Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys Production

Vysok kola bsk Technick univerzita Ostrava
ELECTROMETALLURGY AND FERROALLOYS

PRODUCTION
Didactic Text
prof. Ing. Karel Michalek, CSc.
Ostrava 2014
Description: ELECTROMETALLURGY AND FERROALLOYS PRODUCTION
Author: Karel Michalek
Edition: first, 2014

Pages: 178
Academic materials for the Metallurgy engineering study programme at the Faculty of
Metallurgy and Materials Engineering.
Proofreading: none.
Project designation:
Operation Programme of Education towards Competitive Strength
Description: ModIn - Modular innovation of bachelor and subsequent master programmes at
the Faculty of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering of VB - TU Ostrava
Ref. No.: CZ.1.07/2.2.00/28.0304
Realisation: VB Technical University of Ostrava
Karel Michalek
VB Technical University of Ostrava
Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys Production
Subject synopsis Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys

Production
1. The present state and perspectives of steel production in electric furnaces.

Division of electric furnaces. The basics of heavy-current electrotechnics of
alternate current.
2. Theory of electric arc. Electric arc in direct current. The stabilization of arc
burning.
3. Electric and thermal mode of EAF. Working electric characteristics of EAF.
Dynamic, physical and chemical effects of arcs. UHP and SUHP furnaces.
4. Other sources of heat in EAF. Melting intensification. Using gaseous oxygen,
oxyfuel burners. Frothing nozzles. Injection of inert gas through the floor of EAF.
Productivity of EAF.
5. Basic parts of EAF construction. EAF transformer, inductor, power factor
compensation, short net EAF, EAF electrodes. The production of graphite
electrodes.
6. Controlling the electrode movement. Static and dynamic characteristics of the
controller. The block diagram of the controller. Inductive stirring of the pool in
EAF. EAF lining. EAF water cooling. Extraction of furnace gases, gas cleaning.
7. Technology of steel production in EAF. Two-slag technology. One-slag
technology. The importance of oxidation and reduction periods of the melting.
The technology of remelting.
8. The production of alloyed and highly alloyed steels. The thermodynamics of
metallurgical processes during the oxidation refining of the pool.
Dephosphorization during the production of alloyed steels. Reduction of oxides of
alloying elements from the slag to the pool. Alloying by titanium. The production
of steels in acidic arc furnaces. Combined processes of EAF-DH, EAF-AOD,
EAF-VOD, EAF-VD.
9. The behavior of hydrogen and nitrogen during the process of melting in EAF.
Measuring the temperature of the pool. Determining the activity of the oxygen,
content of hydrogen and nitrogen in the pool. Automatization of the production
control in the EAF.
10. DC arc furnaces. Peculiarities and differences in the construction of furnaces.
Soil anodes. The course of melting in a DC arc furnace. Advantages of DC
furnaces compared to AC furnaces.
11. New processes in the production of electrical steel Fuchs Shaft Furnace,
Verticon, ConSteel, Comelt-VAI, ContiArc.
12. New processes in the production of electrical steel - ConArc, Arcon, Contimet,
KES, Danarc.
1
13. Production of steel in induction furnaces. The principle of heating and melting.
Construction design of the induction furnaces. The basic electrical characteristics
of an induction furnace. Technology of steel production in induction furnaces.
Vacuum induction furnaces. Metallurgical processes in the vacuum.
The electrical slag remelting.
14. The basics of thermodynamics of ferroalloys production. Carbothermical,
silicothermical and aluminothermical methods of ferroalloys production.
The production of main types of ferroalloys: FeMn, FeCr, FeSi, FeTi, FeW.
2
PREFACE
Study support to the subject Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys Production
is primarily intended for students of combined studies. In the combined form of study,
there is a much smaller proportion of direct contact teaching, which makes this study
much more difficult for students. Our study support to the subject Electrometallurgy
and Ferroalloys Production can help you to eliminate this handicap to a certain
extent. These is not a new textbook, there are enough of those. The study support is
a replacement, if possible, for the lack of direct instruction and interlink to a
subsequent study of professional literature itself, whether it be textbooks or other
publications.
When writing this support I have tried to maximize the clarity of the text. This
cannot be achieved, at least in my opinion, without some simplification, reduction and
sometimes even inaccuracy. If someone feels that simplification is too much, I
apologize in advance. But my experiences in teaching this subject led me to a result
which is just this text.
Despite careful checking of the text, it is almost certain that I did not avoid
errors, typing errors, etc., maybe even factual mistakes. I will be most grateful, if you
notify me about them so I can gradually correct them. You can notify me either
directly during classwork or by email to [email protected]
I wish all of you who will use this study support, a lot of strength in your study!
3
THEMATIC BLOCK 1
The present state and perspectives of steel production in

electric furnaces
Approximately 40% of the total amount of steel is produced in electrical furnaces
(USA, Canada more than 45 %)
Czech Republic long term 7 10 % from the total production of app. 7 million
tons
Positive effect on ecology (reduction of the number of coking plants and
agglomerations)
The possibility of processing a high proportion of steel scrap
The development of DC EAF, the introduction of new processes the use of fuel
gasses, flexible (hybrid) processes, intensified processes.
Parameter of current EAF: melting approximately 100 tons, power consumption
of 300 to 450 kWh.t-1, electrode consumption of 1.9 to 2.9 kg.t-1, melting time of
approximately 70 minutes
Division of electric furnaces

Electric arc furnaces (EAF) the batch is melted by the emerging electric arc
Induction furnaces (IF) the batch is heated and melted by eddy currents, the
emergence of which is related to the electromagnetic induction.
Electric resistance furnaces the heat is created by the flow of electric current
through the resistive elements
4
The scheme of electric resistance furnace
The heat is created by the flow of electric current through the resistive elements
(silites sintered silicon carbides SiC, molybdenum disilicid MoSi2, Tungsten
heating elements, graphite heating segments, etc.
These furnaces are used most often to heat the metal before its heat
processing or they are used as drying or baking furnaces, but also for melting
color metals and alloys as well as for research purposes in laboratory
conditions (Tammanns furnace), etc.
5
The division of electric arc furnaces (EAF)

a) Powered by alternate current (AC)
With a directly functioning arc
- Arc furnaces with non-conducting bottom
- Arc furnaces with conducting bottom
With indirectly functioning arc
b) Powered by direct current (DC)

with a bottom electrode or electrodes
arc furnaces with non-conducting bottom
The original Hroults arc furnace
Studying of Appendix on final pages of didactic text is also a part of this

thematic block.
6
Questions
1. The present share of steel production in EAF, the state in EU, in the whole
world, in CR, current technical parameters of EAF.
2. The division of electric furnaces.
3. Principle of heating in the resistance furnaces, use of resistance furnaces.
4. Fundamentals of high power alternating current circuit with an ohmic
resistance, with inductance, with capacity (see Appendix).
5. Fundamentals of high power electrotechnics of alternating current series
and parallel resonance, resonant frequency (see Appendix).
6. Fundamentals of high power electrotechnics of alternating current the power
of alternating current (see Appendix).
7
THEMATIC BLOCK 2
The principle of formation and composition of electric arc

Thermic emission of electrons from the cathode (increases with temperature)
Collisions of electrons with the molecules and atoms of gasses
o Dissociation of the gas molecules into atoms,
o Ionization of atoms into ions and electrons (or also the backward
recombination)
The space between electrodes is ionized and is a conductive path
Electric arc is formed subsequently a special state of matter plasma created
between electrodes. The plasma can be simply regarded as a mixture of neutral
particles, electrons and ions of gas with a very high temperature reaching 5000
to 15000 K. Fully ionized plasma is very stable at temperatures up to 105 K, when
the collisions between particles are so intensive that the neutral particles cannot
hold in the plasma anymore.
The composition of the arc:
Cathode area of conductive discharge length of 10-4 mm, adjacent to the

cathode, ionization processes take place in it, it contains a cathode stain with high
current densities (up to 3000 A.mm-2).
Ionized arc column conversion of electrical energy into thermal
Anode area of conductive discharge length of 10-4 mm, adjacent to the anode,
anodic stain in the area of impact of electrons and ions on the anode (up to
300 A.mm-2)
8
Conditions of electric arc burning

For the flow of the current through the arc (so-called arc burning), it is necessary
that the voltage between the ends of the electrodes Uo was higher or equal to the
so-called Ignition voltage Ui
Uo Ui
S,O
Ui lo lo
k
- the voltage drop upon the flow of the current through the cathode and anode
area of conductive discharge (between the cathode and the columns of the
arc and the column of the arc and the anode)
The values of for different environments:
graphite molten steel 22 V
graphite alkaline slag 9 V (Ca is easily ionisable)
graphite acid slag 30 V
S,0 - resistivity of the arc column; m
k - constant of proportionality; m2A-1
- gradient of the electrical potential in the arc column; V.m -1 of the arc
The degree of ionization of the mixture of vapors and gasses forming the arc
column has a strong influence over the value of . The higher this degree of
ionization, the lower the value of . The degree of ionization increases with the
temperature.
The values of during the individual phases of melting:
melting 10000 12000 V/m of the arc (10 - 12 V/mm)
oxidation phase 3500 4000 V/m of the arc (3.5 4 V/mm)
reduction phase 1000 1200 V/m of the arc (1.0 1.2 V/mm)
lo length of the arc
The influence of the shape of the electrode end on the length of the arc only in
short arcs it is the distance electrode-pool
9
Necessary arc voltage U0 for its burning will be the lower,

The lower the ionization potential of the vapors and gasses of the arc - ,
The shorter the length of the arc - l0
The lower the value of electric potential gradient in the column of the arc -
(meaning the lower the resistance of the column arc s,o).
Volt-ampere characteristics of the electric arc of two different

lengths
When evaluating the behavior of only the arc itself, we come to the conclusion
that the current of the arc does not practically depend on the voltage on the arc.
When the current rises, there is even some decrease in necessary voltage on the
arc, due to the rise in temperature of the working space of the furnace and
therefore the rise of average degree of ionization and therefore the decrease of
S,0 and therefore also .
Volt-ampere characteristics of the direct current electric arc of two

different lengths l
At very high current intensities, the voltage on the arc may decrease under the
value of Ui, and the arc then becomes unstable leading to its extinction that is
why the stabilization is necessary.
10
Stabilization of a direct current arc

Stabilization is done by including a resistor (resistance) in the electrical circuit of the
arc the included resistor limits the maximum current of the arc. When the current
on the arc increases, the decay of voltage on this resistor also decreases and
therefor the voltage on the arc decreases.
The arc in the circuit may only exist in the case that the sum of voltages on the arc
and on the resistor is equal to the voltage of the source, in other words the voltage on
the arc must be equal to the difference between the voltage of the source and the
voltage on the resistor.
Therefore, the following applies:

Usource = UO + UR = UO + R . I
In other words:
UO = Usource - UR = Usource - R . I
The equation can be solved visually by drawing the arc characteristics and the so-
called difference line Usource - UR. The intersections of difference lines with the arc
characteristic determine the current-voltage ratios at which the arc can exist. If the
intersection does not exist, the arc cannot burn in a stable way.
At points A and B, the conditions for arc burning are met. Stable arc burning is
possible only at point B. The burning at point A is unstable and the arc moves
towards the point B, towards higher current intensities at lower voltage.
11
The arc burning at point C occurs on the boundary of stability for example when
the value of R is high and there is a big decay of voltage on the arc, meaning that the
voltage on the arc is not very different from the initial voltage. With further increase of
R the voltage on the electrodes after igniting the arc decreases under the initial
voltage the arc goes out or it is not even created, meaning that
UO > Usource - UR
On the other hand, at low values of R (the difference line crosses the x axis at higher
values of current) the arc burning is moved towards the extreme currents, which can
lead to the destruction of electrodes if the source is hard enough.
If the current changes depending on the time, the arc voltage does not follow the
static characteristic, but it moves along the dynamic characteristic.
In order for the direct current arc to burn in a stable way, there must be an
intersection of the difference line with the arc characteristic. This can be achieved by
the following methods:
12
Moving the arc characteristic towards the lower voltages shortening it

Lowering the value of resistance R
Increasing the voltage of the source
13
Current-voltage ratios in alternate current electric arc

When using the alternate electric current, there are some necessary breaks
during the arc burning in the periods when the voltage on the transformer Utr
decreases under the value of extinction voltage Uzh.
The consequence of intermittent arc burning reducing the average active power
released by the arc.
The alternating of the function of cathode and anode impairment of thermal
emission of electrons from the cold batch at the beginning of the melting, there is
an asymmetry in the current load, which leads to instability in arc burning and its
extinction.
14
Current-voltage ratios in alternate electric arc stabilized by a

suppression coil
In order to stabilize, we use for example the inclusion of a suppression coil in

series in the circuit with the primary winding of the transformer a phase shift is
created between the current and the voltage.
An alternating electromagnetic field is created around the suppression coil.
When the voltage U2,p decreases under Uq , the arc will not extinguish (the field
reversely induces the current of the original direction and the suppression coil
acts as an accumulator of energy, which tries to hold the current of the arc at
the original size).
The conditions of arc burning improve in this way the time periods , in which
the arc is not burning.
When including a value of XL, which leads to reaching the effect of cos
approximately 0.85, the time periods , when the arcs are not burning are almost
non-existent and the electric power introduced in the EAF is maximal.
In large furnace the suppression coils are not necessary because of the
substantial own inductive resistance of the transformer winding.
15
Questions
1. The division of electric arc furnaces.

