. Write a Pascal statement to compare the character variable letter to the character constant 'A', and if less,
prints the text string "Too low", otherwise print the text string "Too high"
if letter < 'A' then writeln('Too low')
else writeln('Too high');

5. Write a Pascal statement to display the text string "Valve open", if the variable waterflow is equal to 1,
AND the variable outputvalue is equal to 0
if (waterflow = 1) AND (outputvalue = 0) then writeln('Valve open');

6. Write a Pascal statement which declares a constant called MAXSIZE with a value of 80
const MAXSIZE = 80;

7. Write a Pascal statement which will display the value of the real variable degrees using a fieldwidth of 5
with three decimal places
writeln('Degrees = ', degrees:5:3 );

24
LOOPS
The most common loop in Pascal is the FOR loop. The statement inside the for block is executed a number
of times depending on the control condition. The format's for the FOR command is,

FOR var_name := initial_value TO final_value DO program_statement;

FOR var_name := initial_value TO final_value DO

begin
program_statement; {to execute more than one statement in a for }
program_statement; {loop, you group them using the begin and }
program_statement {end statements }
end; {semi-colon here depends upon next keyword }

FOR var_name := initial_value DOWNTO final_value DO program_statement;

You must not change the value of the control variable (var_name) inside the loop. The following program
illustrates the for statement.
program CELCIUS_TABLE ( output );
var celcius : integer; farenhiet : real;
begin
writeln('Degree''s Celcius Degree''s Farenhiet');
for celcius := 1 to 20 do
begin
farenhiet := ( 9 / 5 ) * celcius + 32;
writeln( celcius:8, ' ',farenhiet:16:2 )
end
end.

CLASS EXERCISE
What is the resultant output when this program is run.
program FOR_TEST ( output );
var s, j, k, i, l : integer;
begin
s := 0;
for j:= 1 to 5 do
begin
write( j );
s := s + j
end;
writeln( s );
for k := 0 to 1 do write( k );
for i := 10 downto 1 do writeln( i );
j := 3; k := 8; l := 2;
for i := j to k do writeln( i + l )
end.

Answer:
CLASS EXERCISE
What is the resultant output when this program is run.
program FOR_TEST ( output );
var s, j, k, i, l : integer;
begin
s := 0;
for j:= 1 to 5 do
begin
write( j );

25
 s := s + j
end;
writeln( s );
for k := 0 to 1 do write( k );
for i := 10 downto 1 do writeln( i );
j := 3; k := 8; l := 2;
for i := j to k do writeln( i + l )
end.

Class Exercise .. Output of program FOR_TEST is,

1234515
0110
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
5
6
7
8
9
10

PROGRAM NINE
For the first twenty values of farenhiet, print out the equivalent degree in celcuis (Use a tabular format, with
appropiate headings). [C = ( 5 / 9 ) * Farenhiet - 32]

Use the statement writeln('<14>'); to clear the screen.

Answer:
PROGRAM NINE
For the first twenty values of farenhiet, print out the equivalent degree in celcuis (Use a tabular format, with
appropiate headings). [C = ( 5 / 9 ) * Farenhiet - 32]

Use the statement writeln('<14>'); to clear the screen.

PROGRAM NINE Table of 1 to 20 Celcius

program PROG9 (output);
var farenhiet : real;
celcius : integer;
begin
writeln('<14>'); {clear screen on DG machine}
writeln('Degree''s Celcius Degree''s Farenhiet');
for celcius := 1 to 20 do
begin
farenhiet := ( 9 / 5 ) * celcius + 32;
writeln( celcius:8, ' ', farenhiet:16:2 )
end
end.

26
NESTED LOOPS
A for loop can occur within another, so that the inner loop (which contains a block of statements) is repeated
by the outer loop.

RULES RELATED TO NESTED FOR LOOPS

1. Each loop must use a seperate variable
2. The inner loop must begin and end entirely within the outer loop.

CLASS EXERCISE
Determine the output of the following program,
program NESTED_FOR_LOOPS (output);
var line, column : integer;
begin
writeln('LINE');
for line := 1 to 6 do
begin
write( line:2 );
for column := 1 to 4 do
begin
write('COLUMN':10); write(column:2)
end;
writeln
end
end.
Answer:
CLASS EXERCISE
Determine the output of the following program,
program NESTED_FOR_LOOPS (output);
var line, column : integer;
begin
writeln('LINE');
for line := 1 to 6 do
begin
write( line:2 );
for column := 1 to 4 do
begin
write('COLUMN':10); write(column:2)
end;
writeln
end
end.

Class exercise .. output of program NESTED_FOR_LOOPS is,

LINE
1 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4
2 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4
3 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4
4 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4
5 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4
6 COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3 COLUMN 4

27
PROGRAM TEN
Given that the reactance (Xc) of a capacitor equals 1 / (2PIfC), where f is the frequency in hertz, C is the
capacitance in farads, and PI is 3.14159, write a program that displays the reactance of five successive
capacitor's (their value typed in from the keyboard), for the frequency range 100 to 1000 hertz in 10hz steps.

Answer:
PROGRAM TEN
Given that the reactance (Xc) of a capacitor equals 1 / (2PIfC), where f is the frequency in hertz, C is the
capacitance in farads, and PI is 3.14159, write a program that displays the reactance of five successive
capacitor's (their value typed in from the keyboard), for the frequency range 100 to 1000 hertz in 10hz steps.
program PROG10 (input, output);
const PI = 3.14159;
var frequency , loopcount, innerloop : integer;
capacitor, Xc : real;
begin
for loopcount := 1 to 5 do
begin
writeln;
writeln('Enter capacitance farad value for capacitor #',
loopcount);
readln( capacitor );
for innerloop := 1 to 10 do
begin
frequency := innerloop * 100;
Xc := 1 / ( 2 * PI * frequency * capacitor );
write('At ',frequency:4,'hz ');
writeln('the reactance is ', Xc,' ohms.')
end
end
end.

PROGRAM ELEVEN
The factorial of an integer is the product of all integers up to and including that integer, except that the
factorial of 0 is 1.

eg, 3! = 1 * 2 * 3 (answer=6)
Evaluate the factorial of an integer less than 20, for five numbers input successively via the keyboard.

Answer:

PROGRAM ELEVEN
The factorial of an integer is the product of all integers up to and including that integer, except that the
factorial of 0 is 1.
eg, 3! = 1 * 2 * 3 (answer=6)
Evaluate the factorial of an integer less than 20, for five numbers input successively via the keyboard.
program PROG11 (input, output);
var loopcount, innerloop, number, factorial : integer;
begin
for loopcount := 1 to 5 do
begin
writeln;
writeln('Enter number ',loopcount, ' for calculation');

28
 readln( number );
if number = 0 then factorial := 0
else
begin
factorial := 1;
for innerloop := number downto 1 do
factorial := factorial * innerloop
end;
writeln('The factorial of ',number,' is ',factorial)
end
end.

THE WHILE LOOP

The while loop is similar to the for loop shown earlier, in that it allows a {group of} program statement(s) to
be executed a number of times. The structure of the while statement is,

while condition_is_true do
begin
program statement;
program statement
end; {semi-colon depends upon next keyword}
or, if only a single program statement is to be executed,
while condition_is_true do program statement;

The program statement(s) are executed when the condition evaluates as true. Somewhere inside the loop the
value of the variable which is controlling the loop (ie, being tested in the condition) must change so that the
loop can finally exit.
SELF TEST
Determine the output of the following program
program WHILE_DEMO (output);
const PI = 3.14;
var XL, Frequency, Inductance : real
begin
Inductance := 1.0;
Frequency := 100.00;
while Frequency < 1000.00 do
begin
XL := 2 * PI * Frequency * Inductance;
writeln('XL at ',Frequency:4:0,' hertz = ', XL:8:2 );
Frequency := Frequency + 100.00
end
end.

Answer:
SELF TEST
Determine the output of the following program
program WHILE_DEMO (output);
const PI = 3.14;
var XL, Frequency, Inductance : real
begin
Inductance := 1.0;
Frequency := 100.00;
while Frequency < 1000.00 do
begin
XL := 2 * PI * Frequency * Inductance;
writeln('XL at ',Frequency:4:0,' hertz = ', XL:8:2 );
Frequency := Frequency + 100.00

29
 end
end.

Self test .. Output of program WHILE_DEMO is..

XL at 100 hertz = ..........
XL at 200 hertz = ..........
.............................
XL at 1000 hertz = ..........

REPEAT
The REPEAT statement is similar to the while loop, how-ever, with the repeat statement, the conditional test
occurs after the loop. The program statement(s) which constitute the loop body will be executed at least
once. The format is,

repeat
program statement;
until condition_is_true; {semi-colon depends on next keyword}

There is no need to use the begin/end keywords to group more than one program statement, as all statements
between repeat and until are treated as a block.

The CASE statement

The case statement allows you to rewrite code which uses a lot of if else statements, making the program
logic much easier to read. Consider the following code portion written using if else statements,

if operator = '*' then result := number1 * number2

else if operator = '/' then result := number1 / number2
else if operator = '+' then result := number1 + number2
else if operator = '-' then result := number1 - number2
else invalid_operator = 1;

Rewriting this using case statements,

case operator of
'*' : result:= number1 * number2;
'/' : result:= number1 / number2;
'+' : result:= number1 + number2;
'-' : result:= number1 - number2;
otherwise invalid_operator := 1
end;

The value of operator is compared against each of the values specified. If a match occurs, then the program
statement(s) associated with that match are executed.

If operator does not match, it is compared against the next value. The purpose of the otherwise clause
ensures that appropiate action is taken when operator does not match against any of the specified cases.

You must compare the variable against a constant, how-ever, it is possible to group cases as shown below,

case user_request of
'A' :
'a' : call_addition_subprogram;
's' :
'S' : call_subtraction_subprogram;
end;

30
PROGRAM TWELVE
Convert the following program, using appropiate case statements.
program PROG_TWELVE (input, output);
var invalid_operator : boolean;
operator : char;
number1, number2, result : real;
begin
invalid_operator := FALSE;
writeln('Enter two numbers and an operator in the format');
writeln(' number1 operator number2');
readln(number1); readln(operator); readln(number2);
if operator = '*' then result := number1 * number2
else if operator = '/' then result := number1 / number2
else if operator = '+' then result := number1 + number2
else if operator = '-' then result := number1 - number2
else invalid_operator := TRUE;

if invalid_operator then
writeln('Invalid operator')
else
writeln(number1:4:2,' ', operator,' ', number2:4:2,' is '
,result:5:2)
end.

Answer:

PROGRAM TWELVE
Convert the following program, using appropiate case statements.
program PROG_TWELVE (input, output);
var invalid_operator : boolean;
operator : char;
number1, number2, result : real;
begin
invalid_operator := FALSE;
writeln('Enter two numbers and an operator in the format');
writeln(' number1 operator number2');
readln(number1); readln(operator); readln(number2);
if operator = '*' then result := number1 * number2
else if operator = '/' then result := number1 / number2
else if operator = '+' then result := number1 + number2
else if operator = '-' then result := number1 - number2
else invalid_operator := TRUE;

if invalid_operator then
writeln('Invalid operator')
else
writeln(number1:4:2,' ', operator,' ', number2:4:2,' is '
,result:5:2)
end.

Conversion of PROG_TWELVE using case operator

program PROG_TWELVE (input, output); {Data General Version}
var invalid_operator : boolean;
operator : char;
number1, number2, result : real;
begin
invalid_operator := FALSE;
writeln('Enter two numbers and an operator in the format');
writeln(' number1 operator number2');

31
 readln(number1); readln(operator); readln(number2);
case operator of
'*': result := number1 * number2;
'/': result := number1 / number2;
'+': result := number1 + number2;
'-': result := number1 - number2;
otherwise invalid_operator := TRUE
end;
if invalid_operator then
writeln('Invalid operator')
else
writeln(number1:4:2,' ', operator,' ', number2:4:2,' is '
,result:5:2)
end.
{Note that turbo pascal does not support use of otherwise}
{Special changes for Turbo are }

case operator of
'*': result := number1 * number2;
'/': result := number1 / number2;
'+': result := number1 + number2;
'-': result := number1 - number2;
else invalid_operator := TRUE
end;

32
ENUMERATED DATA TYPES
Enumerated variables are defined by the programmer. It allows you to create your own data types, which
consist of a set of symbols. You first create the set of symbols, and assign to them a new data type variable
name.

Having done this, the next step is to create working variables to be of the same type. The following portions
of code describe how to create enumerated variables.

type civil_servant = ( clerk, police_officer, teacher, mayor );

var job, office : civil_servant;

The new data type created is civil_servant. It is a set of values, enclosed by the ( ) parenthesis. These set of
values are the only ones which variables of type civil_servant can assume or be assigned.

The next line declares two working variables, job and office, to be of the new data type civil_servant.

The following assignments are valid,

job := mayor;
office := teacher;

if office = mayor then writeln('Hello mayor!');

The list of values or symbols between the parenthesis is an ordered set of values. The first symbol in the set
has an ordinal value of zero, and each successive symbol has a value of one greater than its predecessor.
police_officer < teacher
evaluates as true, because police_officer occurs before teacher in the set.

MORE EXAMPLES ON ENUMERATED DATA TYPES

type beverage = ( coffee, tea, cola, soda, milk, water );
color = ( green, red, yellow, blue, black, white );
var drink : beverage;
chair : color;

drink := coffee;
chair := green;

if chair = yellow then drink := tea;

ADDITIONAL OPERATIONS WITH USER DEFINED VARIABLE TYPES

Consider the following code,

type Weekday = ( Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday );

var Workday : Weekday;

The first symbol of the set has the value of 0, and each symbol which follows is one greater. Pascal provides
three additional operations which are performed on user defined variables. The three operations are,
ord( symbol ) returns the value of the symbol, thus ord(Tuesday)
will give a value of 1

33
 pred( symbol ) obtains the previous symbol, thus
pred(Wednesday) will give Tuesday

succ( symbol ) obtains the next symbol, thus succ(Monday)

gives Tuesday

Enumerated values can be used to set the limits of a for statement, or as a constant in a case statement, eg,
for Workday := Monday to Friday
.........

case Workday of
Monday : writeln('Mondays always get me down.');
Friday : writeln('Get ready for partytime!')
end;

Enumerated type values cannot be input from the keyboard or outputted to the screen, so the following
statements are illegal,
writeln( drink );
readln( chair );

SELF TEST ON ENUMERATED DATA TYPES

Whats wrong with?
type Day = (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday,
Sunday);
var Today : Day;

for Today := Sunday to Monday do

begin
writeln( Today );
Today := succ( Today )
end;

Whats wrong with

type COLOR = ( Red, Blue, Green, Yellow );
var Green, Red : COLOR;

SUBRANGES
Just as you can create your own set of pre-defined data types, you can also create a smaller subset or
subrange of an existing set which has been previously defined. Each subrange consists of a defined lower
and upper limit. Consider the following,

type DAY = (Monday,Tuesday,Wednesday,Thursday,Friday,Saturday,Sunday);

Weekday = Monday..Friday; {subrange of DAY}
Weekend = Saturday..Sunday; {subrange of DAY}
Hours = 0..24; {subrange of integers}
Capitals= 'A'..'Z'; {subrange of characters)

NOTE: You cannot have subranges of type real.

Which of the following are legal

type Gradepoints = 0.0..4.0;
Numbers = integer;
Alphabet = 'Z'..'A';
Answer:
34
Which of the following are legal
type Gradepoints = 0.0..4.0;
Numbers = integer;
Alphabet = 'Z'..'A';

Which of the following are legal....NONE ARE!

Cannot have subranges of real type
Cannot do this, must be Numbers = 1..500;
Cannot do this, must be Alphabet = 'A'..'Z' as 'A' comes before 'Z'

SELF TEST

1. Write a for loop to display the following output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Write a for loop to display the following output

1
22
333
4444
55555

3. Write a while loop to display the following output

A B C D E F

4. Rewrite the following if statements as a Case statement

if flag = 1 then number := 10

else if flag = 2 then number := 20
else if flag = 3 then number := 40;

5. Define an enumerated data type called chair, which has the set of values lounge, deck, executive

6. Write pascal statements to define a new working variable mychair, of type chair, and assign the value
deck to this new variable.

7. Define a new subrange called minutes, which has a set of ranges from 0 to 60.

35
Answer:

SELF TEST: ANSWERS

1. Write a for loop to display the following output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

for loop := 1 to 10 do write( loop, ' ' );

2. Write a for loop to display the following output

1
22
333
4444
55555

for loop := 1 to 5 do
begin
for loop1 := 1 to loop do write( loop );
writeln
end

3. Write a while loop to display the following output

A B C D E F

loop := 'A';
while loop <= 'F' do
begin
write( loop, ' ' );
loop := loop + 1
end;

4. Rewrite the following if statements as a Case statement

if flag = 1 then number := 10

else if flag = 2 then number := 20
else if flag = 3 then number := 40;

case flag of
1 : number := 10;
2 : number := 20;
3 : number := 40
end;

5. Define an enumerated data type called chair, which has the set of values lounge, deck, executive

type chair = ( lounge, deck, executive );

36
6. Write pascal statements to define a new working variable mychair, of type chair, and assign the value
deck to this new variable.

var mychair : chair;

mychair := deck;

7. Define a new subrange called minutes, which has a set of ranges from 0 to 60.

type minutes = 0..60;

ARRAYS
An array is a structure which holds many variables, all of the same data type. The array consists of so many
elements, each element of the array capable of storing one piece of data (ie, a variable).

An array is defined as follows,

type array_name = ARRAY [lower..upper] of data_type;

Lower and Upper define the boundaries for the array. Data_type is the type of variable which the array will
store, eg, type int, char etc. A typical declaration follows,
type intarray = ARRAY [1..20] of integer;

This creates a definition for an array of integers called intarray, which has 20 separate locations numbered
from 1 to 20. Each of these positions (called an element), holds a single integer. The next step is to create a
working variable to be of the same type, eg,
var numbers : intarray;

Each element of the numbers array is individually accessed and updated as desired.

To assign a value to an element of an array, use

numbers[2] := 10;
This assigns the integer value 10 to element 2 of the numbers array. The value or element number (actually
its called an index) is placed inside the square brackets.

To assign the value stored in an element of an array to a variable, use

number1 := numbers[2];
This takes the integer stored in element 2 of the array numbers, and makes the integer number1 equal to it.

37
Consider the following array declarations

const size = 10;

last = 100;
type sub = 'a'..'z';
color = (green, yellow, red, orange, blue );
var chararray : ARRAY [1..size] of char;
{an array of 10 characters. First element is chararray[1],
last element is chararry[10] }

intarray : ARRAY [sub] of integer;

{an array of 26 integers. First element is intarray['a']
last element is intarray['z'] }

realarray : ARRAY [5..last] of real;

{an array of 95 real numbers. First element is realarray[5]
last element is realarray[100] }

artstick : ARRAY [-3..2] of color;

{an array of 6 colors. First element is artstick[-3]
last element is artstick[2] }

huearray : ARRAY [color] of char;

{an array of 6 characters. First element is huearray[green]
last element is huearray[blue] }

CHARACTER ARRAYS
You can have arrays of characters. Text strings from the keyboard may be placed directly into the array
elements. You can print out the entire character array contents. The following program illustrates how to do
this,

program CHARRAY (input,output );

type word = PACKED ARRAY [1..10] of char;
var word1 : word;
loop : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter in up to ten characters.');
readln( word1 ); { this reads ten characters directly from the
standard input device, placing each character
read into subsequent elements of word1 array }

writeln('The contents of word1 array is ');

for loop := 1 to 10 do {print out each element}

writeln('word1[',loop,'] is ',word1[loop] );

writeln('Word1 array contains ', word1 ) {print out entire array}

end.

38
Note the declaration of PACKED ARRAY, and the use of just the array name in conjuction with the readln
statement. If the user typed in
Hello there
then the contents of the array word1 will be,
word1[1] = H
word1[2] = e
word1[3] = l
word1[4] = l
word1[5] = o
word1[6] = { a space }
word1[7] = t
word1[8] = h
word1[9] = e
word1[10]= r

The entire contents of a packed array of type char can also be outputted to the screen simply the using the
array name without an index value, ie, the statement
writeln('Word1 array contains ', word1 );
will print out all elements of the array word1, displaying
Hello ther

INTEGER ARRAYS
Arrays can hold any of the valid data types, including integers. Integer arrays cannot be read or written as an
entire unit, only packed character arrays can. The following program demonstrates an integer array, where
ten successive numbers are inputted, stored in separate elements of the array numbers, then finally outputted
to the screen one at a time.

program INT_ARRAY (input,output );

type int_array = ARRAY [1..10] of integer;
var numbers : int_array;
loop : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter in up to ten integers.');
for loop := 1 to 10 do
readln( numbers[loop] );

writeln('The contents of numbers array is ');

{ print out each element }
for loop := 1 to 10 do
writeln('numbers[',loop:2,'] is ',numbers[loop] )
end.

SELF TEST
What does the following program display on the screen.
program ARRAY_TEST (output);
var numbers : ARRAY [1..5] of integer;
begin
numbers[1] := 7;
numbers[2] := 13;
numbers[3] := numbers[2] - 1;
numbers[4] := numbers[3] DIV 3;
numbers[5] := numbers[3] DIV numbers[4];
for loop := 1 to 5 do
writeln('Numbers[',loop,'] is', numbers[loop] )
end.

39
Answer:
SELF TEST
What does the following program display on the screen.
program ARRAY_TEST (output);
var numbers : ARRAY [1..5] of integer;
begin
numbers[1] := 7;
numbers[2] := 13;
numbers[3] := numbers[2] - 1;
numbers[4] := numbers[3] DIV 3;
numbers[5] := numbers[3] DIV numbers[4];
for loop := 1 to 5 do
writeln('Numbers[',loop,'] is', numbers[loop] )
end.

Self Test .. Output of ARRAY_TEST is..

Numbers[1] is 7
Numbers[2] is 13
Numbers[3] is 12
Numbers[4] is 4
Numbers[5] is 3

HOW CHARACTERS ARE INTERNALLY REPRESENTED

Internally, most computers store characters according to the ASCII format. ASCII stands for American
Standard Code for Information Interchange. Characters are stored according to a numbered sequence,
whereby A has a value of 64 decimal, B a value of 65 etc. Several functions which manipulate characters
follow.

CHR
The chr or character position function returns the character associated with the ASCII value being
asked, eg,

chr( 65 ) will return the character A
ORD
The ord or ordinal function returns the ASCII value of a requested character. In essence, it works
backwards to the chr function. Ordinal data types are those which have a predefined, known set of
values.
Each value which follows in the set is one greater than the previous. Characters and integers are thus
ordinal data types.

ord( 'C' ) will return the value 67
SUCC
The successor function determines the next value or symbol in the set, thus

succ( 'd' ) will return e
PRED
The predecessor function determines the previous value or symbol in the set, thus

pred( 'd' ) will return c

40
COMPARISON OF CHARACTER VARIABLES
Character variables, when compared against each other, is done using the ASCII value of the character.
Consider the following portion of code,

var letter1, letter2 : char;

begin
letter1 := 'A'; letter2 := 'C';
if letter1 < letter2 then
writeln( letter1, ' is less than ',letter2 )
else
writeln( letter2, ' is less than ',letter1 )
end.

STRING ARRAYS, COMPARISON OF

Packed character arrays of the same length are comparable. There follows a short program illustrating this,
program PACKED_CHAR_COMPARISON (output);
type string1 = packed array [1..6] of char;
var letter1, letter2 : string1;
begin
letter1 := 'Hello ';
letter2 := 'HellO ';

if letter1 < letter2 then

writeln( letter1,' is less than ',letter2)
else
writeln( letter2,' is less than ',letter1)
end.