2. The fundamentals of creation of the electric arc, the composition of ionized
column of the arc.
3. The conditions of the arc burning, the definition of ignition voltage, the analysis
of individual factors affecting the ignition voltage.
4. Volt-ampere characteristic of the direct current arc.
5. The point of stable arc burning, its definition and the possibilities of stabilization
of direct current arc.
6. Current-voltage ratios on an alternate current electric arc without a suppression
coil.
7. Current-voltage ratios on an alternate current electric arc with a suppression coil
stabilization of the alternate current arc burning.
16
THEMATIC BLOCK 3
Electric and thermal mode of EAF

The character of the melting speed of the batch and the speed of temperature
change of the pool after the melting in the EAF as well, is controlled by the value
of useful power, which is the power used to heat the batch and for the melting.
Puseful = Pinput Poutput
where: Pinput power fed into the working area of the furnace
Poutput power off from from the working area of the furnace
Pinput = Pel + Pex
where: Pel active input by the electric energy (especially arcs)

Pex the power of exotermic reactions
Poutput = Plos + Plining
where: Plos direct thermal losses (combustion gasses, radiation, cooling

water)
Plining power transmitted from the working area of the furnace to the
lining (accumulation)
Pel = Ptotal,el Plos,el
where: Ptotal,el total active power supplied from the network

Plos,el power of electrical losses
The mentioned relations show that the increase of the values of Puseful can be
achieved by increasing Pel a Pex and by decreasing Plos a Plining
17
Schematic representation of the flow of individual powers in

the electrical arc furnace
For the rational energy management regime, it is neccessary to reach the optimum
value of power brought to the working area of the furnace.
18
Simplified equivalent scheme of the arc furnace

The solution is based on so-called simplified tranformer equivalent scheme of the arc
furnace, in which the three-phase wiring is replaced by an equivalent scheme of
circuit with one phase.
U2,p .. secondary phase voltage

R, XL ... the sum of the respective resistors in the secondary part of the circuit
and the transformed resistors from the primary part
19

The value of Pel is given by the difference between the total input electric power
and the power of electric losses
Pel = Ptotal,el Plos,el
Ptotal,el = Papparent . cos = 3. U2,p . I2 . cos
Plos,el = 3 . R . I 22
Pel = 3 . U2,p . I2 . cos 3 . R . I 22
The I2 current can be determined using the relation including the impedance of the
circuit Z
U 2,p U 2,p
I2
Z R R 0 2 X 2L
The power factor cos can be determined using the ratio of the resistance and
impedance of the circuit
R R0 R R0
cos
Z R R0 2 X L2
The decisive part of the value of Pel is formed by the power input, which is
released by the arcs themselves:
Po Pel
The resulting relation for the power released on the arcs is:
Po Pel 3 I2 U22, p L I22 3 R I22

2
20

The change of power brought to the working area of the furnace by the electric
energy (in other words the power released on the arcs) can be performed by:
1. Changing the secondary voltage of the transformer U2,p
This is performed by changing the wiring of the individual phases on the primary
part of the transformer to a star connection or to a delta connection and by
switching the taps on the primary wiring of the transformer
2. Changing the current of the I2 arc at the given U2,p.

The value of current going through the arc depends on the arc resistance Ro .
U2, p U2, p
I2
Z R R0 2 XL2
The arc resistance can be determined from the following relation:
U0 S,0 . l0
R0
I2 I2 k . I2
- ~ ionization potential of the vapors and gasses in the arc

S,0 - resistivity of the arc
k - constant of proportionality
l0 - length of the arc
I2 - current of the arc
The expression shows that the arc resistance can be controlled by its length.
Increasing the length of the arc increases the voltage on the arc and by that the
resistance increases, current decreases and finally the thermal power of the
arc also decreases.
21
Electric characteristics of an arc furnace (associated work

characteristics of EAF)
These characteristics are most frequently compiled from the results of
measurements on a real arc furnace. The measured values are used for further
calculation of individual powers. From the characteristics, it is possible to
determine the operating mode of the arc furnace
When measuring, we change the current of the arc by changing the length of
the arc (or the voltage on the arc) at the given voltage degree
The order of writing l2,Uo, cos, Papparent, Ptotal,el, Ploss,el, Po, Pheat los, Puseful
During a short-circuit the Ro is zero, but the ohmic resistance R remains. That
is why Ptotal,el does not decrease under zero, but to a certain real value (the electrode
is heated by ohmic heat). Po is zero, however, because the arc does not burn.
22
The dependence of the furnace productivity (G) and the

specific consumption of electrical energy (W) on the arc
current
The optimum range of currents is limited by the maximum productivity G (the

maximum power of the arc Po) and the minimum specific consumption of electrical
energy W.
The minimum specific consumption of electrical energy W occurs at the maximum
electrical efficiency e which is determined by the following relation:
P0
e
Ptotal,el
Operating the EAF on the ascending part of the performance curve of the arc
longer arcs, lower currents, higher power factor, greater stress of the lining.
Operating the EAF on the descending part of the performance curve of the arc
shorter arc, higher currents, lower power factor, lesser stress of the lining, higher
requirements on the transformer.
23
Dynamic effects of arcs in EAF

The electric arc can be considered as conductor, whose shape is greatly influenced
by the complex surrounding electromagnetic field, created not only by the action of
the given arc, but also by the neighbouring arcs. The shape of the arc is also
influenced by the surrounding metal construction of the furnace.
Consequence:
Bulging of the arcs towards the walls of the furnace increasing the thermal
stress on the furnace walls
Existence of axial forces in the arc recess of the arc, creating a wall
Mixing of the pool under the arcs
Physical and chemical effects of arc in EAF
24
Physical and chemical effects:
Transition of hydrogen and nitrogen to the molten pool with the condition
of dissociation of gas molecules to atoms (arc)
Formation of calcium carbide carbide slag
(CaO) + 3 Cs (CaC2) + COg strongly endothermic reaction
Carburizing of the pool from the electrodes (electrode breaking,
improper regulation of the electrodes etc.)
Evaporation of the pool ingredients Ni, Mn (due to the high vapor
pressure of metals)
25
Ultra High Productivity furnaces

The division of EAF according to electrical power inputs:
regular productivity RP
high productivity HP
ultra high productivity UHP
super ultra high productivity SUHP
Criteria of UHP:
1. The maximum value of specific active electrical power input Ptotal,el during the
period of melting (Ptotal,el=Papparent . cos) must reach 300-600 kW/t of the liquid
metal (in other words Papparent of the transformer of app. 500 -1000 kVA/t).
Up to 35 t 40 90 t 100 t
RP furnaces 200 350 150 300 150 - 250 kW.t -1
UHP furnaces 450 550 400 500 300 400 kW.t -1
SUHP furnaces 600 - 700 550 - 600 500 550 kW.t -1
2. The ratio of average power input of the operating furnace to the maximum
electrical power input during the melting must be 0,7
3. The ration of arc burning period to the total length of the melting has to be 0,7
4. High durability of the lining
5. Uniform distribution of the received energy between individual phases
Ultra High Chemical Power furnaces

In recent year, the so-called UHCP Ultra High Chemical Power furnaces are being
constructed and pushed forward. They are furnaces with very high productivity with
26
high input of chemical energy. The weight of the melting in these furnaces is up to
300 t, the diameter of the hearth up to 9m, their productivity may be up to 2 million
tons/year, the melting period according to the technology used from 30 to 45
minutes.
Development and technical parameters of newly constructed EAF
Questions
27
1. Electrical and thermal working mode of the electric arc furnace how to
influence the useful power put into the EAF.
2. A substitute diagram of one phase EAF.
3. How is it possible to perform the change of power released on the arcs.
4. The combined working characteristic of the EAF - construction.
5. The work of EAF on the increasing and decreasing branch of the characteristic,
advantages and disadvantages.
6. Specific consumption of electric energy during the melting in EAF.
7. Dynamic, physical and chemical effects of arcs in the EAF.
8. UHP and SUHP furnace, conditions of including EAF among the UHP furnaces
and UHCP furnaces.
28
THEMATIC BLOCK 4
Development of technology to produce steel in arc furnaces -

intensification of melting
theoretical consumption of electrical energy to melt 1t of steel - 380 kWh/t

real consumption - cca. 450 to 600 kWh/t (overheating to 1600 C, steel
refinement)
operation consumptions for these values indicate the usage of other energy
(besides electrical) to heat and melt the batch.
Other sources of heat in an EAF
Thermal effect of exothermic reactions

reactions between individual components of the pool
reactions between components and refinement medium (gaseous oxygen)
reactions during oxidation of auxiliary fuels
Use of gaseous oxygen in the conditions of EAF
1. Pre-melting nozzles cutting bigger chunks of batch
2. Refining oxygen nozzles oxidation of accompanying elements and oxidation of

C over the scope of carbon reaction (carbonification of the pool), transfer of heat into
the pool (almost 100 %), creation of CO (post combustion treatment)
Thermal effect in oxidation of the pool elements (1 kWh = 3600 kJ)
29
Reaction -H ; kWh/kg Me -H ; kWh/m3 O2
2 Al + 1,5 O2 = Al2O3 8,61 13,86
Si + O2 = SiO2 8,70 10,92
Mn + 0,5 O2 = MnO 1,95 9,56
2 Cr + 1,5 O2 = Cr2O3 3,05 9,44
Fe + 0,5 O2 = FeO 1,32 6,58
C + 0,5 O2 = CO 2,55 2,73
C + O2 = CO2 9,10 4,88
CO + 0,5 O2 = CO2 2,81 7,02
Real values of the thermal effect achieved in melting in EAF are between
2 and 4,5 kWh/1 m3 of O2
Advantages of the occurrence of exothermic reactions in the melt:
the forming heat completely moves into the batch (melt)
large amount of CO forms, which represents additional - and in terms of potential
thermal effect even more significant - source of energy (thermal effect of the
carbon oxidation reaction until the formation of CO2 is triple compared to the
oxidation into CO only).
30
The use of gaseous oxygen in EAF conditions
3. Oxygen-powered burners - natural gas + oxygen (1:2), temperature of the flame

exceeds 2800 C, power 2 to 4 MW (10 MW), use of heat during the melting
decreases from 80 down to approx. 30 %. The manufacturers of burners: e.g. Air
Products, Linde.
Implementation: mobile door burners, wall burners (usually 3 of them)
Test of the door-mounted

oxygen-powered burner
outside of the furnace
31
Oxygen-powered burner
JetBOx (Air Products) with
the influx of powdered
carbide substances
Oxygen-powered burner
JetBOx (Air Products) with
the influx of powdered
carbide substances
32
Use of gaseous oxygen in EAF conditions
4. Post combustion nozzles post combustion treatment of CO, which is formed

during the carbon reaction and burning the additional or fossil fuels
Theoretical limit of the thermal effect in afterburning CO into CO2 is

7,02 kWh/Nm3 of oxygen (at 1600 C).
Electrical energy savings can achieve up to 72 kWh/t of steel.
Technical data of the use of oxygen and fuels in the conditions

of intensified EAFs
Consumption of oxygen: 5 to 30 m3/t (possibly 60 m3/t), where 1 m3 of oxygen/1t of
steel replaces 5 kWh of electrical energy /1t of steel.
Consumption of natural gas: 4 to 8 m3/t, where 1 m3 of gas /1t steel is replaced by
approx. 8 kWh of electrical energy /1t of steel.
Consumption of carbonizing agent: 014 kg/t.
Energy balance of a modern arc furnace

(calculated for 1t of liquid steel):
The problem of purity with the gaseous oxygen used in EAFs

The aim during steel production is primarily to prevent the potential influx of
nitrogen (and also hydrogen) to the metallic pool in the entire course of the
technological cycle.
33
Air-tight EAFs ensure certain tightness of the entire construction and

prevention of outside atmosphere penetrating in (high partial pressure of
nitrogen with not insignificant content of air humidity).Using this technology
and other measures, and EAF can produce primary steel with the content of
nitrogen being less than 40 ppm.
An important source of nitrogen may also be the purity of the used gaseous
oxygen. In past or even present workshops (constructed earlier) the EAF uses
oxygen which is approx. 90% pure.
During the blowing of oxygen into this purity, the workspace of the furnace
experiences and inflow of a sizeable amount of nitrogen which leads to an
increase of its partial pressure in the workspace of the furnace and also in the
formed slag emulsion and thus also the conditions for its transition into the
steel.
The existence of high-temperature sources in the shape of electrical arcs -
dissociation and ionization of molecules and atoms occurs easily. A
potentially higher danger can be expected of its transition into the metallic pool
and thus increase of its amounts in the liquid steel despite the EAF conditions
having a relatively effective way for nitrogen removal from the steel due to the
course of the carbon reaction.
Current and especially future conditions in the purity of gaseous oxygen used
for being blown into the EAF are nearing or are almost the same as the
conditions for purity of the oxygen blown into the oxygen converter. A range of
intensified processes uses oxygen of 98 % to 99.5 % purity.
Detailed tests have shown that a certain mild pick-up of nitrogen (cca 3 ppm)
from the blown oxygen can be expected in 2000 ppm (0,2 %) of gaseous
oxygen. At higher volumes, this pick-up will be much more pronounced.
The second aspect which supports the necessity for using highly pure gaseous
oxygen for melting intensification in UHP EAF is the ecological aspect. With
the increasing amounts of nitrogen in the gaseous oxygen, the potential
amount of very damaging oxides creation (of NOx type) intensifies.
34
Foaming nozzles
Blowing oxygen + ground carbide substances (coke, coal) into the slag
Reaction of carbon and blown oxygen in the slag with the creation of CO bubbles
causing the slag foam. Possible course of the reaction of carbon with iron oxides in
the slag.
Formation of CO bubbles, formation of foaming slag shielding of long arcs.
Advantages to using a foaming slag:
decreases the use of lining and electrodes
decreases thermal loses through the furnace walls
better transfer of heat from the arc into the pool
decreases the furnace noise - the arc is shielded
The foamability of slag is positively affected by

its increased viscosity (lower fluidity) stabilizes the foam
lowered surface tension decreases the energy necessary for bubble formation
higher basicity of the slag - higher than 2.5
FeO content within 15 to 20 %, which we keep through the reaction of C with FeO
Disadvantage - formation of high amounts of CO within the furnace (heat losses)
EAF Bottom Stirring with Inert Gas
Melting intensification - thermal and concentration homogenization of the

pool, better course of physical-chemical reactions
35
Basic methods of placing the stirring blocks in the bottom of the EAF
hearth
hearth with
EBT
36
Basic implementation of blowing blocks in the EAFs bottom
single-opening nozzle the disadvantage is leakage of liquid metal, the

nozzles must always be ovepressured by gas
multi-opening block directional porosity plug
porosity of the block non-directed porosity, possibility of disrupting the
blowing
Volumetric flow: 50 to 80 l.min-1 (per 1 blowing block)
37
Metallurgical and economic effects of using blowing blocks at

the bottom of EAF
1. decrease in iron content in the slag on average by 4 %

2. pool is closer to C-O equilibrium; no penetrations are observed
3. low content of carbon at the end of refinement phase (oxidation) 0,02 %
4. lower losses of manganese in the slag (due to lower content of iron in slag),
higher yield of alloying elements
5. achieving lower phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen content in the steel (by
20 ppm N)
6. increase of thermal homogeneity of the pool
7. lower consumption of electrical energy by 10-20 kWh.t-1 due to faster melting of
the waste and lower radiation losses
8. shortening of the melting period on average by 2.5 to 5 minutes
38
EAF productibility
EAF productibility is usually given in tons of produced steel in 24 hours and is one of
the main parameters of an EAF.
EAF productibility is determined by this equation:

24 24 g o
G go n go
celk 1 2 3
where:
G- furnace productibility; t/24 h
go - mass of the melting; t
n- number of meltings performed in 24 hours
celk - overall time of melting; h
1 - length of the time interval since turning off the furnace during tapping
until turning on the furnace for the next melting; h
2 - length of the melting period
where 2 = '2 + ''2
'2 - the sum of period when the arc is interrupted
''2 - the sum of periods when the arc is ignited
3 - the time of the period of finishing a heat
39
Distribution of power in individual phases during an EAF

melting
1
In period 1 the transformer is not under load - it is turned off. This intervals
length depends on the work organization, difficulty and scale (or length) of inter-
melting repairs, development of contracts, etc.
'2
Interruption of the arc during the melting period is always undesirable and is
caused by various factors. Most often is it wrongly assembled batch that can
disintegrate onto the electrodes causing short circuits, etc. To prevent the arc being
switched off, it is necessary to include choke into the circuit (lowering the cos).
Interruption of the arc burning is related to the possibilities of the transformer, which
does not allow for switching to other voltage level under load. The value of '2 is
influenced by the perfection of electrical and mechanical equipment of the furnace
(parameters of electrode regulation, etc.).
''2
Shortening the period when the arc is ignited can be done only under the
assumption of further intensification of the melting - is the funcion of Puseful, which is
dependent on the power lead into the EAF (UHP furnace, oxygen-powered burners,
etc.) and on the power lead out (especially thermal losses - perfect isolation of the
furnace coating). Some furnace constructions utilize water-cooling with large-area
coolers (i.e. higher outflow of heat - losses). In such case, assumptions must be
made to increase Pel (active power of electrical energies) or Pex (power by exothermic
reactions), so that the shortening of ''2 occurs.
3
During the finishing period, the transformer is not under full load. The length of
this period is determined primarily by the technology used - production program,
furnace equipment, scale of the out-of-furnace processing of steel in the steel-mill,
etc.
40
Questions
1. Other sources of heat during the melting in an EAF, melting intensification.

2. Development and innovation tendencies in EAF melting.
3. Use of gaseous oxygen in EAF melting nozzles, refining nozzles.
4. Use of gaseous oxygen in EAF oxygen-powered burners, CO post
combustion treatment.
5. Thermal effect of exothermic reactions of dissolved elements with gaseous
oxygen.
6. Foaming slags - significance, construction, advantages, foamability.
7. Blowing inert gas through the bottom of the EAF - significance, construction
implementation, metallurgical effects.
8. Productibility of EAF equation definition, options to increase productibility.
41
THEMATIC BLOCK 5
A schematic of an electrical arc furnace

Electrical arc furnace is a relatively complex metallurgical aggregate and the
most complicated part is related to the character of heat input - i.e. to the electrical
energy, its distribution, transformation into the required voltage and upkeep of the
electrical parameters of the arc, i.e. with the regulation of electrodes. Apart from the
electrical section, each EAP is equipped with a mechanical part that ensured the
movement of electrodes, shift of the lid, tilting the furnace, setting the furnace, etc.
and also equipped for cooling the furnace and sucking out and purifying the furnace
gases.
1 high voltage supply 6 electrode arms

2 main switch 7 electrodes
3 choke 8 electrode holders
4 furnace transformer 9 cooling rings
5 belt Cu 10 copper flexible cables
42
Electrical schematic of an alternating EAF
43
Arrangement of a classical AC EAF
1 - EAF shell 10 - electrode arms

2 - water-cooled EAF roof 11 - electrodes
3 - slag door 12 - electrode holder mechanisms
4 - tapping 13 - conductors
5 - furnace tilt 14 - secondary power cables
6 - tilting hydraulics 15 - transformer exit
7 - stand of the rotary lid 16 - transformer
8 - support 17 - suction out of the EAF
9 - lid lifting mechanism
44
View of a hall with an EAF installed
45
View of a 180t EAF by VAI company
46
EAF furnace transformer
The furnace transformer lowers the high voltage from the supply grid (6 30 kV) to
the voltage suitable for powering the EAF (100 1000 V)
Furnace transformer requirements:

optimal dimensions based on the tonnage of the furnace (apparent power 0,5 to
1 MVA/t, up to 120 kA on the secondary side)
sufficient number of voltage levels (branching, switches Y-)
option to switch under load (800 switches per day)
resistance against short circuiting currents and overstrain
resistance of construction to mechanical and thermal effects
inductance of all three phases must be the same
Examples of EAF transformer connection
160 V 93 V
(se k )
Switching the voltage levels is done on the primary side

Melting of the batch occurs always at higher voltage (longer arc), load on the lining
is then higher (the batch partially protects the lining. In the finishing period, it
switches onto secondary voltage [shorter arcs - decrease of thermal load on the
lining (but a worse cos )].
47
EAF furnace transformer by ABB
EAF choke
The choke balances (lowers, limits) sharp changes of the current in the electrical
circuit of EAF, which form for example at turning the circuit on/off, short circuits, etc.
Changes in the electrical circuit cause a change in the magnetic field around the coil
and then electro-motoric voltage is induced in the coil, which acts always against
changes that have caused it.
It is connected in a series to the primary side of the furnace transformer.
Functions during the melting in an EAF:

dampers the current bumps during pre-melting of the solid metal batch
protects the transformer from short circuits
stabilizes arc burning
increases inductance (inductive resistance) of the EAF electrical circuit
Construction - similar to the transformer, the choke has one coil; the magnetic circuit
is not closed - increase of the magnetic flow deviation - increase of inductivity. It has
minimal ohmic resistance.
48
Compensation of effects using the choke

Due to their inductive resistance, chokes reduce cos of the grid - power factor.
In UHP furnaces, during the period of non-covered burn of the arcs, cos can
decrease down to the values of 0,71-0,68, which decreases the active power
released on the arcs and also decreases the power factor in the electrical distribution
grid. That is why the power factor needs to be compensated using a method, where
the phase shift caused by inductivity is compensated for by phase shift due to the
input capacities of the condenser.
Implementation: use of condenser batteries, which are switched on when needed
using thyristors to achieve the required cos .
Other tasks of compensation:

balances out the asymmetrical load on the grid during the period when only two
arcs burn short term, which usually occurs in case of the electrodes going down
and touching the batch.
ensures filtration of higher harmonic frequencies, which form due to the
differences in voltages on the arc and powering voltage and which would input a
reactive component into the power grid.
dampers the imbalance in voltage in the power distribution grid, which is exhibited
by unpleasant flickering light with a frequency of 37 (20) Hz. It is the so called
flicker effect which is caused by imbalance of current input and short circuits
during pre-melting the batch in an arc furnace.
49
Nomogram for basic calculation of reactive power

compensation
Melting the batch: to increase the effect from 0,7 or 0,8 to 0,9, it is necessary to
compensate reactive energy by 2,6 to 4,5 MVAr (A-A, B-B).
Oxidation period of melting: works with lower power in the transformer and with
worse power factor (point C) for achieving cos =0,90 it is necessary to compensate
by 4,5 MVAr (C-C).
Finishing the melting: the transformer is under 25 % load (point D) with power factor
of 0,65, therefore it is necessary to compensate by 1,2 MVAr (D-D).
50
Secondary power cables
Electrical lead between the outputs on the secondary side of the transformer and the
furnace workspace - copper flanges, flexible cables, conductors on the electrode
holders, electrode holders, electrodes including the links.
The line should be as short as possible therefore short grid.

Minimization of transfer resistance - extreme currents n.104 A, loss of power
P = R . I2
All three inputs should be the same in terms of electrical parameters.
The formation of alternating magnetic field around the short grid - influence on
inductance of individual phases (and subsequently on the reactance and the
resulting impedance)
Different reactance causes also a different transfer of energy through the
individual phases - creation of wild and cold phases.
With the arrangements of terminals on a plane - the middle phase has the
highest power
Symetrization of intakes - phases are arranged into a equilateral triangle.
Bifilar lines from the transformer to the electrodes - reactance of the short grid in
individual groups of conductors are compensated by conflicting segments of the
current.
51
Different lines from the transformer to the electrodes
secondary side
of transformer electrodes of EAF
a) linking the coils in transformers or on the transformer lid

b) c) linking at the electrodes bifilar lines
d) linking beyond the flexible cables
52
EAF electrodes
Price of the electrodes - cca 40.000 CZK/1t for RP and HP, up to 100.000 CZK /1t for
a UHP
Graphite electrodes are usually used in EAFs.
Requirements for the graphite electrodes:

1. Low electrical resistivity - 8 to 12 .mm2.m-1, it is not constant throughout the
cross-section of the electrode. The electrodes core, which is not as well graphitized,
has higher resistivity.
2. The corresponding thermal conductivity and thermal expansion
%
Influence of temperature on
the change of thermal
100 conductivity and resistivity
of graphite electrodes
0 1000 2000 C
3. High capacity of the electrode - v A.cm-2; decreases with increasing diameter of

the electrode, for electrodes of 355 mm the capacity is 21 A.cm-2 for UHP up to
35 A.cm2
53
4. Low specific consumption of electrodes - moves within a wide range between

2 to 6 kg/t of produced steel and depends on various factors including:
the steel production technology (double-slag, single-slag, with oxidation by
gasous oxygen, using oxygen-powered burners, etc.),
the method of production (from solid batch, from liquid batch, ..),
the furnace tonnage,
the time of melting - shortening the melting period by 10 minutes brings a
decrease in electrode consumption by approx 0,3 kg.t-1
the quality of the electrodes themselves and others
The electrode consumption/1 t of produced steel is an important technical-

economical factor of EAF operation.
54
Consumption of EAF electrodes
Electrode consumption is the result of several processes happening at the same

time:
Frontal burn - increases with the increasing value of current, form a hot anode
and cathode stain on the electrode, forms tension and release of graphite
particles, dissolution of graphite in drops of steel.
Side burn - rises with the oxidation ability of the surrounding gaseous phase and
speed of its flow, forms a cone-shape electrodes in the EAF workspace.
Decrease of side-burn intensity phosphorus varnish (protection only up to
800 C) or saturation of electrodes - putting a special coating based on Al and
SiC onto the electrode surface about 0.5 to 0.8 mm thick (decrease of electrode
consumption by 8-15 %).
Electrode fracture - batch slide + unsatisfactory electrode regulation
Other requirements on electrodes:

electrodes must not contain additives that pollute the steel
sufficient strength at low and high temperatures (fractures during furnace tilting)
smooth surface low transfer resistances, higher resistance against oxidation
ability to connect electrodes using junctions - which are screwed into the
threads on the from side of the electrode. The junctions usually have trapezoid
shape, the connection must be firm, various binders are used.
55
Graphite electrode production

Energy consumption to produce 1t electrode is approx. 10x higher than the energy
needed to produce 1 t of steel (up to 8000 kWh/t of electrodes).
Graphite electrode production process:

raw materials:
base - anthracite, coke, petroleum coke, natural graphite (seldom used
has low strength),
binder - coal tar, tar products
calcination roasting in order to remove water and volatile substances (1400C -
in an electrical furnace)
treatment of the basic raw materials grinding, sorting to the 2-10 mm size
preparation of the mixture with the binder
stamping under the pressure of 30 - 50 MPa
sintering up to 1300 C, for 3 weeks, the product is brittle, porous, but stable
synthetic carbon with amorphous structure (these electrodes are used in
reduction furnaces to produce ferroalloys)
impregnation (filling the pores and holes by substances based on coal pitch)
graphitization at temperatures of 2500 to 3000 C (conversion of amorphous
carbon into grains of graphite with hexagonal grid; begins at 2200 C) the process
takes 2-3 weeks
processing by working it into the required shape, including links
Graphite electrodes are stronger than carbon electrodes and have 4-5 times lower
electrical resistivity (graphite is more conductive than amorphous carbon)
56
Questions
1. Basic equipment of electrical arc furnace - electrical and mechanical part.