SELF TEST
1. Write a Pascal statement to define an array called numbers, which is an integer array with elements
ranging from 1 to 20

2. Write a Pascal statement to create an array called mynumbers, of type numbers, which was defined in 1.
above

3. Write a Pascal statement which assigns the integer value 20 to element 4 of the array mynumbers, which
was declared in 2. above

4. Write Pascal statements which define a packed array of characters (15 elements), called word, create a
working variable of type word called myword, and then reads input from the keyboard into the array myword

5. Write Pascal statements which will sum the contents of an integer array called mynumbers, which has 20
elements numbered 1 to 20

6. Write a Pascal statement which will initialise a packed character array called message to the string 'Hello
there!'. The array has thirteen elements

7. Write a Pascal statement to display the ASCII value of the letter 'A'

8. Write a Pascal statement to display the character represented by the ASCII value 52

9. Write a Pascal statement to display the character which follows 'F'

41
10. Write a Pascal statement to display the character which comes before 'Z'

Answer:

SELF TEST: ANSWERS

1. Write a Pascal statement to define an array called numbers, which is an integer array with elements
ranging from 1 to 20

type numbers = ARRAY[1..20] of integer;

2. Write a Pascal statement to create an array called mynumbers, of type numbers, which was defined in 1.
above
var mynumbers : numbers;

3. Write a Pascal statement which assigns the integer value 20 to element 4 of the array mynumbers, which
was declared in 2. above
mynumbers[4] := 20;

4. Write Pascal statements which define a packed array of characters (15 elements), called word, create a
working variable of type word called myword, and then reads input from the keyboard into the array myword
type word = PACKED ARRAY[1..15] of char;
var myword : word;

begin
readln( myword );

5. Write Pascal statements which will sum the contents of an integer array called mynumbers, which has 20
elements numbered 1 to 20
total := 0;
for loop := 1 to 20 do
total := total + mynumbers[loop];

6. Write a Pascal statement which will initialise a packed character array called message to the string 'Hello
there!'. The array has thirteen elements
message := 'Hello there! ';

7. Write a Pascal statement to display the ASCII value of the letter 'A'
writeln( ord('A') );

8. Write a Pascal statement to display the character represented by the ASCII value 52
writeln( chr(52) );

9. Write a Pascal statement to display the character which follows 'F'

writeln( succ('F') );

10. Write a Pascal statement to display the character which comes before 'Z'
writeln( pred('Z') );

42
COMMON FUNCTIONS
The Pascal language provides a range of functions to perform data transformation and calculations. The
following section provides an explanation of the commonly provided functions,

ABS
The ABSolute function returns the absolute value of either an integer or real, eg,

ABS( -21 ) returns 21
ABS( -3.5) returns 3.5000000000E+00
COS
The COSine function returns the cosine value, in radians, of an argument, eg,

COS( 0 ) returns 1.0
EXP
The exponential function calculates e raised to the power of a number, eg,

EXP(10 ) returns e to the power of 10

There is no function in Pascal to calculate expressions such as an, ie,

23 is 2*2*2 = 8

These are calculated by using the formula

an = exp( n * ln( a ) )

LN
The logarithm function calculates the natural log of a number greater than zero.
ODD
The odd function determines when a specified number is odd or even, returning true when the
number is odd, false when it is not.
ROUND
The round function rounds its number (argument) to the nearest integer. If the argument is positive
rounding is up for fractions greater than or equal to .5
rounding is down for fractions less than .5

If the number is negative

rounding is down (away from zero) for fractions >= .5

rounding is up (towards zero) for fractions < .5

SIN
The sine function returns the sine of its argument, eg,

SIN( PI / 2 ) returns 1.0
SQR
The square function returns the square (ie the argument multiplied by itself) of its supplied argument,

SQR( 2 ) returns 4
SQRT
This function returns {always returns a real} the square root of its argument, eg,

SQRT( 4 ) returns 2.0000000000E+00

43
 TRUNC
This function returns the whole part (no decimal places) of a real number.

TRUNC(4.87) returns 4
TRUNC(-3.4) returns 3

PROGRAM FOURTEEN
Given the following list of wages stored in an array,
210.33 119.78 191.05 222.94
calculate the total breakdown of required coins (ignore dollars) into 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c pieces.

Answer:
PROGRAM FOURTEEN
Given the following list of wages stored in an array,
210.33 119.78 191.05 222.94
calculate the total breakdown of required coins (ignore dollars) into 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c pieces.
program PROG14 (output); {coin program}
var wages : array[1..6] of real;
cents : real;
loop, fiftys, twentys, tens, fives, twos, ones : integer;
begin
{initialise wages}
wages[1] := 210.33; wages[2] := 119.78;
wages[3] := 191.05; wages[4] := 222.94;
wages[5] := 0.0; { end of wage terminator }
loop := 1;

fiftys := 0; twentys := 0; tens := 0; fives := 0; twos := 0;

ones := 0;

while (wages[loop] <> 0.0 ) do

begin
cents := wages[loop] - trunc( wages[loop] ); {get cents}
while cents >= 0.4999 do
begin
fiftys := fiftys + 1;
cents := cents - 0.50
end;
while cents >= 0.1999 do
begin
twentys := twentys + 1;
cents := cents - 0.20
end;
while cents >= 0.0999 do
begin
tens := tens + 1;
cents := cents - 0.10
end;
while cents >= 0.0499 do
begin
fives := fives + 1;
cents := cents - 0.05
end;
while cents >= 0.0199 do
begin
twos := twos + 1;
cents := cents - 0.02
end;
while cents >= 0.00999 do
begin

44
 ones := ones + 1;
cents := cents - 0.01
end;
loop := loop + 1
end;
writeln;
writeln('The total breakdown of coins required is');
writeln(' 50c 20c 10c 5c 2c 1c');
writeln(fiftys:7,twentys:7,tens:7,fives:7,twos:7,ones:7)
end.

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE
Pascal, when determining how to perform calculations, works according to pre-defined rules. These rules
may be overridden by the use of parenthesis ().

The priority given to the various operators, from highest to lowest, are

NOT Negation
* / DIV MOD AND
+ - OR
= <> < <= > >= IN

The operators are always evaluated left to right

Class Exercise on Operator precedence

Given that
A := 1; B := 2; C := 4;
What does X equal after each of the following statements,
X := A / B / C; ________________
X := A + B / C; ________________
X := A * B * C; ________________
X := A * B - C; ________________
X := A + B + C; ________________
X := A / B * C; ________________
X := A * B / C; ________________
X := A + B - C; ________________

Click here for answer

Parenthesis are used to override the order of precedence. Consider the expression

A + B
X = -------
C + D
becomes in Pascal
X := ( A + B ) / ( C + D )
and the expression
B
X = A + --- + D
C
becomes in Pascal
X := A + ( B / C ) + D

Self Test on Operator Precedence

Write statements in Pascal which correctly express each of the following mathematical expressions.
2 2
1. Z = X + Y 2. Z = ( X + Y )

A + B + E B
3. Z = ----------- 4. Z = A + ---

45
 D + E C

A + B B
5. Z = ------- 6. Z = A + -------
C D - C

Answer:
Self Test on Operator Precedence
Write statements in Pascal which correctly express each of the following mathematical expressions.
2 2
1. Z = X + Y 2. Z = ( X + Y )

A + B + E B
3. Z = ----------- 4. Z = A + ---
D + E C

A + B B
5. Z = ------- 6. Z = A + -------
C D - C

2 2
1. Z = X + Y 2. Z = ( X + Y )

Z := X + (Y * Y); Z := (X + Y) * (X + Y);

A + B + E B
3. Z = ----------- 4. Z = A + ---
D + E C

Z := (A+B+E) / (D+E); Z := A + (B / C);

A + B B
5. Z = ------- 6. Z = A + -------
C D - C

Z := (A + B) / C; Z := A + ( B / ( D - C ) );

MODULAR PROGRAMMING USING PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS

Modular programming is a technique used for writing large programs. The program is subdivided into small
sections. Each section is called a module, and performs a single task.

Examples of tasks a module might perform are,

displaying an option menu

printing results
calculating average marks
sorting data into groups

A module is known by its name, and consists of a set of program statements grouped using the begin and
end keywords. The module (group of statements) is executed when you type the module name.

Pascal uses three types of modules. The first two are called PROCEDURES, the other a FUNCTION.

46
 Simple procedures do not accept any arguments (values or data) when the procedure is executed
(called).
Complex procedures accept values to work with when they are executed.
Functions, when executed, return a value (ie, calculate an answer which is made available to the
module which wants the answer)

Procedures help support structured program design, by allowing the independant development of modules.
Procedures are essentially sub-programs.

SIMPLE PROCEDURES
Procedures are used to perform tasks such as displaying menu choices to a user. The procedure (module)
consists of a set of program statements, grouped by the begin and end keywords. Each procedure is given a
name, similar to the title that is given to the main module.

Any variables used by the procedure are declared before the keyword begin.

PROCEDURE DISPLAY_MENU;
begin
writeln('<14>Menu choices are');
writeln(' 1: Edit text file');
writeln(' 2: Load text file');
writeln(' 3: Save text file');
writeln(' 4: Copy text file');
writeln(' 5: Print text file')
end;

The above procedure called DISPLAY_MENU, simply executes each of the statements in turn. To use this
in a program, we write the name of the procedure, eg,
program PROC1 (output);

PROCEDURE DISPLAY_MENU;
begin
writeln('<14>Menu choices are');
writeln(' 1: Edit text file');
writeln(' 2: Load text file');
writeln(' 3: Save text file');
writeln(' 4: Copy text file');
writeln(' 5: Print text file')
end;

begin
writeln('About to call the procedure');
DISPLAY_MENU;
writeln('Now back from the procedure')
end.

In the main portion of the program, it executes the statement

writeln('About to call the procedure');
then calls the procedure DISPLAY_MENU. All the statements in this procedure are executed, at which
point we go back to the statement which follows the call to the procedure in the main section, which is,
writeln('Now back from the procedure')

47
The sample output of the program is
About to call the procedure
Menu choices are
1: Edit text file
2: Load text file
3: Save text file
4: Copy text file
5: Print text file
Now back from the procedure

SELF TEST ON SIMPLE PROCEDURES

What does this program display?
program SIMPLE_PROCEDURES (input,output);
var time, distance, speed : real;

procedure display_title;
begin
writeln('This program calculates the distance travelled based');
writeln('on two variables entered from the keyboard, speed and');
writeln('time.')
end;

procedure get_choice;
begin
writeln('Please enter the speed in MPH');
readln( speed );
writeln('Please enter the time in hours');
readln( time )
end;

procedure calculate_distance;
begin
distance := speed * time
end;

procedure display_answer;
begin
writeln('The distance travelled is ', distance:5:2,' miles.')
end;

begin {This is the actual start of the program}

display_title;
get_choice;
calculate_distance;
display_answer
end.

{Note that the three variables, time, speed and distance, are available to all procedures. They may be
updated by any procedure, and are known as GLOBAL variables}.

Variables which are declared external (outside of) to any procedure are accessible anywhere in the program.
The use of global variables is limited. In a large program, it is difficult to determine which procedure
updates the value of a global variable.

48
PROGRAM FIFTEEN
Convert the calculator program (program 12), using simple procedures, to perform the various calculations.
Use global variables for number1, operator and number2.

Answer:

PROGRAM FIFTEEN
Convert the calculator program (program 12), using simple procedures, to perform the various calculations.
Use global variables for number1, operator and number2.
program PROG15 (input,output);
var invalid_operator : boolean;
operator : char;
number1, number2, result : real;

procedure MULTIPLY;
begin
result := number1 * number2
end;

procedure DIVIDE;
begin
result := number1 / number2
end;

procedure ADD;
begin
result := number1 + number2
end;

procedure SUBTRACT;
begin
result := number1 - number2
end;

procedure GET_INPUT;
begin
writeln('Enter two numbers and an operator in the format');
writeln(' number1 operator number2');
readln(number1); readln(operator); readln(number2)
end;

begin
invalid_operator := FALSE;
GET_INPUT;
case operator of
'*': MULTIPLY;
'/': DIVIDE;
'+': ADD;
'-': SUBTRACT;
otherwise invalid_operator := TRUE
end;
if invalid_operator then
writeln('Invalid operator')
else
writeln(number1:4:2,' ', operator,' ', number2:4:2,' is '
,result:5:2)
end.

{Special changes for Turbo are

case operator of
'*': result := MULTIPLY;

49
 '/': result := DIVIDE;
'+': result := ADD;
'-': result := SUBTRACT;
else invalid_operator := TRUE
end; }

PROCEDURES AND LOCAL VARIABLES

A procedure can declare it's own variables to work with. These variables belong to the procedure in which
they are declared. Variables declared inside a procedure are known as local.

Local variables can be accessed anywhere between the begin and matching end keywords of the procedure.
The following program illustrates the use and scope (where variables are visible or known) of local
variables.

program LOCAL_VARIABLES (input, output);

var number1, number2 : integer; {these are accessible by all}

procedure add_numbers;
var result : integer; {result belongs to add_numbers}
begin
result := number1 + number2;
writeln('Answer is ',result)
end;

begin {program starts here}

writeln('Please enter two numbers to add together');
readln( number1, number2 );
add_numbers
end.

SELF TEST ON LOCAL VARIABLES

Determine this programs output.
program MUSIC (output);
const SCALE = 'The note is ';
var JohnnyOneNote : char;

procedure Tune;
const SCALE = 'The note now is ';
var JohnnyOneNote : char;
begin
JohnnyOneNote := 'A';
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote )
end;

begin
JohnnyOneNote := 'D';
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote );
Tune;
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote )
end.

50
Answer:

SELF TEST ON LOCAL VARIABLES

Determine this programs output.
program MUSIC (output);
const SCALE = 'The note is ';
var JohnnyOneNote : char;

procedure Tune;
const SCALE = 'The note now is ';
var JohnnyOneNote : char;
begin
JohnnyOneNote := 'A';
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote )
end;

begin
JohnnyOneNote := 'D';
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote );
Tune;
writeln(SCALE, JohnnyOneNote )
end.

Self Test on Local variables, output of program MUSIC is,

The note is D
The note now is A
The note is D

PROCEDURES WHICH ACCEPT ARGUMENTS

Procedures may also accept variables (data) to work with when they are called.

Declaring the variables within the procedure

The variables accepted by the procedure are enclosed using parenthesis.

The declaration of the accepted variables occurs between the procedure name and the terminating
semi-colon.

Calling the procedure and Passing variables (or values) to it

When the procedure is invoked, the procedure name is followed by a set of parenthesis.
The variables to be passed are written inside the parenthesis.
The variables are written in the same order as specified in the procedure.

Consider the following program example,

program ADD_NUMBERS (input, output);

procedure CALC_ANSWER ( first, second : integer );

var result : integer;
begin
result := first + second;
writeln('Answer is ', result )
end;

51
 var number1, number2 : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter two numbers to add together');
readln( number1, number2 );
CALC_ANSWER( number1, number2)
end.

SELF TEST ON PROCEDURES WHICH ACCEPT PARAMETERS

The output is?
program TestValue (output);
var x, y : integer;

procedure NoEffect ( x, y : integer );

begin
x := y; y := 0;
writeln( x, y )
end;

begin
x := 1; y := 2;
writeln( x, y );
NoEffect( x, y );
writeln( x, y )
end.

Answer:

SELF TEST ON PROCEDURES WHICH ACCEPT PARAMETERS

The output is?
program TestValue (output);
var x, y : integer;

procedure NoEffect ( x, y : integer );

begin
x := y; y := 0;
writeln( x, y )
end;

begin
x := 1; y := 2;
writeln( x, y );
NoEffect( x, y );
writeln( x, y )
end.

Self test on procedures which accept arguments, output of Testvalue is

1 2
2 0
1 2

52
Value Parameters
In the previous programs, when variables are passed to procedures, the procedures work with a copy of the
original variable. The value of the original variables which are passed to the procedure are not changed.

The copy that the procedure makes can be altered by the procedure, but this does not alter the value of the
original. When procedures work with copies of variables, they are known as value parameters.

Consider the following code example,

program Value_Parameters (output);

procedure Nochange ( letter : char; number : integer );

begin
writeln( letter );
writeln( number );
letter := 'A'; {this does not alter mainletter}
number := 32; {this does not alter mainnumber}
writeln( letter );
writeln( number )
end;

var mainletter : char; {these variables known only from here on}
mainnumber : integer;
begin
mainletter := 'B';
mainnumber := 12;
writeln( mainletter );
writeln( mainnumber );
Nochange( mainletter, mainnumber );
writeln( mainletter );
writeln( mainnumber )
end.

PROGRAM SIXTEEN
Write a program, using procedures which accept value parameters, to implement the calculator program as
derived in program fifteen. Each procedure will print out its own result. No global variables must be used.

Variable parameters
Procedures can also be implemented to change the value of original variables which are accepted by the
procedure. To illustrate this, we will develop a little procedure called swap. This procedure accepts two
integer values, swapping them over.

Previous procedures which accept value parameters cannot do this, as they only work with a copy of the
original values. To force the procedure to use variable parameters, preceed the declaration of the variables
(inside the parenthesis after the function name) with the keyword var.

53
This has the effect of using the original variables, rather than a copy of them.

program Variable_Parameters (output);

procedure SWAP ( var value1, value2 : integer );

var temp : integer;
begin
temp := value1;
value1 := value2; {value1 is actually number1}
value2 := temp {value2 is actually number2}
end;

var number1, number2 : integer;

begin
number1 := 10;
number2 := 33;
writeln( 'Number1 = ', number1,' Number2 = ', number2 );
SWAP( number1, number2 );
writeln( 'Number1 = ', number1,' Number2 = ', number2 )
end.

When this program is run, it prints out

Number1 = 10 Number2 = 33
Number1 = 33 Number2 = 10

SELF TEST
Why is the following procedure declaration incorrect?
procedure Wrong ( A : integer; var B : integer );
var A : integer; B : real;

Answer:
.
.
.
.

FUNCTIONS - A SPECIAL TYPE OF PROCEDURE WHICH RETURNS A VALUE

Procedures accept data or variables when they are executed. Functions also accept data, but have the ability
to return a value to the procedure or program which requests it. Functions are used to perform mathematical
tasks like factorial calculations.

A function

begins with the keyword function

is similar in structure to a procedure
somewhere inside the code associated with the function, a value is assigned to the function name
a function is used on the righthand side of an expression
can only return a simple data type

The actual heading of a function differs slightly than that of a procedure. Its format is,

function Function_name (variable declarations) : return_data_type;

After the parenthesis which declare those variables accepted by the function, the return data type (preceeded
by a colon) is declared.
54
 function ADD_TWO ( value1, value2 : integer ) : integer;
begin
ADD_TWO := value1 + value2
end;

The following line demonstrates how to call the function,

result := ADD_TWO( 10, 20 );
thus, when ADD_TWO is executed, it equates to the value assigned to its name (in this case 30), which is
then assigned to result.

SELF TEST
Determine the output of the following program
program function_time (input, output);
const maxsize = 80;
type line = packed array[1..maxsize] of char;

function COUNTLETTERS ( words : line) : integer; {returns an integer}

var loop_count : integer; {local variable}
begin
loop_count := 1;
while (words[loop_count] <> '.') and (loop_count <= maxsize) do
loop_count := loop_count + 1;
COUNTLETTERS := loop_count - 1
end;

var oneline : line;

letters : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter in a sentence terminated with a .');
readln( oneline );
letters := COUNTLETTERS( oneline );
writeln('There are ',letters,' letters in that sentence.')
end.

Answer:
SELF TEST
Determine the output of the following program
program function_time (input, output);
const maxsize = 80;
type line = packed array[1..maxsize] of char;

function COUNTLETTERS ( words : line) : integer; {returns an integer}

var loop_count : integer; {local variable}
begin
loop_count := 1;
while (words[loop_count] <> '.') and (loop_count <= maxsize) do
loop_count := loop_count + 1;
COUNTLETTERS := loop_count - 1
end;

var oneline : line;

letters : integer;
begin
writeln('Please enter in a sentence terminated with a .');
readln( oneline );
letters := COUNTLETTERS( oneline );
writeln('There are ',letters,' letters in that sentence.')

55
 end.

Please enter in a sentence terminated with a .

Hello there.
There are 11 letters in that sentence.

PROGRAM SEVENTEEN
Write a program to calculate the cube of a given number (answer = number*number*number). Use a
function to calculate the cube.

Answer:

PROGRAM SEVENTEEN
Write a program to calculate the cube of a given number (answer = number*number*number). Use a
function to calculate the cube.
program PROG17 (input,output); {cube program using a function}

function CUBE( x : integer ) : integer;

begin
CUBE := x * x * x
end;

var number, answer : integer;

begin
writeln('Enter integer to be cubed.');
readln( number );
answer := CUBE ( number );
writeln('The cube of ',number,' is ', answer)
end.

SELF TEST

1. Which of the following Pascal functions which change the value 6.6 to an integer value of 7

odd
round
trunc
abs

2. Which of the following Pascal operators has the least priority

=
+
/
NOT

3. Write a simple Pascal procedure called Welcome which prints the text string "Welcome to Pascal"

4. Write a Pascal procedure called Multiply, which accepts two integers, number1 and number2, and prints
the result of multiplying the two integers together

56
5. What is the output of the following Pascal program

program Sample( output );

var x, y : integer;

procedure godoit( x, y : integer );

begin
x := y; y := 0;
writeln( x, y );
end;

begin
x := 1; x := 2;
godoit( x, y );
writeln( x, y )
end.

6. Write a Pascal function called Multiply2 which returns an integer result. The function accepts two integer
parameters, number1 and number2 and returns the value of multiplying the two parameters

Answer:

SELF TEST: ANSWERS

1. Which of the following Pascal functions which change the value 6.6 to an integer value of 7

odd
round
trunc
abs

2. Which of the following Pascal operators has the least priority

=
+
/
NOT

3. Write a simple Pascal procedure called Welcome which prints the text string "Welcome to Pascal"

procedure Welcome;
begin
writeln('Welcome to Pascal')
end;

57
4. Write a Pascal procedure called Multiply, which accepts two integers, number1 and number2, and prints
the result of multiplying the two integers together.
procedure Multiply( number1, number2 : integer );
var Result : integer;
begin
Result := number1 * number2;
writeln( Result )
end;

5. What is the output of the following Pascal program

program Sample( output );
var x, y : integer;

procedure godoit( x, y : integer );

begin
x := y; y := 0;
writeln( x, y );
end;

begin
x := 1; y := 2;
godoit( x, y );
writeln( x, y )
end.

Program Output
2 0
1 2

6. Write a Pascal function called Multiply2 which returns an integer result. The function accepts two integer
parameters, number1 and number2 and returns the value of multiplying the two parameters
function Multiply2( number1, number2 : integer ) : integer;
var Result : integer;
begin
Result := number1 * number2;
Multiply2 := Result
end;

RECORDS
A record is a user defined data type suitable for grouping data elements together. All elements of an array
must contain the same data type.

A record overcomes this by allowing us to combine different data types together. Suppose we want to create
a data record which holds a student name and mark. The student name is a packed array of characters, and
the mark is an integer.

We could use two seperate arrays for this, but a record is easier. The method to do this is,

define or declare what the new data group (record) looks like
create a working variable to be of that type

58
The following portion of code shows how to define a record, then create a working variable to be of the
same type.
TYPE studentname = packed array[1..20] of char;
studentinfo = RECORD
name : studentname;
mark : integer
END;

VAR student1 : studentinfo;

The first portion defines the composition of the record identified as studentinfo. It consists of two parts
(called fields).

The first part of the record is a packed character array identified as name. The second part of studentinfo
consists of an integer, identified as mark.

The declaration of a record begins with the keyword record, and ends with the keyword end;

The next line declares a working variable called student1 to be of the same type (ie composition) as
studentinfo.

Each of the individual fields of a record are accessed by using the format,

recordname.fieldname := value or variable;

An example follows,
student1.name := 'JOE BLOGGS '; {20 characters}
student1.mark := 57;

Lets create a new data record suitable for storing the date

type date = RECORD

day : integer;
month : integer;
year : integer
END;

This declares a NEW data type called date. This date record consists of three basic data elements, all
integers. Now declare working variables to use in the program. These variables will have the same
composition as the date record.
var todays_date : date;
defines a variable called todays_date to be of the same data type as that of the newly defined record date.

ASSIGNING VALUES TO RECORD ELEMENTS

These statements assign values to the individual elements of the record todays_date,

todays_date.day := 21;
todays_date.month := 07;
todays_date.year := 1985;

NOTE the use of the .fieldname to reference the individual fields within todays_date.

59
SELF TEST
What does this statement do?
readln( todays_date.day, todays_date.month, todays_date.year );

Answer:
SELF TEST
What does this statement do?
readln( todays_date.day, todays_date.month, todays_date.year );

Self Test ..
The program statement reads three values from the keyboard,
into each of the individual fields of the record todays_date.

Sample program illustrating records

program RECORD_INTRO (output);
type date = record
month, day, year : integer
end;
var today : date;

begin
today.day := 25;
today.month := 09;
today.year := 1983;
writeln('Todays date is ',today.day,':',today.month,':',
today.year)
end.

Records of the same type are assignable.

var todays_date, tomorrows_date : date;
begin
todays_date.day := 9;
todays_date.month := 7;
todays_date.year := 1976;
tomorrows_date := todays_date;

The last statement copies all the elements of todays_date into the elements of tomorrows_date.