2. Requirements put on the furnace transformer, wiring of transformers.
3. Significance of the choke in the EAF circuit, construction of the choke.
4. Power factor compensation, flicker effect
5. Short EAF grid, reactance of individual phases, wild and cold phase, types of
bifilar lines.
6. EAF electrodes requirements on the thermo-physical properties, electrical
properties, capacity of electrodes, electrode consumption.
7. Electrode burn - side, frontal, electrode fracture.
8. The technology of producing graphite electrodes - main component, the basics
of graphitization.
57
THEMATIC BLOCK 6
Regulation of movement of EAF electrodes

The task of automatic electrode regulation:
to preserve the set active power brought in by electrical arcs into the furnace
workspace
to ensure the setting of the working point on the associated characteristics for
each voltage used
Apart from this, other requirements are put on the automatic regulation
ensure conditions for the arc ignition
exiting of electrodes or unplugging the furnace from the grid in case of the batch
sliding and short circuit occurrence
to prevent carbonization of the pool from electrodes during the reduction period
systems of regulation of each electrode cannot be mutually influenced
it must react even to non-standard working conditions, such as presence of non-
conductive material in the batch
it must allow for manual control over electrodes - especially their exit from the
furnace
Power of the arc can be regulated by changing its length - shortening will increase its
power (increasing branch characteristic).
The working point cannot be determined by power because the same power can be
achieved at two different values of voltage - the power cannot be used as a regulated
quantity.
Choice of regulable quantities in theory is:

arc voltage is not changed much, not used for regulation
arc current unable to ignite the arc during an interruption
arc voltage and current ratio voltage-current (impedance, differential).
58
Static characteristics of electrode regulator in EAF
Dependence of electrode movement speed in (m.min-1) on the size of deviation of the

regulated quantity (e.g. arc impedance - Z2)
Division of regulation:
non-proportional speed of electrode movement in not dependent on the size
of regulated quantity deviation (e.g. contact regulation)
proportional speed of electrode movement in dependent on the size of
regulated quantity deviation (e.g. hydraulic regulator)
Insensitivity range - electrode does not react to the change of regulated quantity
deviation
59
Transition characteristic of EAF electrode regulator
Time progress of electrode speed from since the start of the given regulatory
deviation until its removal
The regulator will have faster feedback if the overall delay tz is lower and if the time
constants n and d are lower. The size of the time constant is positively influenced by
the speed of electrode movement.
60
A schematic of automatic regulation of electrode in an arc

furnace
The measuring element of the regulator performs measurements of quantities,

their comparison and control of the core element and contains:
the control element which inputs the required value of the measured
quantity w into the comparison element
comparison element, which compares the measured value Uo/I2= x with
the value of the control quantity, the deviation w-x is then input into the
core element
Core element amplifies the deviation w-x so that it can directly control the active
element (such as the power amplifier, magnetic amplifier, thyristor or hydraulic
amplifiers)
Active element performs the electrode movement directly through

electromotor, cable or chain gears
hydraulic elements the electrode column is part of the hydraulic cylinder
61
A schematic of electromechanical electrode regulation in EAF

using a differential relay
It basically is an impedance regulator and its control element is a differential relay

(balance relay) which ma two coils wired by
the voltage of the electrode against ground
and the voltage of the measurement transformer, which is proportional to the
passing current to the electrode.
Both coils affect the rocker system of the relay. If the current of the arc increases, the
rocker falls out of balance and switches a set of contacts of the electromotor, which
lifts the electrode through a pulley system. If the current in the electrode decreases,
the balance relay switches the contacts to move the electrode downward.
62
A schematic of an electrohydraulic regulation of EAF

electrodes using Ferraris engine
The core element of this type of regulation is the so called Ferraris engine, its rotor is
in the shape of aluminum drum and the stator has two-phase coils - excitation coil
and regulatory coil.
The excitation coil is powered by the voltage from other two phases other than the
regulated phase. The regulation coil is differentially connected to two sources of
alternating voltage. One of them is the voltage proportional to the voltage between
the electrode and the batch. The other source is the voltage which is excited by the
flow of regulated phase in the measuring transformer. If these two voltages are of
same amplitudes, no current flows through the regulatory coil, because both sources
have opposite effect (phase shift is 180). If a difference is formed - such as during
the increase of the arc current related to the decrease of voltage on the electrode -
some current flows through the regulatory coil which creates rotary electromagnetic
field; its effect speeds up the rotor. The torque is proportional to the current flowing
through the regulatory coil, the direction of rotation is dependent on if the balance is
disrupted by overflow of voltage which is proportional to the arc current over the
voltage measured from the electrode or vice-versa. It is clear that the regulated
quantity is the arc impedance. The rotor here acts as the core element of the
regulator. Rotation of the rotor is transferred through the gear segment and an arm
onto the rod of the regulatory hydraulic valve damper, which controls the hydraulic
piston with the arm of the electrode.
63
A schematic of a hydraulic arc furnace electrode regulator
64
New views on the properties of regulated EAF system
Complications and problems of a regulated EAF system:
Gradient of voltage on the arc (V.mm-1) changes depending on the batch composition
and temperature during the technological process more than by an order, i.e.
to a certain value of a regulation deviation (w-x) the regulator should react by a

different value of action quantity (i.e. the ratio of electrode moment) depending on
if the gradient of voltage on the arc is low or high.
Electrical parameters of individual arcs are mutually bound because the electrical
circuit for the current of the given arc must necessarily close through arcs of the
remaining electrodes, which means that
in the situation of a given electrode, the arc length corresponds to the required state
and it is not suitable to move the electrode, especially the change of current in a
different electrode (albeit short-term) will be seen as a change of current. It is evident
that if the change is short term, it would be best not to react to it at all.
65
Induction mixing of the pool in an EAF
electromagnetic coil for induction mixing is placed under the bottom of the arc
furnace (analogy to the expanded stator of an asynchronous engine)
rotor ( with the short-term anchor) is the pool itself
the coil is wired by current of lower frequency (up to 1 Hz).
the coating on the furnace floor must be made from non-magnetic steel
the source of the connecting current are rotation or thyristor converters
If a current of low frequency passes through the coil, it causes movement of the melt
as shown on the figure below.
Advantages of induction mixing:

the homogeneity is increased for alloying, especially by heavy elements such as
wolfram or vanadium
the thermal homogeneity of the pool is increased
it speeds up the occurring diffusion processes between slag and metal, such as
the diffusion deoxidation and desulfurization
facilitates the removal of inclusions
facilitates withdrawal of slag
used during the reduction period of the melting
66
EAF linings
Furnace floor - hearth
Tightness against penetration of steel and resistance to bubbling up is a

requirement in furnace floor. The floor takes part in physical-chemical reactions, it is
heavily strained both thermally and mechanically (during setting of the steel waste).
The required properties of the floor are achieved by a suitable combination of
thickness and execution of the isolation layer, magnesite bricks and work layer.
The work layer is made from dense, volumetrically stable and well sintered
monolith. It is made from finely ground magnesite (or magnesite-dolomite) clinker.
The floor monolith may be produced by several methods:

by stomping of the grainy material with the addition of tar
by stomping of the grainy material wetted by water solutions: MgSO4, MgCl2
by stomping of the grainy material wetter by water-glass
by stamping dry grainy material in layers
by densening dry grainy material through deep vibration using needle
vibrators
Dry floors provide several advantages - they do not have to be dried, they
exhibit higher density and volumetric stability. Before the first melting, the floor is
covered by pieces of sheet metal and lighter waste is set. The first melting is
performed intermittently at lower degrees of voltage.
In the production of stainless steels through oxidation remelting, the floors are
strained by significantly high temperatures. Suitable lifetime of floors has been
achieved through several preventive measures that result in formation of a chromium
gathering at the place where hearth meets the pool.
The gathering is formed during the processes between the original magnesite
or dolomite hearth and the elements of chromium slag, components of highly-alloyed
pool and the used reparatory material. The main components of this gathering are
complex spinels of MgO.Cr2O3, FeO.Cr2O3.
Furnace walls
The furnace wall lining is also strained by temperature changes due to arc
burning, mechanical tension during the tilting of the furnace and other factors.
The finish of the EAF walls and their lining can be divided into 2 groups based
on the method of heat transfer from the workspace of the furnace:
outflow of the heat through the furnace coating into its surrounding where the
magnesite lining itself is isolated from the coating to varying degree
The use of water coolers (for large areas) which remove the heat from larger part
of the furnace workspace, which is made up by a thin lining or coating of ceramic
67
matter or gatherings on the colder ones. The use of coolers allows for full use of
the UHP furnaces and thus higher productivity, lower consumption of heat-
resistant material.
Water cooled panels are constructed as tubular (the radius of the tubes is 70-
90 mm), the thickness of the wall is 8-10mm and it must be sufficiently resistant to
mechanical influences on the other hand it must ensure fast transfer of heat into
the cooling water. They are made from steel with good thermal conductivity
(50 Wm-1K-1) or for especially strained areas even from copper (383 Wm-1K-1)
such as for the zone near to the slag line or oxygen-burning burners, etc. The
panels do not come into long term direct contact with liquid metal or slag. They
are placed above the slag line.
A segment of water-cooled EAF wall panel
68
Water-cooled EAF roofs
The roofs used to be lined by silica, because it has suitable properties - low
weight, not too expensive. But if the temperature only slightly exceeds 1670C, it lead
to a significant wear.
Modern EAFs use aluminum rich roofs, basic roofs or water cooled lids.
Aluminum-rich - based on Al2O3, 75-80 % Al2O3
Basic - magnesite-chromium
Water-cooled - the coolers are in the peripheral part, the middle part around the
electrode is built using masonry methods.
Coolers are built using a pipe-space-pipe system, the cooling is divided into several
cooling circuits. On the inside (furnace) side, the tube constructions are melted by
thorns, which act as holders of the refractory concrete that is put onto the entire
surface before the furnace is used. The weight of the water-cooled lid is small than
the brick one. The amount of flowing water must ensure sufficient cooling without the
formation of vapor - up to 200 m3/hour for a lid that is 6 m in diameter.
69
Suction of the furnace gases from an EAF
During the melting, especially with oxygen-intensified technologies, a high amount of

furnace gases form within the furnace as products of the oxidation reactions. These
gases contain an amount of dust, which can be 14 to 20 kg/t of steel during the
production of carbon or low-alloyed steel and 6-15kg/t of steel in case of highly-
alloyed steel production.
The forming furnace gases must be sucked out from the furnace area during the
melting. For the suction, several technological principles are used
suction by the so called fourth hole in the lid (arch) of the furnace or the second
hole in case of a DC furnace
using suction lid over the arc furnace
using the dog-house cover, in which the whole EAF is placed and which opens
only during the setting and certain manipulations (such as sampling); a positive
effect of this principle is also shielding of the noise and lowering its amount
during the melting by 10 to 20 dB
suction of the entire steel mill
The stated procedures may be combined to achieve the maximum effect and thus
reducing secondary emissions from the operation of arc furnaces.
70
Chemical composition of dust in furnace gases
Component Dust from carbon and low- Dust from high-alloy and
alloy steel production, % stainless steel production, %
Fe total 25-50 30-40

SiO2 1,5-5 7-10
CaO 4 15 5-17
Al2O3 0,3-0,7 1-4
MgO 1-5 2-5
P2O5 0,2-0,6 0,01-0,1
MnO 2,5-5,5 3-6
Cr2O3 0,2-1 10-20
Na2O 1,5-1,9 n.d.
K2O 1,2-1,5 n.d.
Zn 10-35 2-10
Pb 0,8-6 0,5-2
Cd 0,02-0,1 0,01-0,08
Cu 0,15-0,4 0,01-0,3
Ni 0,02-0,04 2-4
V 0,02-0,05 0,1-0,3
Co 0,001-0,002 n.d.
As 0,003-0,08 n.d.
Hg 0,0001-0,001 n.d.
Cl 1,5-4 n.d.
F 0,02-0,9 0,01-0,05
S 0,5-1 0,1-0,3
C 0,5-2 0,5-1
alkalinity 2,0-6,5 n.d.
humidity 6-16 n.d.
Adjustment of furnace gases suction consists primarily in their clean-up using bag
filters (90 % of devices) or using electrostatic separators or water filters. 2/3 of the
separated dust is dumped in the EU, the rest is recycled (dust from the production of
stainless steel) or is further utilized externally.
71
Data on the input and output of carbon steel production in an

electric arc furnace taken from various references
INPUT OUTPUT
RAW PRODUCTS
MATERIALS
steel scrap kg/t 1080 -1130 liquid steel kg 1000 (yield
92,6-88,5%)
lime kg/t 30-80 EMISSION
coal kg/t 13-15 dust g/t 1-780
graphite kg/t 1,5-4,5 Hg mg/t 6-4470
electrodes
lining kg/t 1,9-25,1 (diam.8,1) Pb mg/t 16-3600
liquid melt kg/t Cr mg/t 8-2500
DRI kg/t Ni mg/t 1-1400
pig iron kg/t Zn mg/t 280-45600
Cd mg/t 1-72
Cu mg/t 1-460
ENERGY HF mg/t 700-4000
total energy MJ/t 2300-2700 HCl mg/t 800-9600
(630-750kWh/t)
electricity MJ/t 1250-1800 SO2 g/t 24-130
(350-520 kWh/t)
3
oxygen m /t 24-47 NOx g/t 120-240
CO g/t 740-3900
water closed cooling TOC g C/t 16-130
circuit
benzene mg/t 170-4400
chlorbenzenes mg/t 3-37
PAH mg/t 3,5-71
PCB mg/t 1,5-45
PCDD/F g I- 0,07-9
TEQ/t
slag from the Kg/t 100-150
furnace
slag from the Kg/t 10-30
ladle
dust Kg/t 10-20
refractory Kg/t 2-8
bricks
noise DB (A) 90-125
72
Questions
1. Main task of electrode regulation.

2. Requirements of electrode regulation.
3. Advantages and disadvantages of voltage, current and voltage/current regulation.
4. Statistic and transfer characteristics of EAF electrode regulator.
5. A block scheme of EAF electrode regulation.
6. Electromechanical EAF electrode regulation with differential relay.
7. Complicated states in electrode regulation.
8. The significance and the implementation of induction mixing of the pool in EAF.
9. EAF lining classification, gathering, lid implementation, water-cooled panels.
10. Suction of furnace gases from the EAF, gas purification.
73
THEMATIC BLOCK 7
Basic division of technology of melting procedures in EAFs
Steel production in an electrical arc furnace is characteristic for certain specific

options which result from the existence of high-temperature concentrated heat
source (electrical arc) which is not dependent on the progress of oxidation (or
combustion) reactions.
In the workspace of the furnace, both oxidation and reduction conditions can
be created.
a) double-slag technology - melting is comprised of the period of batch
melting, oxidation period and reduction period
This technology had two sub-variants:
with the withdrawal of oxidation slag at the end of oxidation period
without the withdrawal of oxidation slag at the end of oxidation period
b) single-slag technology - the melding has a period of melting, oxidation and

finish - the melting occurs without reduction period
c) remelting - right after the melting goes the reduction period, there is no
oxidation period
There is a great number of modifications of these technologies -
production of carbon steel, alloyed, highly alloyed, tool steel, steel for casts, etc .
74
Double-slag technology
Before the rise of secondary metallurgy, it was the most used one. It is currently used
in smaller units for creation of special steels.
Preparatory work before starting the melting:

repair of the lining between meltings
batch preparation especially sorting in terms of chemical composition
setting the batch into the furnace - using setting baskets or setting machines, light
waste to the bottom (absorbs impacts of heavy waste) and then heavy waste and
light waste again
The most often used types of setting baskets:
75
Setting the batch using a setting basket
76
Melting period
It is the time period from ignition of the arc until the withdrawal of the first sample
after melting.
Maximum value of secondary voltage is used for melting (longer arcs are shielded by
batch), which shortens the melting period.
Intensification of melting:
Blowing of gaseous oxygen - aids the melting of unmelted chunks of batch
outside of the electrode area
Use of oxygen-powered burners - usually for methane and oxygen, batch can be
preheated outside the furnace in setting baskets, shafts etc.
Rotary hearth - hearth will rotate by 30-40
Metallurgical reactions in the melting period:

Oxidation reaction on smaller scale - dephosphorization and oxidation of Si, Mn;
related to the formation of reactive calcium-iron slag
Intentional carbonization of the pool - adding coke, fractions of electrodes or raw
iron. Carbonization is necessary for the occurrence of carbon reaction which
controls a significant part of thermodynamic and kinetic conditions of processes
during oxidation refinement (such as dephosphorization, removal of gases, etc.)
The melting period ends with the complete melting of batch, the transformer is
switch to a lower level of secondary voltage (shorter arcs).
77
Oxidation period of melting

Time period from the first sampling since the batch melting until the removal of
oxidation slag.
Tasks of the oxidation period:
1. Oxidation of phosphorus (dephosphorization)

2. Oxidation of other accompanying elements (Si and Mn, Cr)
3. Oxidation of carbon (decarbonization)
4. Lowering the content of gases (N2, H2)
5. Partial decrease in the content of sulfur
6. Decrease of the amount of non-metal inclusions
78
Dephosphorization of steel in EAF
Molecular theory:
2 P + 5 (FeO) = (P2O5) + 5 Fe
(P2O5) + 4 (CaO) = (Ca4P2O9)
2 P + 5 (FeO) + 4 (CaO) = (Ca4P2O9) + 5 Fe
Conditions for achieving low content of phosphorus in metal:

relatively low temperature (exothermic reaction) at high temperature, reverse
reduction of phosphorus from the slag into the metal may occur
low activity of the reaction product in slag - Ca4P2O9
high activity of CaO and FeO in slag for the optimal ratio of CaO and FeO in slag
Influence of CaO/FeO ratio on the division of P between metal and slag
Ionic theory:
P + 4 (O2-) + 2,5 (Fe2+) = (PO43-) + 2,5 Fe
Conditions for achieving low amounts of phosphorus in the metal:

high activity of O2- and Fe2+ ions - influence of ionic potentials
low value of PO43- anion activity coefficient
79
Oxidation of carbon in EAF
Homogeneous carbon reaction can be described as

C + O = COg
Equilibrium constant
KC,O = pCO/ fC . C . fO . O
log KC,O = (1168/T) +2,07
G = 5343 9,47.T
Oxidation of iron in the primary zone

[Fe] +1/2 O2 = (FeO) exo
Transfer of oxygen from the slag phase into the metal can be described as:
(FeO) = Fe] + [O endo
Homogeneous carbon reaction then occurs in the melt

C + O = COg exo
The overall thermal effect of the carbon oxidation reaction in iron melt is formally
equal to the progress of the summary reaction
[C] +1/2 O2 = COg
The progress of carbon reaction is possible only after fulfilling all other conditions
(physical ones) - partial pressure of pCO in the forming bubble must be greater than
the sum of patm, pfer and pkap.
pCO patm p fer p kap

2
pCO patm h. .g
r
where: - interphase pressure between the forming CO bubble and melt

r - CO bubble radius
80
Decreasing the content of dissolved gases (N2, H2)

Sieverts law (%N = k . pN21/2).
During the progress of carbon reaction, CO bubbles form, in which the partial
pressure of nitrogen and hydrogen is zero. Atomically dissolved nitrogen and
hydrogen diffuses in the pool into these CO bubbles and is brought to the surface.
Partial decrease of sulfur content

The thermodynamic conditions are unfavorable - high content of FeO in slag (12
15 %). Good kinetic conditions of the process (mixing) allow for partial decrease of
sulfur content.
Decrease of the amount of non-metal inclusion

Through mixing (carbon reaction) occurs an increase of the amount of collisions and
thus also the increase of coagulation and coalescence of inclusions and their quicker
separation into the slag.
Flotation effect of CO bubbles - raises the inclusions into the slag. Basis of this
flotation is lowering of the overall surface energy of the pool-inclusion-CO bubble
system (see Secondary metallurgy).
Reduction period of the melting
81
The time period since deoxidation of the pool until the tapping.
Tasks of the reduction period:

1. Deoxidation of steel
2. Desulfurization of steel
3. Alloying of the pool and final adjustment of the chemical composition
4. Adjustment of pool temperature to the tapping temperature
5. Final deoxidation of steel and formation of optimal slag composition
Deoxidation of steel
Preemptive collision deoxidation performed after withdrawing the oxidation slag

using SiMn or FeMn+FeSi or aluminum weighing 0,5 to 2 kg Al.t-1; the aim is to
create conditions for the formation of reduction slag.
Diffusion deoxidation
Basis:
lowering the activity (FeO) in slag - by adding C, FeSi, FeMn
resulting in violating the equilibrium between the amount of oxygen in the
pool and slag and beginning the process of the extraction process
FeO (FeO)
equilibrium of this reaction is set by Nernst division coefficient dependent on

temperature and composition of both phases in contact:
LO
a FeO

( FeO )
LO
O
2
aO FeO resp.
O
With lowering of (FeO) or a(FeO) the violation of equilibrium occurs and also
subsequent transfer of oxygen from metal into slag until a new equilibrium is set:
(FeO) = Lo FeO
82
Advantage of diffusion deoxidation - products of deoxidation are formed in the slag

Disadvantage - slow (diffusion process).
Diffusion deoxidation may be performed under white or carbide slag.
a) White slag
White slag a mixture of lime and fluorspar (cca 4:1), after forming the liquid slag,
powdered coke or ground electrodes (sources of carbon are added).
A reaction occurs
(FeO) + C = Fe + COg (1)
CO is formed, which fills workspace with smoke which creates a reduction

atmosphere.
Further deoxidation can be performed using reduction mixture containing FeSi (i.e.
lime + CaF2 + FeSi). Content of (FeO) is lowered to 0,5 to 1%.
White slag disintegrates after cooling into a while powder (formation of 2CaO.SiO2,
change of modification at decrease of temperature)
Composition of white slag:

~50 % CaO, ~6 % CaF2, ~13 % SiO2, ~6-10 % MgO, ~0,5-1 % FeO,
<0,5 % CaC2 (2)
Usage of white slags:

during production of low-carbon and mid-carbon steels.
83
b) Carbide slag
Ration of coke in the reduction mixture is higher, in one dose contains only CaF2 and
CaO without FeSi. In high temperatures under the arcs, the following reaction occurs
3 C + (CaO) = (CaC2) + COg H strongly endo
carbide of lime reacts with (FeO)
(CaC2) + 3(FeO) (CaO) + 2COg + 3Fe
two elements take part in slag deoxidation (Ca, C), which positively affects on greater
decrease of (FeO) content in the slag - down to 0,3-0,5 %. Content of CaC2 in
carbide slag is higher - 1 to 2,5 %.
Advantage of using carbide slag:

higher deoxidation abilities
Disadvantage
- possibility of carbonizing the pool
- higher density
- lower fluidity (higher viscosity)
- lower interphase tension between slag and steel (high wettability)
Due to the stated disadvantageous physical properties, carbide slag has difficulties
being released from the metal during tapping and may be the cause of a great
amount of non-metal inclusions in the steel. For these reasons, carbide slag is
transformed into white slag before tapping by ventilating the furnace (raising the lid),
surplus CaC2 undergoes oxidation and we put ground FeSi onto the slag..
By the end of the reduction period, we achieve content of oxygen in steel between
0,0400 to 0,0800 %.
84
Desulfurization of steel in EAF
Molecular theory:
(CaO) + [FeS] = (CaS) + (FeO)
(CaO) + [S] + Fe = (CaS) + (FeO)
Ionic theory:
S + 2 e = (S2-)
(O2-) - 2 e = O
S + (O2-) = O + (S2-)
From the value of equilibrium constant KS we can create equation for [%S]
f o . %O . aS 2
%S
K S . aO 2 . f S
In order to achieve low content of sulfur in metal, it is necessary to achieve
low activity of oxygen ao in steel (low content of dissolved oxygen and low vaoue
of activity coefficient fO)
low activity of sulfur anions aS 2 in slag
high values of KS - reaction is weakly exothermic, the influence of the process

kinetics is more important
high values of oxygen anion activities aO 2 in slag (high basicity, i.e. high content
of (CaO), low of (FeO))
high values of activity coefficient fS in steel (activity of sulfur is increased by C, Si;
oxygen decreases it significantly)
85
Influence of C, Si, O on sulfur activity coefficient
C
Si
fS
O
% C, Si, O
Influence of slag basicity and (FeO) content on the sulfur division

coefficient
1000
100
B3
L S=(S)/[S]
10
B2
1 B1
0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(FeO), %
160
140
120
100
LS
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
(FeO), %
86
Behavior of sulfur during the reduction period of an EAF melting
Alloying the pool and adjusting the chemical composition
The main rule of alloying:

elements with high oxygen affinity (Al, Si, V, Ti) have to be added at the end of the
melting; on the other hand, low oxygen affinity elements (such as Ni, Mo) can be
added into the batch or at the start of the oxidation period.
It is also necessary to consider:

the needed level of pool alloying
melting temperatures of additives
effective density of additives
content of gases in additives
content of unwanted inclusions
In order to remove possible non-homogeneity of the pools chemical composition,

several methods may be used, such as
induction mixing of the pool using an induction mixed
mechanized mixing of the pool using a currycomb
mixing the pool by blowing inert gas through the porous blocks in the hearth of
the furnace or through the top of the submerged nozzle
87
Influence of placing the blowing block in the bottom of the pan and
volume flow of argon on homogenization times
4 C
B
3 A
H
2
C
1
B
A
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
QV
The basic solution lies in moving the alloying into a device of pan metallurgy
Production of alloyed steel by reduction remelting
Basic timeline:
Production of alloyed steel by reduction remelting with short oxidation

refinement by gaseous oxygen after the melting period
Basic timeline:
88
Tapping the steel from EAF
After alloying, adjustment of temperature and slag composition, tapping of steel is

performed - the classical method is through a tapping trough at an angle or using a
damper tap such as the EBT (Eccentric bottom Tap-hole) method
Single slag technology for steel production in EAF
The effort for increased productivity of EAF and decreased specific

consumption of electricity lead to shortening the reduction period or its total removal.
A whole range of different technologies was created, which are differentiated
primarily by the performance of collision deoxidation at the end of oxidation
refinement. After this deoxidation, no usual reduction period happens. These
technologies can be labeled as single-slag.
The basic variant of a single-slag technology is characterized by relatively high
additions of aluminum at the end of oxidation refinement (2-3 kg Al/t of steel). Next is
the mixing of pool, addition of lime, alloying and tapping.
Single-slag technologies are not usable in all cases of steel production. Since
this technology lacks a reduction period, intense desulfurization of steel cannot
occur within the furnace. If the steel mill is not equipped with a device for out-of-
furnace desulfurization, this technology cannot be used. It is more suitable to use
intensified double-slag technologies.
A certain problem of this technology can also be the reversed transfer of
phosphorus from the slag into the metal after performing deoxidation by silicon (the
forming product of reaction - SiO2 - pushes out the P2O5 from the bond with CaO,
(Si)/Si balance is damaged and silicon transfers back into the metal).
89
Questions
1. Basic division of melting technologies in EAF.