This statement adds one to the value stored in the field day of the record tomorrows_date.

tomorrows_date.day := tomorrows_date.day + 1;

PROGRAM EIGHTEEN
Write a program that prompts the user for todays date, a procedure using variable parameters which
calculates tomorrows date, and the main program displaying tommorrows date.

Use records for todays date, tomorrows date, An array can be used to hold the days for each month of the
year.

Jan to Dec = 31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31

Remember to change the month or year as necessary.

60
Answer:

PROGRAM EIGHTEEN
Write a program that prompts the user for todays date, a procedure using variable parameters which
calculates tomorrows date, and the main program displaying tommorrows date.

Use records for todays date, tomorrows date, An array can be used to hold the days for each month of the
year.

Jan to Dec = 31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31

Remember to change the month or year as necessary.
program PROG18 (input,output); {date calculation program}
type date = record
day, month, year : integer;
end;
datename = array[1..12] of integer;

procedure update( var tomorrow : date; days_in_month : datename );

begin
tomorrow.day := tomorrow.day + 1; {increment day}
if tomorrow.day > days_in_month[tomorrow.month] then
begin
tomorrow.day := 1;
tomorrow.month := tomorrow.month + 1; {adjust month }
if tomorrow.month > 12 then {adjust year }
begin
tomorrow.month := 1;
tomorrow.year := tomorrow.year + 1
end
end
end;

var todays_date : date;

days : datename;
begin
days[1] := 31; days[2] := 28; days[3] := 31; days[4] := 30;
days[5] := 31; days[6] := 30; days[7] := 31; days[8] := 31;
days[9] := 30; days[10] := 31; days[11] := 30; days[12] := 31;

writeln('Enter todays date dd mm yy ');

readln( todays_date.day, todays_date.month, todays_date.year);
update( todays_date, days );
writeln('Tomorrows date will be ', todays_date.day,'-',
todays_date.month,'-',todays_date.year)
end.

RECORDS AND PROCEDURES

The following program demonstrates passing a record to a procedure, which updates the record, then prints
the updated time.

program TIME (input,output);

type time = record
seconds, minutes, hours : integer
end;
var current, next : time;

{ function to update time by one second }

61
 procedure timeupdate( var now : time); {variable parameter}
var newtime : time; {local variable}
begin
newtime := now; {use local instead of orginal}
newtime.seconds := newtime.seconds + 1;

if newtime.seconds = 60 then
begin
newtime.seconds := 0;
newtime.minutes := newtime.minutes + 1;
if newtime.minutes = 60 then
begin
newtime.minutes := 0;
newtime.hours := newtime.hours + 1;
if newtime.hours = 24 then
newtime.hours := 0
end
end;
writeln('The updated time is ',newtime.hours,':',newtime.minutes,
':',newtime.seconds)
end;

begin
writeln('Please enter in the time using hh mm ss');
readln( current.hours, current.minutes, current.seconds );
timeupdate( current )
end.
ARRAYS OF RECORDS
can also be created, in the same way as arrays of any of the four basic data types. The following statement
declares a record called date.

type date = record

month, day, year : integer
end;
Lets now create an array of these records, called birthdays.

var birthdays : array[1..10] of date;

This creates an array of 10 elements. Each element consists of a record of type date, ie, each element
consists of three integers, called month, day and year. Pictorially it looks like,
|----------------|
| month | <----<----------------
|----------------| | |
| day | |--Element 1 |
|----------------| | |
| year | <---- |
|----------------| |
| month | <---- |
|----------------| | |
| day | |--Element 2 |
|----------------| | |--< birthdays
| year | <---- |
|----------------| |
|
|----------------| |
| month | <---- |
|----------------| | |
| day | |--Element 10 |
|----------------| | |
| year | <----<----------------
|----------------|

62
Consider the following assignment statements.
birthdays[1].month := 2;
birthdays[1].day := 12;
birthdays[1].year := 1983;
birthdays[1].year := birthdays[2].year;

which assign various values to the array elements.

RECORDS CONTAINING ARRAYS

Records can also contain arrays as a field. Consider the following example, which shows a record called
month, whose element name is actually an array.

type monthname = packed array[1..4] of char;

month = RECORD
days : integer;
name : monthname
END;
var this_month : month;
this_month.days := 31; this_month.name[0] := 'J';
this_month.name[1] := 'a'; this_month.name[2] := 'n';
this_month.name := 'Feb ';

CLASS EXERCISE

Determine the program output

Draw a table illustrating the memory contents of array test_times after initilisation.

program RECORD_TEST (output);

type time = RECORD
hours, minutes, seconds : integer
END;

procedure timeupdate ( var newtime : time );

begin
newtime.seconds := newtime.seconds + 1;
if newtime.seconds = 60 then
begin
newtime.seconds := 0;
newtime.minutes := newtime.minutes + 1;
if newtime.minutes = 60 then
begin
newtime.minutes := 0;
newtime.hours := newtime.hours + 1;
if newtime.hours = 24 then
newtime.hours := 0
end
end
end;

var test_times : array [1..3] of time;

loop : integer;
begin
test_times[1].hours := 11;
test_times[1].minutes := 59;
test_times[1].seconds := 59;
test_times[2].hours := 12;

63
 test_times[2].minutes := 0;
test_times[2].seconds := 0;
test_times[3].hours := 1;
test_times[3].minutes := 29;
test_times[3].seconds := 59;
for loop := 1 to 3 do
begin
writeln('Time is ',test_times[loop].hours,':',
test_times[loop].minutes,':',test_times[loop].seconds);
timeupdate(test_times[loop]);
write('One second later its ');
writeln(test_times[loop].hour,s':',test_times[loop].minutes,
':',test_times[loop].seconds)
end
end.

Answer:

CLASS EXERCISE

Determine the program output

Draw a table illustrating the memory contents of array test_times after initilisation.

program RECORD_TEST (output);

type time = RECORD
hours, minutes, seconds : integer
END;

procedure timeupdate ( var newtime : time );

begin
newtime.seconds := newtime.seconds + 1;
if newtime.seconds = 60 then
begin
newtime.seconds := 0;
newtime.minutes := newtime.minutes + 1;
if newtime.minutes = 60 then
begin
newtime.minutes := 0;
newtime.hours := newtime.hours + 1;
if newtime.hours = 24 then
newtime.hours := 0
end
end
end;

var test_times : array [1..3] of time;

loop : integer;
begin
test_times[1].hours := 11;
test_times[1].minutes := 59;
test_times[1].seconds := 59;
test_times[2].hours := 12;
test_times[2].minutes := 0;
test_times[2].seconds := 0;
test_times[3].hours := 1;
test_times[3].minutes := 29;
test_times[3].seconds := 59;
for loop := 1 to 3 do
begin
writeln('Time is ',test_times[loop].hours,':',
test_times[loop].minutes,':',test_times[loop].seconds);

64
 timeupdate(test_times[loop]);
write('One second later its ');
writeln(test_times[loop].hour,s':',test_times[loop].minutes,
':',test_times[loop].seconds)
end
end.

Class Exercise..Program output is,

Time is 11:59:59
One second later its 12:0:0
Time is 12:0:0
One second later its 12:0:1
Time is 1:29:59
One second later its 1:30:0

Table illustrating array test_times contents after initialisation,

|---------------|<---------- -------------
| 11 | hours | |
|---------------| | |
| 59 | minutes |- Element 1 |
|---------------| | |
| 59 | seconds | |
|---------------|<---------- |
| 12 | hours | |
|---------------| | |
| 00 | minutes |- Element 2 |-- test_times
|---------------| | |
| 00 | seconds | |
|---------------|<---------- |
| 01 | hours | |
|---------------| | |
| 29 | minutes |- Element 3 |
|---------------| | |
| 59 | seconds | |
|---------------|<---------- -------------

RECORDS WITHIN RECORDS

Records can also contain other records as a field. Consider where both a date and time record are combined
into a single record called date_time, eg,

type date = RECORD

day, month, year : integer
END;
time = RECORD
hours, minutes, seconds : integer
END;
date_time = RECORD
sdate : date;
stime : time
END;

This defines a record whose elements consist of two other previously declared records. The statement
var today : date_time;
declares a working variable called today, which has the same composition as the record date_time. The
statements

65
 today.sdate.day := 11;
today.sdate.month := 2;
today.sdate.year := 1985;
today.stime.hours := 3;
today.stime.minutes := 3;
today.stime.seconds := 33;
sets the sdate element of the record today to the eleventh of february, 1985. The stime element of the record
is initialised to three hours, three minutes, thirty-three seconds.

with RECORDS
The with statement, in association with records, allows a quick and easy way of accessing each of the
records members without using the dot notation.

Consider the following program example, where the variable student record is initialised. Note how the
name of the record is associated with each of the initialised parts. Then look at the code that follows, and
note the difference being the absence of the record name.

program withRecords( output );

type Gender = (Male, Female);

Person = Record
Age : Integer;
Sex : Gender
end;

var Student : Person;

begin
Student.Age := 23;
Student.Sex := Male;

with Student do begin

Age := 19;
Sex := Female
end;

with Student do begin

Writeln( 'Age := ', Age );
case Sex of
Male : Writeln( 'Sex := Male' );
Female : Writeln( 'Sex := Female' )
end
end
end.

SETS
Sets exist in every day life. They are a way of classifying common types into groups. In Pascal, we think of
sets as containing a range of limited values, from an initial value through to an ending value.

Consider the following set of integer values,

66
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

This is a set of numbers (integers) whose set value ranges from 1 to 10. To define this as a set type in Pascal,
we would use the following syntax.
program SetsOne( output );

type numberset = set of 1..10;

var mynumbers : numberset;

begin
end.

The statement
type numberset = set of 1..10;
declares a new type called numberset, which represents a set of integer values ranging from 1 as the lowest
value, to 10 as the highest value. The value 1..10 means the numbers 1 to 10 inclusive. We call this the base
set, that is, the set of values from which the set is taken.

The base set is a range of limited values. For example, we can have a set of char, but not a set of integers,
because the set of integers has too many possible values, whereas the set of characters is very limited in
possible values.

The statement

var mynumbers : numberset;

makes a working variable in our program called mynumbers, which is a set and can hold any value from the
range defined in numberset.

SET OPERATIONS
The typical operations associated with sets are,

assign values to a set

determine if a value is in one or more sets
set addition (UNION)
set subtraction (DIFFERENCE)
set commonality (INTERSECTION)

67
Assigning Values to a set: UNION
Set union is essentially the addition of sets, which also includes the initialisation or assigning of values to a
set.

Consider the following statement which assigns values to a set

program SetsTWO( output );

type numberset = set of 1..10;

var mynumbers : numberset;

begin
mynumbers := [];
mynumbers := [2..6]
end.

The statement
mynumbers := [];
assigns an empty set to mynumbers. The statement
mynumbers := [2..6];
assigns a subset of values (integer 2 to 6 inclusive) from the range given for the set type numberset. Please
note that assigning values outside the range of the set type from which mynumbers is derived will generate
an error, thus the statement
mynumbers := [6..32];
is illegal, because mynumbers is derived from the base type numberset, which is a set of integer values
ranging from 1 to 10. Any values outside this range are considered illegal.

Determining if a value is in a set

Lets expand the above program example to demonstrate how we check to see if a value resides in a set.
Consider the following program, which reads an integer from the keyboard and checks to see if its in the set.

program SetsTHREE( input, output );

type numberset = set of 1..10;

var mynumbers : numberset;

value : integer;

begin
mynumbers := [2..6];
value := 1;
while( value <> 0 ) do
begin
writeln('Please enter an integer value, (0 to exit)');
readln( value );
if value <> 0 then
begin
if value IN mynumbers then
writeln('Its in the set')
else
writeln('Its not in the set')
end
end
end.

68
More on set UNION, combining sets
Lets now look at combining some sets together. Consider the following program, which creates two sets,
then joins the sets together to create another.

program SetsUNION( input, output );

type numberset = set of 1..40;

var mynumbers, othernumbers, unionnumbers : numberset;

value : integer;

begin
mynumbers := [2..6];
othernumbers := [4..10];
unionnumbers := mynumbers + othernumbers + [14..20];
value := 1;
while( value <> 0 ) do
begin
writeln('Please enter an integer value, (0 to exit)');
readln( value );
if value <> 0 then
begin
if value IN unionnumbers then
writeln('Its in the set')
else
writeln('Its not in the set')
end
end
end.