2. Double-slag technology - characteristics.
3. Adjustments between meltings, setting of the batch, periods of melting,
metallurgical processes in the melting periods, electrical mode.
4. Tasks of oxidation period.
5. Dephosphorization, molecular and ionic theory, analysis of conditions for
dephosphorization.
6. Decarbonization, homogeneous carbon reaction, resulting thermal effect,
physical conditions for the progress of carbon reaction.
7. The basis and mechanisms of lowering the content of gases (hydrogen,
nitrogen) and non-metal inclusions in the oxidation period.
8. Tasks of the reduction period.
9. Basis of diffusion deoxidation of steel, Nernst division coefficient.
10. White and carbide slag, chemical composition, advantages and disadvantages.
11. Desulfurization of steel in reduction period, molecular and ionic theory of
desulfurization, analysis of desulfurization conditions.
12. Alloying of steel, main rules, homogenization for alloying.
13. Single-slag technologies - advantages, disadvantages.
90
THEMATIC BLOCK 8
Thermodynamics of metallurgical processes in oxidation

refinement of chrome-rich iron melt
During the oxidation of chrome-rich iron melt by gaseous oxygen, the carbon
oxidized into CO and chrome in the melt into Cr3O4 (or to Cr2O3) based on reactions:
Go1873; cal.mol-1
C + O = CO g 5343 9,47.T
3
/4 Cr + O = 1
/4 (Cr3O4) 58047 + 25,48.T
Both partial reactions (oxidation of carbon and chrome) are exothermic reaction.
They differ by thermal dependence of Gibbs energy change (free enthalpy). Change
in G of the C CO reaction with increasing temperature becomes more negative
(affinity increases); in Cr Cr3O4 reaction, the G becomes positive with
temperature (affinity decreases).
At certain temperature, the oxidation of Carbon into CO occurs primarily, Carbon may
also reduce into oxides Cr3O4 according to the reaction:
1
/4 (Cr3O4) + C = 3/4 Cr + COg +52704 34,90.T
The equilibrium constant of this reaction can be expressed as:

3
a Cr4 . a CO
K C ,Cr 1
a Cr4 O . a C
3 4
if a Cr3O4 1 , then by further adjustment, we get
. % Cr
3 3
4 4
f . pCO
KC ,Cr
Cr
f C . % C
91
From the given equilibrium constant, the relation for carbon content in the melt can
be expressed:
f Cr4 . % Cr
3 3
4
. pCO
% C f C . KC ,Cr
From this relation we can perform a simplified analysis of the main thermodynamic
factors that influence the resulting carbon content in the melt at certain Cr content in
the melt.
The carbon content after oxidation refinement will be lowered by:

low coefficient of chrome activity fCr - chrome activity is lowered by e.g. Si, C;
increased by e.g. Ni (eCrSi= - 0,0043; eCrC = - 0,12; eCrNi= + 0,0002)
lower amount of chrome in the resulting melt
lower partial pressure of CO in the gas atmosphere
higher carbon activity coefficient in the pool - activity of carbon is increased by
Ni, Si, oxygen decreases activity (eCNi= + 0,012; eCSi= + 0,08; eCO= - 0,34)
higher value of equilibrium constant - this is a strongly endothermic reaction, i.e.
its higher value will be achieved at higher temperatures.
Influence of temperature, nickel content and pCO on equilibrium

contents of C and Cr during highly-alloyed steel production
The rules stemming from equilibrium constant may be visualized using the so called
Hilty-Chipman diagrams:
92
1550C
1850C
C
Influence of
temperature
18 %
Cr
Ni=0%
Ni=5%
C Ni=10%
Influence of nickel
content
Cr
pCO = 1
C pCO < 1
Influence of pressure
Cr
93
Dephosphorization during highly-alloyed steel production
EAFs do not provide suitable conditions for dephosphorization of chrome-rich melts.
Causes:
high temperature during oxidation refinement acts negatively on
dephosphorization (reversible reduction)
formation of very viscous chrome slag - worsening of the process kinetics
negative effect of chrome on the activity of phosphorus (eCrP= -0,044)
Dephosphorization of chrome-rich melts on the principle of phosphorus oxidation is

limited in EAFs. It is therefore necessary to pay increased attention to the choice of
batch raw materials.
Reduction of alloying elements oxides from slag into the pool
Reduction of Cr2O3 (or Cr3O4) bound in the heavily meltable spinels of chrome slags
using silicon can be expressed in an equation:
2 (Cr2O3) + 3Si 4Cr + 3(SiO2) H = -
Relation for the Cr2O3 content in slag can be expressed from equilibrium constant by
reaction:
1
a SiO
3
.a4Cr 2
%Cr2 O3 2 2
Cr O .a3Si . K
2 3
Cr2O3 content in slag after performing reduction will be lowered by

lower activity of SiO2 in slag
lower activity of chrome in the metal pool
higher value of Cr O
2 3
higher activity of silicon in the pool

lower temperature of the system
94
The additive of the reducing agents leads to decrease in Cr2O3 content but also
increase of CrO. The reason is gradual reduction of certain amounts of Cr2O3 into
CrO. At the same time, a bond of CrO.SiO2 is formed, which is difficult to reduce:
x (CrO) + (SiO2) (xCrO.SiO2)

Early addition of an optimal amount of quicklime not only limits the production of
(xCrO.SiO2), but also decreases the value of aSiO2 , which leads to lower amounts of
CrO in the slags.
Influence of slag basicity on the chrome content in slag
40
30
20
(%Cr)
10
0
0 2 4
B
Alloying stainless steels by titanium
Stabilized stainless steels addition of Ti to the content of Timin = 4 5 x %C
Effects of Ti:
In stainless steels without Ti, formation of Cr23C6 type carbides occurs on the edges
of the grains. Formation of these carbides is accompanied by decreasing amount of
chrome near the grain boundaries (by diffusion), which leads to lowered resistance of
these boundaries against intercrystalline corrosion. Addition of titanium leads to
formation of TiC titanium carbides, which remain equally dispersed in the matrix
during solidification and thus limit the formation of damaging chrome carbides.
(3)
Inclusion of titanium is performed at the end of the reduction timeline (26 % FeTi) or
into the pan during tapping (70 % FeTi, with regards to the thermal balance).
CrNi stainless steel stabilized by titanium is prone to formation of defects caused

primarily by clusters (lines after reshaping) of non-metal inclusions consisting not only
of oxides but primarily of carbonitrates Ti(CxNy), which are heterogeneously expelled
on Al oxides.
95
Solution:
production of steel with significantly lower amounts of carbon and nitrogen
(AOD, VOD).
stabilization by Nb
modification of forming non-metal inclusions by adding calcium - calcium
modifies Al oxides into calcium-aluminum globular inclusions, where
heterogeneous nucleation of titanium carbonitrates occurs with more difficulty.
96
Steel production in acid arc furnaces
Acid EAFs in foundries are further divided in the USA especially in smaller furnace
units of 7-8 t. There is no acid furnace in the Czech Republic.
Lining of acid furnace may be comprised of silica pre-forms. Often, instead of silica
lining, the furnace walls are stomped as a template by silica sand bound by water-
glass, or creep-resistant clay may be added into the stomping mixture. The furnace is
repaired by the same mixture.
The lids are lined by silica by the same method as in base furnaces. Lifetime of a
silica lid on acid furnaces is longer.
Linings based on silica react with elements with higher affinity to oxygen than silicon
(Al, Ti and at higher temperatures, carbon). In acid furnaces, after lowering the
activity of oxygen below the value which usually corresponds with the equilibrium
with silicon, oxygen may transfer from the lining into the steel. In acid furnaces,
lowered activity of oxygen cannot be achieved to the same value as in base
furnaces. This fact has influence on mechanical properties of the produced steel.
Advantages of acid arc furnaces compared to base furnaces

steel produced in acid arc furnace contains less gases (especially hydrogen)
amount of defects on the casts caused by bubbles and spines is usually higher,
lower processing costs - by 20 % - caused by:
lower costs on creep-resistant material (lining and material for lining

reparation),
lower consumption of electricity which is caused by lower thermal
conductivity of acid lining and shorter time of melting,
lower consumption of graphite electrodes due to shorter time of melting,
lower costs of non-metal inclusions,
lower costs on transit and storage of slag, of which there is less in acid arc
furnaces.
Disadvantages of acid arc furnaces

necessity to process batch with guaranteed and suitable content of phosphorus
and sulfur.
production range of steels for acid arc furnaces is limited to non-alloyed steel and
low-alloyed steel brands - highly alloyed chrome- or manganese- rich steels
cannot be produced in them.
97
Questions about the presented material
1. Thermodynamics of metallurgical processes during oxidation refinement of the

pool with high amounts of Cr, analysis of oxidation refinement conditions.
2. Hilty and Chipman diagrams, use in practice.
3. Dephosphorization during the production of highly-alloyed steel.
4. Reduction of alloying elements oxides from slag into the pool.
5. Alloying by titanium, stabilized steels, basics of intercrystalline corrosion
formation.
6. Production of steel in acid arc furnaces, advantages, disadvantages.
7. Combines processes: EOP-DH(RH)(LF), EOP-AOD, EOP-VOD, EOP-OVD.
98
THEMATIC BLOCK 9
Behavior of hydrogen and nitrogen during the course of
melting in an EAF
Negative effect - flakes, bubbles, hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), hydrogen

embrittlement (HE), aging steel etc.
Alloying by nitrogen - increase of strength, creep resistance, substitute for Ni
(austenite-forming)
Transition of hydrogen and nitrogen in the course of melting in an EAF - effect of the
arc, dissociation of gas molecules into atoms of N and H, dissolution in the pool.
Solubility of hydrogen in iron
Solubility of nitrogen in iron
99
Transfer of hydrogen into the steel through slag
A more significant mechanism than transfer of hydrogen into the pool under the arcs
Dissolution of hydrogen in slag:
H2O + (O2-) = 2 (OH-)
Equilibrium constant of the reaction:
2
aOH
K H ,O

a O . p H O
2
2
aOH K H ,O aO pH
2
2O
increase of oxygen anion activity in the slag leads to better solubility of

hydrogen in the slag while forming complex hydroxyl anions OH-
Diffusion of hydrogen from the slag into the metal pool
2 (OH-) _ 2e = 2O + 2H
(Fe2+) + 2e = Fe
2 (OH-) + (Fe2+) = 2O + 2H + Fe
Chemical composition of the slag has an undeniable effect on solubility of

hydrogen and thus also on its amounts in the pool. Acid slags best protect the
melt (low activity of O2- due to formation of complex anions SiO44-), the worst
protection is offered by calcium rich slags with low contents of FeO (high activity
of O2-).
Viscosity of the slag also has some influence on the hydrogen transfer - high
viscosity worsens the course of the transfer.
Sources of hydrogen - steel waste (moisture, rust), slag-forming additives, lime
(hygroscopic properties)
100
Dissolution of nitrogen in the iron melt
N2 2 N
N K . pN 2
f N2
Process of nitrogen dissolution in iron melt will be more significant:
at higher pN2 values
at higher values of the equilibrium constant K (i.e. higher temperature - the
process of dissolving nitrogen is endothermic)
at lower fN, values
Solubility of nitrogen in pure iron at 1600 C is 0,0450 % (450 ppm). Chrome

increases the solubility of nitrogen in iron (eNCr = -0,045), nickel decreases it
(eNNi = 0,010). In 18/8 stainless steel, solubility of nitrogen is significantly higher (by
cca 0,250 %).
The intensity of nitrogen transfer into the pool will also be influences by the value of
nitrogen diffusion coefficient, thickness of the diffusion layer, constant area of the
phases and composition of the metal pool. Overall in comparison with hydrogen, the
transfer speed of nitrogen from the gaseous phase into the metal pool is 4-6 times
slower which is related to lower values of the nitrogen diffusion coefficient in melted
iron in comparison with hydrogen (DN=5,5.10-9 m2.s-1, DH = 3,5.10-7 m2.s-1).
It is necessary to consider that this fact also make removing nitrogen from the pool
more difficult during its vacuuming or decarbonization.
101
Influence of oxygen content in the pool on the pick-up of nitrogen

during tapping
Oxygen and sulfur are (same as nitrogen) superficially active elements and their
presence on the surface of the melt acts as a kinetic retardant during the dissolution
of nitrogen because their atoms contain reaction places necessary for the dissociated
nitrogen and thus they significantly lower the nitrogen dissolution in metal reaction
speed.
The influence of sulfur content in the pool and volume of blown Ar

during vacuuming RH on the decrease of nitrogen content in steel
At low content of sulfur (< 10 ppm) and consequent intense mixing of steel, the
amount of nitrogen can decrease significantly during vacuuming (sulfur does not
block transfer of nitrogen through the interphase metal-gas).
102
A schematic of a NITRIS devise for direct determination of nitrogen

content in melted steel
A carrier gas (helium) is blown into the pool via an auxiliary block, which captures
certain amount of nitrogen dissolved in the pool just by passing through the melt.
The blown helium with a certain amount of nitrogen is then collected by a special
lid and lead into an evaluation unit, where its thermal conductivity is tested and
the composition of the reference mixture N2-He is calculated, which is in the next
phase brought into the pool and also into the detector.
At the end of this phase the measurement of nitrogen amount in the final gas
is compared with the amount of nitrogen in the reference gas. If the difference is
small, it determines the amount of nitrogen and the entire process is finished. If
this is not so, it is necessary to perform an approximating calculation of reference
gas composition for a new blowing.
103
Head of the HYDRIS probe (NITRIS) before the final installation into a
cardboard pipe
104
Measurement of oxygen activity in melted steel
Direct measurement of oxygen activity in melted steel is based on the principle of

electrochemical concentration cell which is comprised of 2 metal electrodes placed in
two environments with different content of oxygen and divided by a solid electrolyte.
The oxide electrolyte or the solid solution of oxides with high melting point must
exhibit ionic conductivity (i.e. conductivity of oxygen anions) within the given
concentration of oxygen. In these conditions and if the oxygen activity or partial
pressure of oxygen in the reference source is known, the oxygen activity in the
measured environment can be determined using Nernst equation.
105
Rendering of the CELOX probe for measuring oxygen activity

in melted steel
106
Automation of steel production control in EAF
Controlling the electric power and thermal mode
creating the necessary thermal conditions in the pool for optimal course of
metallurgical processes and for achieving required tapping temperature.
controlling the energy mode during the melting (highest consumption of electricity)
- static model x dynamic model
The simplest (but also outdated) way is to control energy mode based on a pre-set
timetable. Another group of an elaborate methods of control is based on
consuming a predetermined amount of electrical energy. These methods do not
guarantee optimal control of the EAF modes.
Control of metallurgical melting mode
optimization of batch composition and determining additives for deoxidation and

alloying using a system of balancing equations solved using a computer. The aim
is to ensure the required composition of the produced steel at minimal cost of
batch and alloying elements.
automation of the melting mode is dependent on sufficiency of information about
the chemical composition of the pool, its temperature, composition of the outgoing
flue gas, CO/CO2 ration in the flue gas, etc. Modern units have an in-built system
of control, e.g. positioning of oxygen-powered burners which are used to speed up
pre-melting the batch or directing the oxygen overflow in the post combustion
nozzles depending on the composition of the flue gases. Some companies utilize
control based on neuron networks, i.e. artificial intelligence, which have self-
learning abilities (e.g. the Canadian EFSOP system Expert Furnace System
Optimization Process utilizing control of burn optimization of additional fuels in
real time. On the other hand a range of smaller and older units does not utilize
such options and the main controlling factor is human.
Operative control of steel production in electric steel mill

it is organization, control and coordination activities of all workstations in an
electric steel mill with the aim to achieve maximum output in the required quality at
minimal cost.
107
Questions
1. Hydrogen in iron melt, solubility of hydrogen, influence of hydrogen on steel

properties
2. Thermodynamics of hydrogen transfer from furnace atmosphere through the
slag into the metal, analysis of conditions
3. Sources of hydrogen and options of its removal from the liquid steel.
4. Nitrogen in iron melt, solubility of nitrogen, influence of nitrogen on steel
properties
5. Transfer of nitrogen into the metal pool in EAF conditions
6. Pick up of nitrogen during tapping, metallurgical options of its composition
7. Determining nitrogen amount in melted steel by NITRIS probes, the principle
of measurement, utilizing the measurement
8. Measurement of temperature by submerged thermo-cells and measurement of
solidification temperature
9. The principle of oxygen activity measurement in liquid steel, types of oxygen
probes
10. Automation of steel production control in an EAF, controlling the electrical
power and thermal mode, control of metallurgical melting mode, operative
control of steel production in an electric steel mill
108
THEMATIC BLOCK 10
Direct Current Arc Furnaces