The statement
var mynumbers, othernumbers, unionnumbers : numberset;
declares three sets of type numberset.

The statement

mynumbers := [2..6];
assigns a subset of values (integer 2 to 6 inclusive) from the range given for the set type numberset.

The statement

othernumbers := [4..10];
assigns a subset of values (integer 4 to 10 inclusive) from the range given for the set type numberset.

The statement

unionnumbers := mynumbers + othernumbers + [14..20];

assigns the set of values in mynumbers, othernumbers and the set of values of 14 to 20 to unionnumbers.

If a specific value occurs in more than one set (as is the case of 4, 5, and 6, which are in mynumbers and
othernumbers), then the other duplicate value is ignored (ie, only one instance of the value is copied to the
new set.

69
This means that unionnumbers contains the values

Set Subtraction, DIFFERENCE

In this operation, the new set will contain the values of the first set that are NOT also in the second set.
program SetsDIFFERENCE( input, output );

type numberset = set of 1..40;

var mynumbers, othernumbers, unionnumbers : numberset;

value : integer;

begin
mynumbers := [2..6];
othernumbers := [4..10];
unionnumbers := mynumbers - othernumbers;
value := 1;
while( value <> 0 ) do
begin
writeln('Please enter an integer value, (0 to exit)');
readln( value );
if value <> 0 then
begin
if value IN unionnumbers then
writeln('Its in the set')
else
writeln('Its not in the set')
end
end
end.

unionnumbers contains the values

70
Set Commonality, INTERSECTION
In this operation, the new set will contain the values which are common (appear as members) of the
specified sets.
program SetsINTERSECTION( input, output );

type numberset = set of 1..40;

var mynumbers, othernumbers, unionnumbers : numberset;

value : integer;

begin
mynumbers := [2..6];
othernumbers := [4..10];
unionnumbers := mynumbers * othernumbers * [5..7];
value := 1;
while( value <> 0 ) do
begin
writeln('Please enter an integer value, (0 to exit)');
readln( value );
if value <> 0 then
begin
if value IN unionnumbers then
writeln('Its in the set')
else
writeln('Its not in the set')
end
end
end.

unionnumbers contains the values

FILE HANDLING
So far, data has been inputted from the keyboard, and outputted to the console screen.

The keyboard is known as the standard input device, and the console screen is the standard output device.
Pascal names these as INPUT and OUTPUT respectively.

Occasions arise where data must be derived from another source other than the keyboard. This data will
exist external to the program, either stored on diskette, or derived from some hardware device.

In a lot of cases, hardcopy (a printout) of program results is needed, thus the program will send the output to
either the printer or the disk instead of the screen.

A program which either reads information from, or writes information to, a place on a disk, is performing

71
FILE Input/Output (I/O).

A File is a collection of information. In Pascal, this information may be arranged as text (ie a sequence of
characters), as numbers (a sequence of integers or reals), or as records. The information is collectively
known by a sequence of characters, called a FILENAME.

You have already used filenames to identify the source programs written and used in this tutorial.

USING A FILE IN PASCAL

Files are referred to in Pascal programs by the use of filenames. You have already used two default
filenames, input and output. These are associated with the keyboard and console screen. To derive data from
another source, it must be specified in the program heading, eg,

program FILE_OUTPUT( input, fdata );

This informs Pascal that you will be using a file called fdata. Within the variable declaration section, the file
type is declared, eg
var fdata : file of char;
This declares the file fdata as consisting of a sequence of characters. Pascal provides a standard definition
called TEXT for this, so the following statement is identical,
var fdata : TEXT;

BASIC FILE OPERATIONS

Once the file is known to the program, the operations which may be performed are,

1. The file is prepared for use by RESET or REWRITE

2. Information is read or written using READ or WRITE
3. The file is then closed by using CLOSE

PREPARING A FILE READY FOR USE

The two commands for preparing a file ready for use in a program are RESET and REWRITE. Both
procedures use the name of the file variable you want to work with. They also accept a string which is then
associated with the file variable, eg
var filename : string[15];

readln( filename );

RESET ( fdata, filename );

This prepares the file specified by filename for reading. All reading operations are performed using
fdata.
REWRITE ( fdata, filename );
This prepares the file specified by filename for writing. All write operations are performed using
fdata. If the file already exists, it is re-created, and all existing information lost!

READING AND WRITING TO A FILE OF TYPE TEXT

The procedures READ and WRITE can be used. These procedures also accept the name of the file, eg,
writeln( fdata, 'Hello there. How are you?');
writes the text string to the file fdata rather than the standard output device.

72
Turbo Pascal users must use the assign statement, as only one parameter may be supplied to either reset or
rewrite.

assign( fdata, filename );

reset( fdata );
rewrite( fdata );

CLOSING A FILE
When all operations are finished, the file is closed. This is necessary, as it informs the program that you have
finished with the file. The program releases any memory associated with the file, ensuring its (the files)
integrity.
CLOSE( fdata ); {closes file associated with fdata}
Once a file has been closed, no further file operations on that file are possible (unless you prepare it again).

SAMPLE FILE OUTPUT PROGRAM TO WRITE DATA TO A TEXT FILE

program WRITETEXT (input, output, fdata );

var fdata : TEXT;
ch : char;
fname : packed array [1..15] of char;
begin
writeln('Enter a filename for storage of text.');
readln( fname );
rewrite( fdata, fname ); {create a new fdata }
readln; {clear input buffer }
read( ch ); {read character from keyboard}
while ch <> '*' do {stop when an * is typed }
begin
write( fdata, ch ); {write character to fdata }
read( ch ) {read next character }
end;
write( fdata, '*'); {write an * for end of file }
close( fdata ) {close file fdata }
end.

SELF TEST
Determine what the following code statements do
writeln( output, 'Hello there. It''s me again');
writeln('The time has come, the Walrus said,');
readln( input, ch );
readln( ch );

Answer:

SELF TEST
Determine what the following code statements do
writeln( output, 'Hello there. It''s me again');
writeln('The time has come, the Walrus said,');
readln( input, ch );
readln( ch );

Self Test .. File statements

Both writeln statements display info on screen
Both readln statements accept info from keyboard

73
THE COMPOSITION OF TEXT FILES
Text files are arranged as a sequence of variable length lines.

Each line consists of a sequence of characters.

Each line is terminated with a special character, called
END-OF-LINE (EOLN)
The last character is another special character, called
END-OF-FILE (EOF)

THIS IS WHAT A TEXT FILE LOOKS LIKE

He was not quite as old as people estimated. In fact, the furrowedEOLN
brow that swept many a street was only fourty-five.EOLN
Life had not been easy for the hunchback, it's difficult to playEOLN
any game when all you can see are your feet. In spite of theEOLN
hardships, he was as gentle as a roaring elephant going overEOLN
Niagara falls.EOF

End of File and End of Line

EOF
Accepts the name of the input file, and returns true if there is no more data to be read.

EOLN
Accepts the name of the input file, and is true if there are no more characters on the current line.

When reading information from a text file, the character which is read can be compared against EOLN or
EOF. Consider the following program which displays the contents of a text file on the console screen.

program SHOWTEXT ( infile, input, output );

var ch : char;
fname : packed array [1..15] of char;
infile: TEXT;
begin
writeln('Please enter name of text file to display.');
readln( fname );

reset( infile, fname ); {open a file using filename stored in}

{array fname }
while not eof( infile ) do
begin
while not eoln( infile ) do
begin
read( infile, ch );
write( ch )
end;
readln( infile ); {read eoln character}
writeln {write eoln character}
end;
close( infile ) {close filename specified by fname}
end.

74
PROGRAM TWENTY-ONE
Write a program to count the number of characters in a text file. The valid characters are 'A' to 'Z', and 'a' to
'z'.

Answer:
PROGRAM TWENTY-ONE
Write a program to count the number of characters in a text file. The valid characters are 'A' to 'Z', and 'a' to
'z'.
program PROG21 (input,output, infile); {count characters in file}
type legal1 = 'A'..'Z';
legal2 = 'a'..'z';
var infile : TEXT;
fname : string[15];
ch : char;
count : integer;
begin
count := 0;
writeln('Please enter name of text file to count.');
readln( fname );
{ for turbo pascal
assign( infile, fname );
reset( infile );
}

reset( infile, fname ); {open a file using filename stored in}

{array fname }
while not eof( infile ) do
begin
while not eoln( infile ) do
begin
read( infile, ch );
if ((ch>='A')and(ch<='Z'))or((ch >='a')and(ch<='z')) then
count := count + 1
end;
readln( infile ) {read eof character}
end;
close( infile ); {close filename specified by fname}
writeln('The number of characters in ',fname,' is ',count)
end.

PROGRAM TWENTY-TWO
Write a program to count the number of words in a text file.

Answer:

PROGRAM TWENTY-TWO
Write a program to count the number of words in a text file.
{ Program to count words in a text file. Adapted from C program found}
{ in Programming in C : S Kochan, pg 174 - }
program PROG22 (input, output, infile );
type oneline = packed array[1..81] of char;

{ a function to determine if a character is alphabetic }

function alphabetic ( ch : char ) : boolean;
begin
if ( ((ch >= 'a') AND (ch <= 'z')) OR ((ch >= 'A') AND (ch <= 'Z')) ) then
alphabetic := TRUE

75
 else
alphabetic := FALSE
end;

{ a function to count the number of words in a string }

function count_words ( var line : oneline ) : integer;
var i, word_count : integer;
looking_for_word : boolean;
begin
looking_for_word := TRUE;
word_count := 0;
for i := 1 to 81 do
begin
if alphabetic( line[i] ) then
begin
if looking_for_word then
begin
word_count := word_count + 1;
looking_for_word := FALSE
end
end
else
looking_for_word := TRUE
end;
count_words := word_count
end;

var infile : text;

tline : oneline;
fname : string[15];
total,count : integer;
ch : char;
begin
total := 0;
writeln('Please enter name of input file to count');
readln (fname);
assign (infile, fname);
reset( infile);
while not eof(infile) do
begin
for count := 1 to 81 do
tline[count] := ' ';
count := 1;
while not eoln(infile) do
begin
read(infile, ch );
tline[count] := ch;
count := count + 1
end;
total := total + count_words( tline );
readln(infile) { read eoln character }
end;
writeln('There are ',total,' words in the text file.')
end.

76
FILES OF NUMBERS
Files may also consist of integers or reals. The procedures read and write can be used to transfer one value
at a time.

The procedures readln and writeln cannot be used with file types other than text.

PROGRAM TWENTY-THREE
Write a program which adds up a list of numbers from a file. Create a sample file to test your program.
Answer:
PROGRAM TWENTY-THREE
Write a program which adds up a list of numbers from a file. Create a sample file to test your program.
{developed from a routine in OH PASCAL, pg 444 }
program PROG23A (input,output,outfile ); {create a file of integers }
var outfile : file of integer;
current, total : integer;
fname : string[15];
begin
total := 0;
writeln('Enter name of file to contain numbers');
readln (fname);
assign( outfile, fname );
rewrite( outfile );
writeln('Enter in integers, a value of 0 stops');
read( current );
while current <> 0 do
begin
write( outfile, current);
read( current )
end;
close( outfile )
end.

{developed from a routine in OH PASCAL, pg 444 }

program PROG23 (input,output,infile ); {sum of integers in a file}
var infile : file of integer;
current, total : integer;
fname : string[15];
begin
total := 0;
writeln('Enter name of file containing numbers');
readln (fname);
assign( infile, fname );
reset( infile );
while not eof( infile ) do
begin
read( infile, current );
total := total + current
end;
writeln('The sum of all numbers is ', total)
end.

77
FILES OF RECORDS
Files can also contain records. Using read or write, it is possible to transfer a record at a time.

PROGRAM TWENTY_FIVE
Implement a Pascal program which allows the recalling of a group of student marks. The program is to
output the highest and lowest marks, as well as the mean.

Use an array of records to store the names and marks. Using an output file, sort the student names, marks
into ascending order, so that the student with the highest mark will be written first.

The details are,

Student 1 Joe Bloggs 56

2 Bill Anderson 24
3 William Tell 78
4 Bob Crane 23
5 Peter Hall 57
6 Charles French 76
7 Bryan Goldwater 65
8 Stewart Phelps 89
9 Dave Stevens 78
10 Ted Rosse 64

The student name consists of 16 characters, and the student mark is an integer in the range 0 to 100. Our
example has a maximum of ten students.