Currently there are EAF powered by alternating current as well as younger
(construction-wise) EAFs powered by direct current. Their development and
installation started in the 70s and 80s of last century and are characterized by a
whole range of original construction elements.
The development of DC furnaces utilizes knowledge especially:

from the observation of UHP and SUHP furnaces
from the energy semiconductor technology necessary for construction of robust
rectifiers of AC into DC
from the development of new electricity-conducting creep resistant materials
bound by carbon for production of bottom electrodes
Equipment of electrical section of a DC arc furnace:

furnace transformer
diode or thyristor rectifier on the secondary side of the transformer
suppression coil - on the primary and secondary side of transformer
graphite electrode (cathode - connected to the negative pole of the rectifier)
bottom electrode (anode - connected to the positive pole of the rectifier)
electrode regulation
109
DC arc furnace with one electrode
110
Furnace transformer
Is constructed similarly to the AC furnaces. Its purpose is to lower the voltage of the
grid to the operational voltage of the arc furnace for the required current load.
Suppression coils
They are either on the

primary (high-voltage) side of the transformer - limits the voltage impact on the
grid.
secondary side of the transformer (behind the rectifier, sometimes also called the
DC suppression coil) - smooths out the DC voltage and protects the rectifier
diodes (or thyristors) against excessive short-circuit current.
AC rectifier
Is formed by a block of tens or hundreds of cooled high-voltage diodes or thyristors,
which are wired is series and in parallel with regards to the layout of the voltage load,
which is 40-140 kA overall based on the size of the furnace.
The positive pole of the rectifier is connected to the floor electrode (floor anode), the
negative pole (cathode) of the rectifier is connected to the graphite electrode.
A block schematic of wiring of an DC arc furnace with two

electrodes
111
A schematic representation of the individual types of floor anodes of DC arc furnaces

The positive pole of the rectifier is connected to the floor electrode (floor anode)
Electric conductive lining Pins bottom anode
Billet bottom anode Fin bottom anode
112
Electric conductive furnace of the bottom in a DC arc furnace
Creep resistant materials containing carbon (graphite-magnesite, etc.)

Sufficient dimensions of the area of the conductive lining
With an under-dimensioned area, the transition resistance increases and this
rises the overall electrical loss which transforms into the heating of the lining
(based on the relation P=I2.R=U2/R) and damage of the lining
Transition of electrical current from the lining - a copper floor contact panel
113
Billet bottom anode by CLECIM
Compact steel billet 100-150 (250) mm in diameter which is placed in a water-

cooled copper sheath (under the lining) which ensures effective cooling of the
electrode similarly to a crystallizer in fluent steel casting.
Part of the billet in the lining is placed in a specialized creep resistant material. The
upper part of the billet is then pre-melted and ensures contact with the pool and
conducts the current. Cooling must be done so that the entire billet is not melted
inside the sheath.
The stated type of floor anode has a lifetime of 1300 meltings and usually 1-4 floor
electrodes are used for 1-3 graphite electrodes.
114
Billet bottom anode by Danieli
L
I
QUI
D-S
OL
I
DIN
TE
R
FA
CE
4
4m
m
1
6
0mm
115
Pins bottom anode
High number of steel pins (rods) - contact pins (e.g. 150 - 400 pins approx. 45 mm
in diameter), which are laid out in a cylinder which passes through the bottom of
the furnace.
The gaps between these pins are filled with creep resistant, usually magnesite
lining.
The lower part of the pins is connected in the contact panel which is then
connected to the anode side of the rectifier.
The outflow of heat from the floor electrode is ensured by forced flow of cooling air
between the lower ends of the uncovered steel rods. The upper part of the pins is
in contact with the steel pool.
116
The wear of the pins is similar to the wear of creep resistant material. In
combination with the swaged magnesite, the lifetime of this type of floor electrode
is more than 800 meltings. During the changing of the anode, it is removed as a
whole by a hydraulic cylinder under the furnace and changed for a new anode.
Fin bottom anode by VOEST ALPINE
Thin (1,7mm) steel plates that are laid out in ring formation on the bottom of the
furnace and are melted into a steel bus at their lower end which is placed on the
lower base connected to the wiring from the rectifier.
The area between the individual rings (7-10 cm) are filled by a monolitic electric
non-conductive magnesite matter
Advantages: high active area of the plates, perfect cooling by a material from the
lining, additional air or water cooling is not required as opposed to other types of
floor anodes.
Another advantage is the balanced division of the current on a huge area on the
bottom of the hearth which allows for calm and uniform transit of current through
the melt. The diagonal area of the plates is sufficiently large for the current.
Wear of the plates is from 0,3 to 0.5 mm per 1 melting.
117
Behavior of the electric arc in DC EAFs
less divergence of the arc towards the walls of the furnace - approx. 15 to 30.
change in the shape of the arc - direct, angular, diffusion, etc.
higher stability - voltage within the arc does not pass null
The course of melting the batch is a DC arc furnace
118
After igniting the arc, a free space (called a well) forms under the arc down to
almost the bottom of the furnace. As a result of the burning of the arc, a circular
space from the material melted away forms around the electrode.
Due to the central placement of the electrode and vertical direction of the arc,
a single coaxial space of heat distribution forms. There are no hot stains formed
on the walls, which are common in triple-electrode AC EAFs.
The period in which the arc is surrounded by unmeltable scrap is longer in DC
furnaces than in AC ones, which leads to heat loss through the walls and lid and to
lower wear. This creates conditions for melting with extremely long arc (with
U = 650 V, l up to 700 mm), which significantly speeds up melting of the scrap.
Process of pre-melting the batch in a DC EAF by NKK
119
Use of additional natural gas burners in AC and DC arc

furnaces
The consumption of electrical energy can be lowered by using additional natural gas
burners. These burners should be installed tangentially so that the flame does not
interfere with the arc area and does not impede its burning.
120
The flow of steel pool in a DC arc furnace
Mixing of the pool in a DC furnace is from the metallurgical point of view very
favorable for these reasons:
it increases the speed and effectiveness of metallurgical reactions on the slag-
metal interface
it improves the control over the tapping temperature
sampling during the melting is more representative
In large DC EAFs, it is necessary to ensure mixing by blowing inert gasses through
the bottom of the hearth or using electromagnetic mixers.
121
Flow of steel pool and slag in a DC arc furnace
Consumption of graphite electrodes
The consumption of electrodes in DC furnaces is approximately 20 % lower than in

high-impedance and 50 % lower than traditional AC furnaces. Usually, in DC
furnaces achieves the electrode consumption of 1,1 to 1,3 kg.t-1.
The causes for lower consumptions of electrodes can be summarized as follows:

electrodes of higher quality (but also of higher price),
electrode is always the cathode, there isnt a hot anode stain formed on them
(instead the impact of electrons is always in the metal),
the side burn of electrode is smaller because the overall outer area of one
electrode is smaller than the area of three electrodes in AC furnace,
in AC furnaces, the inner area between electrodes is significantly overheated
which also increases their wear by side burn.
An advantages of the electrode consumption in DC furnaces have to be considered

in relation to the price of electrodes, which are generally higher in DC furnaces than
in AC furnaces.
122
The consumption of electrical energy in DC furnaces
The consumption of electrical energy in DC furnaces is about 10-15 kWh/t lower than
in AC furnaces, which represents 5-10 % of energy savings (average values without
the use of burners are within 300-350 kWh/t, some sources say the consumption is
up to 460 kWh/t). The main causes of lower consumption are:
only one electrode
o lower electrical losses - shorter grid, mounts, etc.
o lower heat losses by radiation
o lower heat losses through the opening around the electrode
better transfer of heat during the pre-melting - the arc is surrounded for a longer
time by steel waste (batch)
transfer of energy from the electrodes at higher voltage, i.e. lower loss of R.I2 in a
short grid
better transfer of heat into the pool (penetration of the arc, mixing of the pool)
induction losses are lower compared to an AC furnace
Noise of DC furnace
In the course of melting the scrap, the noise from the DC furnace is almost
identical with the noise from AC furnaces and reaches - based on the furnace size
- values of up to 110dB.
With the increasing scope of pre-melting the liquid phase, noise of a DC furnace
decreases and after pre-melting, it produces noise that is approx. 10 dB lower than
AC furnaces (95 dB 85 dB).
123
Parameters of double electrode 170 t DC EAF in TRICO factory,

Alabama, USA
yearly production 1,25 mil. tons

tap-to-tap time 50 minutes
charge-to-tap time 40 minutes
graphite electrodes 2x610 mm
transformer 2x75 MVA (150MVA overall)
sec. current 85 kA / 1electrode
floor electrode bar type (pin), 584 bars, 45 mm divided by refractory
concrete
burners 6 oxygen-powered (natural gas),
1 door
arc water-cooled, tubular type, Al2O3 lining around electrodes
hearth 1010 mm, induction mixing, EBT, replaceable
setting by a setting basket (steel waste, raw iron)
belt conveyor through an opening between the two
electrodes (DRI/HBI, lime, dolomite)
melting el. arcs + burners, computer controlled
in partial melting, the blowing of coal powder with oxygen
starts - foaming slag, changes the gas/oxygen ratio
(afterburning function of the burners)
floor tapping EBT, diameter of the opening 165 mm, the tapping lasts 5
minutes, slag-less
consumption of el. energy 390 kWh/t

oxygen consumption 50 m3/t (1600 cu ft./ton)
electrode consumption 2,04 kg/t (target: 0,9 kg/t)
floor anode lifetime 500 meltings (target: 1500 meltings)
124
Summary of the main advantages and disadvantages of the DC

EAFs compared to AC EAFs
lower electrode consumption (by 40 - 60 %)

lower electricity consumption (by 5 - 10 %)
more stable burn of the arc
lower flicker effect value (50 %)
lower noise level (95 85 dB)
lower consumption of heat resistant material (by 5 - 10 %)
more intense mixing in the furnace hearth
125
High-impedance AC EAFs
Use of higher voltage on the secondary side of the transformer.

Reason: losses on the secondary side are a function of the reactivity of the
secondary circuit but especially a function of the secondary current. If we increase
secondary voltage, we may lower secondary currents for achieving the same
effective power, but at lower overall losses.
The denomination of high-impedance is a business name, because impedance is
not changed in these furnaces (impedance of the secondary winding is 2,75 to
2,77 m). Only the resistance of the primary circuit of the transformer is changed,
into which additional resistivity of 2,5 - 3 is added in order to achieve stability of
the long arc.
The increase of secondary voltage is limited by the chosen transformer, the
possibility of forming arcs between electrodes and the walls of the furnace,
properties of the electrodes and also the foaming slag, which is very often used
with the long arc technology.
The use of lower secondary currents at higher voltage leads to

lowering of electrode consumption by 10 %
acceleration of the batch melting the longer the arc, the greater portion of the
batch is undergoing its effects
lowering of electricity consumption by 10 to 20 kWh.t-1
lowering of the flicker effect by 40 %
improving the arc stability
High-impedance EADs are becoming the new standards in AC furnaces and a strong
competitor to the DC furnaces.
126
Questions
1. DC arc furnaces, assumptions for their development

2. Electrical part of the DC furnace, differences from an AC furnace
3. The construction of the AC rectifier
4. Main types and construction of floor anodes, advantages and disadvantages
5. Requirements on the graphite electrodes of a DC furnace
6. Peculiarities and differences in melting in a DC furnace, behavior of the
electrical arc, melting of waste, movement of the pool, flicker effect
7. Consumption of electrical energy and graphite electrodes in a DC EAD, causes
of lower consumption in comparison with AC furnaces, melting noise
8. High-impedance AC EAFs, concept, advantages
127
THEMATIC BLOCK 11
New processes in production of EAF steel
The main aim of these new processes is:

to increase flexibility in choice of energy and type of batch material
to decrease production cost
to decrease consumption of primary electric energy and electrodes
to decrease emissions from steel production
to increase quality of the steel produced
to increase production
The main ideas which are used in these processes can be summarized into 3 main
principles:
1. Use of heat of the leaving furnace gasses for pre-heating of the metal
batch
2. Post combustion treatment of the forming CO within the furnace or in the
pre-heating chamber
3. Use of carbon and oxygen as sources of further energy for melting
Principle of steel production in an EAF with pre-heated batch
Flue gasses from the workspace of the furnace are diverted into the pre-heating
chamber where the steel waste is placed. By passing of the hot flue gass through the
128
layer of waste, about 35 % of the flue gas heat is utilized with the waste being heated
to 550-650 C.
Advantages of steel waste preheating:

increase of productivity by 10 to 20 %
decrease of electricity consumption by 70-80 kWh/t of liquid steel
removal of moisture from the batch, which eliminates the possibility of explosion
decrease in consumption of electrodes and lining
decrease in dust development
Some of the disadvantages and shortcomings are:

possibility of higher harmful substances emission from the contaminated waste
bad control over temperature in the chamber that leads to a wide range of
temperature of the pre-heated scrap
at high temperatures (over 650C) oxidation of the waste occurs, which leads to
losses in yield
Twin hearth DC EAD with batch pre-heating (UNARC, licenced

by SMS GHH)
129
A schematic of batch pre-heating in an EAF pre-heating

chamber
130
Finger Shaft Furnace
The common principle of all modifications is the pre-heating shaft, which is placed
over the EAF and which allows setting the pre-heated batch into the workspace of
the furnace.
Temperature of the preheated batch achieves 800 C.