Answer:

PROGRAM TWENTY_FIVE
Implement a Pascal program which allows the recalling of a group of student marks. The program is to
output the highest and lowest marks, as well as the mean.

Use an array of records to store the names and marks. Using an output file, sort the student names, marks
into ascending order, so that the student with the highest mark will be written first.

The details are,

Student 1 Joe Bloggs 56

2 Bill Anderson 24
3 William Tell 78
4 Bob Crane 23
5 Peter Hall 57
6 Charles French 76
7 Bryan Goldwater 65
8 Stewart Phelps 89
9 Dave Stevens 78
10 Ted Rosse 64

78
The student name consists of 16 characters, and the student mark is an integer in the range 0 to 100. Our
example has a maximum of ten students.
program prog25A (input,output,outfile); {create student file}
const outname = 'STUDENT.DAT';
type student = record
name : string[16];
mark : integer;
end;
var class : array [1..10] of student;
loopcount : integer;
outfile : file of student;
begin
class[1].name := 'Joe Bloggs '; class[1].mark := 56;
class[2].name := 'Bill Anderson '; class[2].mark := 24;
class[3].name := 'William Tell '; class[3].mark := 78;
class[4].name := 'Bob Crane '; class[4].mark := 23;
class[5].name := 'Peter Hall '; class[5].mark := 57;
class[6].name := 'Charles French '; class[6].mark := 76;
class[7].name := 'Bryan Goldwater '; class[7].mark := 65;
class[8].name := 'Stewart Phelps '; class[8].mark := 89;
class[9].name := 'Dave Stevens '; class[9].mark := 78;
class[10].name := 'Ted Rosse '; class[10].mark := 64;

{ for turbo pascal assign( outfile, outname ); rewrite( outfile ); }

rewrite( outfile, outname );
for loopcount := 1 to 10 do
write( outfile, class[loopcount] );
writeln('Student.dat created and written.');
close( outfile )
end.

program prog25B (input,output,infile); {read back in student file}

const inname = 'STUDENT.DAT';
type student = record
name : string[16];
mark : integer;
end;
var class : array [1..10] of student;
loopcount, classsize : integer;
infile : file of student;
begin
{ for turbo pascal assign( infile, inname ); reset( infile ); }
rewrite( infile, inname );
classsize := 1;
while not eof(infile) do
begin
read( infile, class[classsize] );
classsize := classsize + 1
end;

for loopcount := 1 to ( classsize - 1 ) do

begin
write('Student ',loopcount:2,' is ' );
writeln(class[loopcount].name,' ',class[loopcount].mark)
end;
close( infile )
end.

79
{read back, sort, write, student file}
program prog25C (input, output, infile, outfile);
const inname = 'STUDENT.DAT';
outname = 'STUDENT.SRT';
type student = record
name : string[16];
mark : integer;
end;
class = array [1..10] of student;

{ find highest mark }

function gethighest(studclass : class; sizeclass : integer) : integer;
var temp, count : integer;
begin
temp := studclass[1].mark;
count := 2;
while count <= sizeclass do
begin
if studclass[count].mark > temp then
temp := studclass[count].mark;
count := count + 1
end;
gethighest := temp;
end;

{ find lowest mark }

function getlowest(studclass : class; sizeclass : integer) : integer;
var temp, count : integer;
begin
temp := studclass[1].mark;
count := 2;
while count <= sizeclass do
begin
if studclass[count].mark < temp then
temp := studclass[count].mark;
count := count + 1
end;
getlowest := temp;
end;

{ find mean }
function getmean ( studclass : class; sizeclass : integer ) : real;
var total, loop : integer;
begin
total := 0;
for loop := 1 to sizeclass do
total := total + studclass[loop].mark;

getmean := total / sizeclass;

end;

{ sort into ascending order, standard sequential sort used here }

procedure sort( var studclass : class; sizeclass : integer );
var temp : student;
loop, base, index : integer;
begin
base := 1;
while base < sizeclass do
begin
index := base + 1;
while index <= sizeclass do
begin
if studclass[base].mark < studclass[index].mark then

80
 begin
temp.mark := studclass[base].mark;
temp.name := studclass[base].name;
studclass[base].name := studclass[index].name;
studclass[base].mark := studclass[index].mark;
studclass[index].name := temp.name;
studclass[index].mark := temp.mark
end;
index := index + 1
end;
base := base + 1
end;
end;

var mainclass : class;

loopcount, classsize, highest, lowest : integer;
mean : real;
infile, outfile : file of student;
begin
{ for turbo pascal assign( infile, inname );
reset ( infile );
assign( outfile, outname);
rewrite(outfile);
}
reset( infile, inname );
rewrite(outfile, outname);
classsize := 1;
while not eof(infile) do
begin
read( infile, mainclass[classsize] );
classsize := classsize + 1
end;
close( infile );

{ find highest, lowest and average marks }

highest := gethighest( mainclass, classsize - 1 );
lowest := getlowest ( mainclass, classsize - 1 );
mean := getmean ( mainclass, classsize - 1 );

{ now sort into ascending order }

sort( mainclass, classsize - 1 );

{ now write out sorted class to outfile }

for loopcount := 1 to ( classsize - 1 ) do
write(outfile,mainclass[loopcount]);

writeln('The highest mark was ', highest );

writeln('The lowest mark was ', lowest );
writeln('The mean mark was ', mean:3:2);
close( outfile )
end.

81
STRINGS
The following program illustrates using STRINGS (a sequence of characters) in a DG Pascal program.
STRING is type defined as a packed array of type char.

Message is then declared as the same type as STRING, ie, a packed array of characters, elements numbered
one to eight.

PROGRAM DGSTRING (INPUT, OUTPUT);

TYPE STRING = PACKED ARRAY [1..8] OF CHAR;
VAR MESSAGE : STRING;
BEGIN
WRITELN('HELLO BRIAN.');
MESSAGE := '12345678';
WRITELN('THE MESSAGE IS ', MESSAGE)
END.

Turbo Pascal, how-ever, allows an easier use of character strings by providing a new keyword called
STRING. Using STRING, you can add a parameter (how many characters) specifying the string length.
Consider the above program re-written for turbo pascal.
PROGRAM TPSTRING (INPUT, OUTPUT);
VAR MESSAGE : STRING[8];
BEGIN
WRITELN('HELLO BRIAN.');
MESSAGE := '12345678';
WRITELN('THE MESSAGE IS ', MESSAGE)
END.

Obviously, the turbo pascal version is easier to use. BUT, the following program shows a similar
implementation for use on the DG.
PROGRAM DGSTRING2 (INPUT, OUTPUT);
CONST $STRINGMAXLENGTH = 8; {defines maxlength of a string}
%INCLUDE 'PASSTRINGS.IN'; {include code to handle strings}
VAR MESSAGE : $STRING_BODY;
BEGIN
WRITELN('HELLO BRIAN.');
MESSAGE := '12345678';
WRITELN('THE MESSAGE IS ', MESSAGE)
END.

Strings
DG Pascal also provides the following functions for handling and manipulating strings.

APPEND
concatenate two strings. calling format is
APPEND( string1, string2 );

where string2 is added onto the end of string1.

LENGTH
returns a short_integer which represents the length (number of
characters) of the string.
LENGTH( stringname );

82
 SETSUBSTR
replaces a substring in a target string with a substring from
a source string.
SETSUBSTR( Targetstr, tstart, tlen, Sourcestr, sstart );

where
Targetstr is the target string

tstart is an integer representing the start position

(within Targetstr) of the substring that is to be replaced

tlen is an integer representing the length of the substring

that you are replacing in Targetstr

Sourcestr is the source string which contains the substring

sstart is an integer which specifies the starting position

of the substring within Sourcestr

POINTERS
Pointers enable us to effectively represent complex data structures, to change values as arguments to
functions, to work with memory which has been dynamically allocated, and to store data in complex ways.

A pointer provides an indirect means of accessing the value of a particular data item. Lets see how pointers
actually work with a simple example,

program pointers1( output );

type int_pointer = ^integer;

var iptr : int_pointer;

begin
new( iptr );
iptr^ := 10;
writeln('the value is ', iptr^);
dispose( iptr )
end.

The line
type int_pointer = ^integer;
declares a new type of variable called int_pointer, which is a pointer (denoted by ^) to an integer.

The line

var iptr : int_pointer;

declares a working variable called iptr of type int_pointer. The variable iptr will not contain numeric values,
but will contain the address in memory of a dynamically created variable (by using new). Currently, there is

83
no storage space allocated with iptr, which means you cannot use it till you associate some storage space to
it. Pictorially, it looks like,

The line

new( iptr );
creates a new dynamic variable (ie, its created when the program actually runs on the computer). The pointer
variable iptr points to the location/address in memory of the storage space used to hold an integer value.
Pictorially, it looks like,

The line

iptr^ := 10;
means go to the storage space allocated/associated with iptr, and write in that storage space the integer value
10. Pictorially, it looks like,

The line

dispose( iptr )
means deallocate (free up) the storage space allocated/associated with iptr, and return it to the computer
system. This means that iptr cannot be used again unless it is associated with another new() statement first.
Pictorially, it looks like,

84
POINTERS
Pointers which do not reference any memory location should be assigned the value nil. Consider the
following program, which expands on the previous program.

program pointers2( output );

type int_pointer = ^integer;

var iptr : int_pointer;

begin
new( iptr );
iptr^ := 10;
writeln('the value is ', iptr^);
dispose( iptr );
iptr := nil;
if iptr = nil
then writeln('iptr does not reference any variable')
else
writeln('The value of the reference for iptr is ', iptr^)
end.

The line
iptr := nil;
assigns the value nil to the pointer variable iptr. This means that the pointer is valid and stil exists, but it
does not point to any memory location or dynamic variable.

The line

if iptr = nil
tests iptr to see if its a nil pointer, ie, that it is not pointing to a valid reference. This test is very useful and
will come in use later on when we want to construct more complex data types like linked lists.

POINTERS
Pointers of the same type may be equated and assigned to each other. Consider the following program

program pointers3( output );

type int_pointer = ^integer;

var iptr1, iptr2 : int_pointer;

begin
new( iptr1 );
new( iptr2 );
iptr1^ := 10;
iptr2^ := 25;
writeln('the value of iptr1 is ', iptr1^);
writeln('the value of iptr2 is ', iptr2^);
dispose( iptr1 );
iptr1 := iptr2;
iptr1^ := 3;
writeln('the value of iptr1 is ', iptr1^);
writeln('the value of iptr2 is ', iptr2^);
dispose( iptr2 );
end.

85
The lines
new( iptr1 );
new( iptr2 );
creates two integer pointers named iptr1 and iptr2. They are not associated with any dynamic variables yet,
so pictorially, it looks like,

The lines

iptr1^ := 10;
iptr2^ := 25;
assigns dynamic variables to each of the integer variables. Pictorially, it now looks like,

The lines

dispose( iptr1 );
iptr1 := iptr2;
remove the association of iptr1 from the dynamic variable whose value was 10, and the next line makes
iptr1 point to the same dynamic variable that iptr2 points to. Pictorially, it looks like,

The line

iptr1^ := 3;
assigns the integer value 3 to the dynamic variable associated with iptr1. In effect, this also changes iptr2^.
Pictorially, it now looks like,

86
The programs output is
the value of iptr1 is 10
the value of iptr2 is 25
the value of iptr1 is 3
the value of iptr2 is 3

SUMMARY OF POINTERS

A pointer can point to a location of any data type, including records. Its basic syntax is,
type Pointertype = ^datatype;
var NameofPointerVariable : Pointertype;
The procedure new allocates storage space for the pointer to use
The procedure dispose deallocates the storage space associated with a pointer
A pointer can be assigned storage space using new, or assigning it the value from a pointer of the
same type (eg, iptr1 := iptr2; )
A pointer can be assigned the value nil, to indicate that it is not pointing to any storage space
The value at the storage space associated with a pointer may be read or altered using the syntax
NameofPointerVariable^
A pointer may reference a type which has not yet been created (this will be covered next)

POINTERS: Referencing data types that do not yet exist

The most common use of pointers is to reference structured types like records. Often, the record definition
will contain a reference to the pointer,

type rptr = ^recdata;

recdata = record
number : integer;
code : string;
nextrecord : rptr
end;

var currentrecord : rptr;

In this example, the definition for the field nextrecord of recdata includes a reference to the pointer of type
iptr. As you can see, rptr is defined as a pointer of type recdata, which is defined on the next lines. This is
allowed in Pascal, for pointer types.

Using a definition of recdata, this will allow us to create a list of records, as illustrated by the following
picture.

87
In this case, a list is simply of number of records (all of the same type), linked together by the use of
pointers.

POINTERS

Lets construct the actual list as shown below, as an example.

program PointerRecordExample( output );

type rptr = ^recdata;

recdata = record
number : integer;
code : string;
nextrecord : rptr
end;

var startrecord : rptr;

begin
new( startrecord );
if startrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('1: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord^.number := 10;
startrecord^.code := 'This is the first record';
new( startrecord^.nextrecord );
if startrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('2: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.number := 20;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.code := 'This is the second record';
new( startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord );
if startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('3: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;

88
 startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.number := 30;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.code := 'This is the third
record';
startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord := nil;
writeln( startrecord^.number );
writeln( startrecord^.code );
writeln( startrecord^.nextrecord^.number );
writeln( startrecord^.nextrecord^.code );
writeln( startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.number );
writeln( startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.code );
dispose( startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord );
dispose( startrecord^.nextrecord );
dispose( startrecord )
end.

The lines of code

new( startrecord );
if startrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('1: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord^.number := 10;
startrecord^.code := 'This is the first record';
create the beginning of the list, which pictorially looks like,

The lines of code

new( startrecord^.nextrecord );
if startrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('2: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.number := 20;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.code := 'This is the second record';
link in the next record, which now looks like,

The lines of code

new( startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord );
if startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin

89
 writeln('3: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.number := 30;
startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.code := 'This is the third
record';
startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord := nil;
link in the third and final record, also setting the last nextrecord field to nil. Pictorially, the list now looks
like,

The remaining lines of code print out the fields of each record.

POINTERS
The previous program can be rewritten to make it easier to read, understand and maintain. To do this, we
will use a dedicated pointer to maintain and initialise the list, rather than get into the long notation that we
used in the previous program, eg,

startrecord^.nextrecord^.nextrecord^.number := 30;

The modified program now looks like,

program PointerRecordExample2( output );

type rptr = ^recdata;

recdata = record
number : integer;
code : string;
nextrecord : rptr
end;

var startrecord, listrecord : rptr;

begin
new( listrecord );
if listrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('1: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord := listrecord;
listrecord^.number := 10;
listrecord^.code := 'This is the first record';
new( listrecord^.nextrecord );
if listrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('2: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
listrecord := listrecord^.nextrecord;
listrecord^.number := 20;
listrecord^.code := 'This is the second record';
new( listrecord^.nextrecord );
if listrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('3: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
listrecord := listrecord^.nextrecord;
listrecord^.number := 30;

90
 listrecord^.code := 'This is the third record';
listrecord^.nextrecord := nil;
while startrecord <> nil do
begin
listrecord := startrecord;
writeln( startrecord^.number );
writeln( startrecord^.code );
startrecord := startrecord^.nextrecord;
dispose( listrecord )
end
end.

In this example, the pointer listrecord is used to create and initialise the list. After creation of the first
record, it is saved in the pointer startrecord.

The lines of code

new( listrecord );
if listrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('1: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
startrecord := listrecord;
listrecord^.number := 10;
listrecord^.code := 'This is the first record';
creates the first record and initialises it, then remembers where it is by saving it into startrecord. Pictorially,
it looks like,

The lines of code

new( listrecord^.nextrecord );
if listrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('2: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
listrecord := listrecord^.nextrecord;
listrecord^.number := 20;
listrecord^.code := 'This is the second record';
add a new record to the first by linking it into listrecord^.nextrecord, then moving listrecord to the new
record. Pictorially, it looks like,

91
The lines of code

new( listrecord^.nextrecord );
if listrecord^.nextrecord = nil then
begin
writeln('3: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
listrecord := listrecord^.nextrecord;
listrecord^.number := 30;
listrecord^.code := 'This is the third record';
listrecord^.nextrecord := nil;
add the last record to the previous by linking it into listrecord^.nextrecord, then moving listrecord to the
new record. Pictorially, it looks like,

Note how much easier the code looks than the previous example.

POINTERS
Lets modify the previous program which introduced a separate pointer for tranversing the links of records.
This time, rather than statically creating three records, we will allow the use to enter the details as the list is
created.

The modified program appears below.

program PointerRecordExample3( input, output );

type rptr = ^recdata;

recdata = record
number : integer;
code : string;
nextrecord : rptr
end;

var startrecord, listrecord, insertptr : rptr;

digitcode : integer;
textstring : string;
exitflag, first : boolean;

92
begin
exitflag := false;
first := true;
while exitflag = false do
begin
writeln('Enter in a digit [-1 to end]');
readln( digitcode );
if digitcode = -1 then
exitflag := true
else
begin
writeln('Enter in a small text string');
readln( textstring );
new( insertptr );
if insertptr = nil then
begin
writeln('1: unable to allocate storage space');
exit
end;
if first = true then begin
startrecord := insertptr;
listrecord := insertptr;
first := false
end
else begin
listrecord^.nextrecord := insertptr;
listrecord := insertptr
end;
insertptr^.number := digitcode;
insertptr^.code := textstring;
insertptr^.nextrecord := nil
end
end;
while startrecord <> nil do
begin
listrecord := startrecord;
writeln( startrecord^.number );
writeln( startrecord^.code );
startrecord := startrecord^.nextrecord;
dispose( listrecord )
end
end.

The program uses three pointers. startrecord remembers the start or head of the list, listrecord is used to link
between the previous record and the next/current one, and insertptr is used to create a new record which is
then linked into the chain.

POINTERS

An example of constructing a list of words and line numbers

The following program illustrates a buggy method of reading a small file and generating a list of words and
associated line numbers. It does this using a linked list.

Its been ported from a C equivalent example in the C programming module. It fails on large text files
(generates a heap overflow error). Proper handling of error situations is minimised so as to concentrate
primarily on code execution.

Use it at your own peril.

93
program findwords( input, output );

{ $M 32000, 65536 }

const TRUE = 1;
FALSE = 0;
BS = 8;
TAB = 9;
LF = 10;
VT = 11;
FF = 12;
CR = 13;

{ this holds the line numbers for each word. Its double linked for
ease of freeing memory later on }
type listptr = ^list;
list = record
line : integer; { line number of occurrence }
nextline : listptr; { link to next line number }
prevline : listptr { link to previous line number }
end;

{ this holds the word with a link to a struct list holding line
numbers. Double linking to simplify freeing of memory later on }
wordptr = ^words;
words = record
word : string; { pointer to word }
lines : listptr; { pointer to list of line numbers }
nextword : wordptr; { pointer to next word in list }
prevword : wordptr; { pointer to previous word in list}
end;

var
head, tail : wordptr; { beginning and end of list }
fin : file of char; { input file handle }
filename : string; { name of input file }
thisisfirstword : integer; { to handle start of list words=0 }

{ customised exit routine to provide orderly shutdown }

procedure myexit( exitcode : integer );
var
word_ptr, tempw : wordptr;
line_ptr, templ : listptr;
begin
{ close input file }
close( fin );

{ free any allocated memory }

writeln('Deallocating memory:');
word_ptr := head;
while word_ptr <> nil do
begin
tempw := word_ptr; { remember where we are }
line_ptr := word_ptr^.lines; { go through line storage list }
while line_ptr <> nil do
begin
templ := line_ptr; { remember where we are }
line_ptr := line_ptr^.nextline; { point to next list }
dispose( templ ) { free current list }
end;
word_ptr := word_ptr^.nextword; { point to next word node }

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 dispose( tempw ) { free current word node }
end;

{ return to OS }
halt( exitcode )
end;

{ check to see if word already in list, 1=found, 0=not present }

function checkforword( word : string ) : integer;
var ptr : wordptr;
begin
ptr := head; { start at first word in list }
while ptr <> nil do
begin
if ptr^.word = word then { found the word? }
checkforword := TRUE; { yes, return found }
ptr := ptr^.nextword { else cycle to next word in list }
end;
checkforword := FALSE { word has not been found in list }
end;

{ enter word and occurrence into list }

procedure makeword( word : string; line : integer );
var
newword, word_ptr : wordptr;
newline, line_ptr : listptr;
begin
if checkforword( word ) = FALSE then
begin
{ insert word into list }
newword := new( wordptr );
if newword = nil then
begin
writeln('Error allocating word node for new word: ', word );
myexit( 1 )
end;
{ add newnode to the list, update tail pointer }
if thisisfirstword = TRUE then
begin
head := newword;
tail := nil;
thisisfirstword := FALSE;
head^.prevword := nil
end;
newword^.nextword := nil; { node is signified as last in list }
newword^.prevword := tail; { link back to previous node in list }
tail^.nextword := newword; { tail updated to last node in list }
tail := newword;
{ allocate storage for the word including end of string NULL }
tail^.word := word;

{ allocate a line storage for the new word }

newline := new( listptr );
if newline = nil then
begin
writeln('Error allocating line memory for new word: ', word);
myexit( 3 )
end;
newline^.line := line;
newline^.nextline := nil;
newline^.prevline := nil;
tail^.lines := newline
end
else

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 begin
{ word is in list, add on line number }
newline := new( listptr );
if newline = nil then
begin
writeln('Error allocating line memory for existing word: ', word);
myexit( 4 )
end;
{ cycle through list to get to the word }
word_ptr := head;
while word_ptr <> nil do
begin
if word_ptr^.word = word then
break;
word_ptr := word_ptr^.nextword;
end;
if word_ptr = nil then
begin
writeln('ERROR - SHOULD NOT OCCUR ');
myexit( 5 )
end;
{ cycle through the line pointers }
line_ptr := word_ptr^.lines;
while line_ptr^.nextline <> nil do
line_ptr := line_ptr^.nextline;

{ add next line entry }

line_ptr^.nextline := newline;
newline^.line := line;
newline^.nextline := nil;
newline^.prevline := line_ptr { create back link to previous line number }
end
end;

{ read in file and scan for words }

procedure processfile;
var
ch : char;
loop, in_word, linenumber : integer;
buffer : string;
begin
in_word := 0; { not currently in a word }
linenumber := 1; { start at line number 1 }
loop := 0; { index character pointer for buffer[] }
buffer := '';

read( fin, ch );
while not Eof( fin ) do
begin
case ch of
chr(CR) : begin
if in_word = 1 then begin
in_word := 0;
makeword( buffer, linenumber );
buffer := '';
end;
linenumber := linenumber + 1
end;
' ', chr(LF), chr(TAB), chr(VT), chr(FF), ',' , '.' :
begin
if in_word = 1 then begin
in_word := 0;
makeword( buffer, linenumber );
buffer := '';

96
 end
end;
else
begin
if in_word = 0 then begin
in_word := 1;
buffer := buffer + ch
end
else begin
buffer := buffer + ch
end
end;
end; { end of switch }
read( fin, ch )
end { end of while }
end;

{ print out all words found and the line numbers }

procedure printlist;
var
word_ptr : wordptr;
line_ptr : listptr;
begin
writeln('Word list follows:');
word_ptr := head;
while word_ptr <> nil do
begin
write( word_ptr^.word, ': ' );
line_ptr := word_ptr^.lines;
while line_ptr <> nil do
begin
write( line_ptr^.line, ' ' );
line_ptr := line_ptr^.nextline
end;
writeln;
word_ptr := word_ptr^.nextword
end
end;

procedure initvars;
begin
head := nil;
tail := nil;
thisisfirstword := TRUE
end;

begin
writeln('Enter filename of text file: ');
readln( filename );
assign( fin, filename );
reset( fin );
{ if fin = nil then
begin
writeln('Unable to open ',filename,' for reading');
myexit( 1 )
end;
}
initvars;
processfile;
printlist;
myexit(0)
end.

97
COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS
When a program is invoked, it may accept arguments from the command line such as the name of a data file
to process.

In TurboC, the two functions ParamCount and ParamStr are used to retrieve these values.

ParamCount
This function returns the number of arguments of the command line which follow the name of the program.
In this example below,

test file1.c file2.pas

the program test is invoked with two parameters.

ParamStr
This function returns a string representing the value of the command-line parameter.

program commandline( output );

var arguments : integer;

begin
if ParamCount = 0 then
begin
writeln( 'No parameters supplied' );
halt(1)
end
else begin
writeln('There are ', ParamCount, ' parameters' );
for arguments := 1 to ParamCount do
Writeln( 'Parameter ',arguments,' = ',ParamStr(arguments) );
end
end.

98