Consumption of electricity - approx. 350 kWh/t of steel
Consumption of electrodes - 1,8 kg/1t of steel
Consumption of oxygen - 30 m3/1 t of steel
Consumption of gas - 8,5 m3/ 1 t of steel
Length of the melting - 40 to 60 minutes
Yearly production - 0,8 to 1,25 mil. of tons
131
Comelt DC arc furnace
four skewed electrodes entering from the side into the workspace of the furnace
integrated preheating shaft for the batch is placed under the melting furnace.
132
ConSteel electrical arc furnace with batch pre-heating
Oxygen Carbon
Lance Lance
Scrap n Hot Metal
400-600C ~1300C
Slag Door
1570-1590C
Batch or the steel waste is continuously fed through the side entrance into the
furnace using a vibration conveyor (width=1.2m, depth=0.3m), running through the
heat-resistant material lined pre-heating tunnel 16m long which is heated by flue gas
from the EAF and using combined natural gas burners up to 700 C (usually only
550-600 C).
133
Works with liquid residue (up to 15 %), speed of the batch fed into the furnace is
such that it is gradually melted by submerging; after achieving the nominal weight of
the melting, the influx of waste is stopped (in a 70 t furnace for approx. 10 minutes),
the tapping temperature is adjusted and tapping is performed. Wiring of EAF may be
AC or DC. The arc is very stable because the process of melting always works a
liquid pool.
Steel waste, raw iron, HBI or DRI is used as batch. 30-40% of liquid raw iron may
also be used through a special through in the furnace casing. Shredded waste,
reversible waste, light waste, etc. may be used for pre-heating.
1620 C
1580 C
Temperature diagram
t/min
Charge feeding rate
1,080 tr/tal
MW
340 kWh /t Power profile
Nm3 /h
35 Nm 3 /t Oxygen injection rate
0 2 Time (min) 38 47 50
preparation preheating tapping
134
Questions about the presented material
1. Main aims and course of the new processes in electric steel production
2. Pre-heating of steel waste, advantages and disadvantages
3. Fuchs Shaft Furnace, description, parameters
4. Verticon Process
5. COMELT VAI electric arc furnace
6. CONSTEEL process
7. ContiArc process of steel production
8. Twin-hearth EAF (Twin Shell EAF)
135
THEMATIC BLOCK 12
CONARC process
Converter process One furnace is filled by liquid raw iron with a trough, then
oxygen is blown in through the upper nozzle. In the second stage of blowing, DRI or
steel waste is added which partially cools the pool and stops it from overheating. In
the course of converter part of the process, the amounts of C, Si, Mn and P are
lowered. Then the lid with the nozzle is moved to the second hearth (where the
tapping of steel is occurring), steel waste and DRI are added to the furnace and a lid
with electrodes is moved over the hearth.
EAF process during which the melting of DRI and steel waste occurs as well as
overheating the steel to the tapping temperature using the electric arc utilizing
oxygen-burning burners and combustion of CO. At the same time, the converter
process is occurring in the second furnace.
136
A Schematic blueprint view of the rotary lids of the ConArc

furnace
137
DANARC PROCESS
combustion of outgoing gasses
synchronized blowing of oxygen through the floor lances,
supersonic nozzles and blowing of carbide materials by side nozzles.
DANARC Plus PROCESS

setting by one batch using a basket
Better use of heat from the outgoing emissions - higher construction of the
furnace, higher layer of batch, suction of emissions
More effective combustion within the furnace - determined by higher construction
of the furnace
Higher effectiveness of the arc and burners - construction of the furnace and
arrangement of the batch allows for increasing the power of the arc without
increasing the load on the walls
Utilizing the technology of foaming slag - increases the use of arc energy that
transitions into the pool and lowers the load on the walls
Electromagnetic mixing of the steel pool - optimized location of the floor anode in
relation to the cathode
Fully automatic control of the furnace - using an expert system which optimizes
the working point of the furnace based on the given conditions
DANARC Plus M2 PROCESS

The furnace is equipped with an independent preheating chamber
Comparison of the individual DANARC processes
Power Oxygen Consumption Consumption Tap-to-tap

Type of consumption consumption of electrode of electrode time
furnace AC DC
-1 3 -1 -1 -1
kWh.t m .t kg.t kg.t min
Standard EAF 410 30 1,9 1,4 60
DANARC 270-320 35-50 1,7 1,2 45-55
DANARC Plus 310-330 30 1,7 1,2 38-45
DANARC Plus 210-250 30 1,4-1,7 0,9-1,2 28-30
2
M
Note: Data are related to the batch without raw iron.
138
Main construction elements of the 90t DANARC furnace
Oxygen-powered nozzles (i.e. combustion) 6x3,4MW, oriented tangentially, put

in through the side walls, at the height of the slag line
Floor oxygen lances 3x250m3/h, cambered 4 towards the center of the furnace
Oxygen nozzles 2x2300m3/h, positioned in the side walls
Injection carbon nozzles 2x19,5kg/t, positioned near the oxygen nozzles, they
have foaming effect with the formation of CO for further combustion
Tuyeres life
Scrap substitute use
Maintenance program
BURNER POST-COMBUSTOR
BOTTOM OXYGEN TUYERE
CARBON-OXYGEN LANCE CARBON INJECTION TUYERE
139
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141
1 - charging phase 2 - bucket positioning on 3 - starting melting

preheating station
4 - melting and scrap 5 - tapping phase

preheating phase
142
Questions
1. The ConArc process of steel production

2. The KES process of steel production
3. The DANARC process
4. The KorfArc process
5. Tendency for production and out-of-furnace processing of electric steel
143
THEMATIC BLOCK 13
Steel production in induction furnaces
operating frequency grid frequency 50 Hz, medium IP - 600 to 10000 Hz, high
frequency (laboratory) IP - up to 500kHz
power 50 kVA to 5 MVA
weight of the batch 1 kg up to 10 t
The principle of heating and melting
Alternating current flowing through the inductor created alternating magnetic flow
(field), which induces alternating electro-motoric current of opposing polarity within
the batch. Induced current creates eddy currents in the batch which causes gradual
heating of the metallic material to the required temperature and melting. Materials
that conduct electricity can be heated by induction, however they do not have to be
ferromagnetic.
Movement of the melt in electrical induction furnace
Electrodynamic movement of the pool is a characteristic feature of induction crucible

furnace; this is caused by mutual electrical effects of the inductor current and current
within the pool.
Mixing of the pool balances the chemical and thermal heterogeneity.
An accompanying phenomenon of this mixing is the characteristic and adverse
bulging of the pool surface and its exposure because the slag flows to the walls of
the crucible. This bulging can be suppressed by dividing the inductor into sections
and disconnecting the upper section, or possible increasing the frequency or lowering
performance.
144
Electrical wiring diagram of the induction furnace (principle)
Furnace inductor along with the batch represent a considerable inductivity (L), which
delay the phase of the current against the voltage, which lowers the effect of cos
and the real power declines. A capacitor battery (C1, C2, C3 ...C) must be wired in
paralel to the inductor, which compensates for the unproductive induction component
of the current.
The value of added capacity would be high enough for the circuit to achieve parallel
resonance, when the circuit behaves like an ohmic resistance.
145
Wiring of an electrical induction furnace
Mid-frequency induction furnaces used to be wired via a rotary converter, which is

basically a mid-frequency alternator powered by asynchronous motor.
Currently, static thyristor alternators are used. In low-frequency and grid induction
furnaces, regulatory transformers with a frequency multiplier are used - they are
directly connected to the electrical grid.
Performance in mid-frequency furnaces can be regulated in two ways. In older
furnaces with rotary converter by changing the current in excitation winding of the
alternator, which changes its output. In newer thyristor alternators by changing the
frequency. Thyristor alternators can set their optimal operating mode, so that they
can always have full performance.
Wiring of a medium frequency induction furnace with rotary

alternator
1 furnace inductor 6 shunt regulator

2 capacitor battery 7 asynchronous motor
3 breaker 8 power switch
4 generator 9 trigger
5 exciter 10 measurement devices
146
Wiring of a medium frequency induction furnace with a static

thyristor alternator
1 transformer 4 thyristor frequency alternator

2 thyristor rectifier 5 capacitor battery
3 smoothing choke 6 induction furnace inductor
147
The depth of induced current penetration into the batch
Due to the so called skin effect (compression of current on the surface of the
conductor), the highest portion of the heat is induced in the surface layer of the
heated and melted batch. The depth of induced current penetration into the batch
can be determined from the empirical relation

50,3 .
f.
where: depth of the penetration of induced current into the batch; cm
... batch resistivity ; .cm
f .... frequency of the current; Hz
... relative permeability of the batch; H.m-1 (for non-magnetic materials is
~ 1, for magnetic materials is >1)
The current penetration depth is

inversely proportional to frequency - the higher the frequency, the lower the
induced current penetration depth. In mid-frequency furnaces, 86% of the
electrical power consumption is changed into heat at penetration depth .
inversely proportional to relative permeability of the batch - at 768C, permeability
is decreased, the penetration depth increases
The bigger pieces of batch we use, the lower the frequency can be. In small pieces
we must use higher frequency to achieve the required heating and melting.
Real power - Pel - exerted by individual pieces of the batch or in

the pool
Pel b . I 2 . n 2. . . f . D . K
where: n ... number of threads in the inductor
D ... median diameter of the batch:
before melting: median diameter of the pieces
after melting: median diameter of the pool (crucible)
D
K ... correction coefficient, K = f( )

The Pel value is increased with I, n, , D, f. The increase of has more

complex effect on the changes in Pel.
148
The influence of =D/ on the value of correction coefficient K
Influence of temperature on the change of the batch resistivity

(), its relative permeability (), current penetration depth ()
and the real power exerted by the batch (Pel)
768oC
768oC
149
Pel
768o C
A steep decline of permeability values of the batch and therefore also the
decline of Pel is related to the loss of magnetic properties of steel at heating (750 C -
Curie point). Gradual increase of Pel is related to the permanent rise of and D
caused by filling the crucible with the melt. The (chemical) composition of the batch
also has influence on and and the character of its change with temperature.
150
The technology of steel production in induction furnaces
In their character, most melting technologies are close to reduction re-melting in EAF
(the occurrence of oxidation processes is limited).
Metallic batch is composed based on the character of the steel produced by waste,
either alloyed or non-alloyed, and ferroalloys. Steel waste is often in the form of the
crucible (e.g. in form of bars).
Slags which are formed during the melting fulfill the covering function and limit the
penetration of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen into the forming pool.
After the batch is heated, the de-oxidation and alloying elements are inserted for
composition correction, homogenizing the pool, to check the temperature and
tapping.
Linings of induction furnaces

acid suracid based on quartzite and binders boric acid they are more
stable in dimension smaller degree of lining fracturing
base 70 % Al2O3, 30 % MgO, formed by spinels of MgO. Al2O3 (over 1550 C)
formation of monolithic layer at first melting burning using a graphite thorn or
steel pipe
151
Advantages of induction furnaces

metal is not carburized during the melting, therefore the highly alloyed waste with
low amounts of carbon and low amounts of gasses can be re-melted
accurate regulation of the pool temperature
low burn of the alloying elements
intense mixing of the pool - advantageous for removing inclusions, thermal and
chemical homogeneity
possibility to perform the melting in an inert atmosphere or in vacuum
Disadvantages of induction furnaces

low slag temperature (it is heated and melted by the metal)
related worse process of reactions between metal and slag
with acid lining (suracid based on quartzite and boric acid), is cannot be
desulfurized or dephosphorized (acid slag)
152
Vacuum induction furnaces (VIF)

VIF work usually with residual pressure of 1 to 0,1 Pa.
Construction of the furnace allows
to de-vacuum the workspace,
to intake of an inert gas,
to dispense ferroalloys,
to measure temperature and casting of the melt in vacuum conditions.
Based on the type, these furnaces have either hinged inductor and crucible or the
whole workspace.
The lining of the crucible is formed by MgO, ZrO2 or Al2O3. They are rammed,
formation of monolithic layer is achieved at first meltings.
The disadvantage of MgO crucibles is that at low pressures, MgO can be reduced by
carbon from the pool
MgO(S) + [C] Mg(g) + CO(g) (52)
Mg then evaporates from the pool. The use of Al2O3 leads to an unwanted rise in Al
levels in the pool due to reduction processes.
Metallurgic processes occurring in VIF
Long-term retention and good mixing of the pool within the conditions of deep
vacuum allows to perform these actions during the production of steel in VIFs
lowering the amount of oxygen using homogeneous carbon reaction,
effective degasification,
lowering the amount of unwanted accompanying elements (Cu, Pb, Sn) and
alloying without excessive burning of alloying elements.
Decarbonization and deoxidation

Decarbonization occurs due to homogeneous carbon reaction, which balance is
moved towards CO at lowered pressure. Decline under 1000 Pa has no significant
influence on the course of the carbon reaction - there is no proportional decline in pCO
within the bubble
Deoxidation of the pool only by carbon in the conditions of VIF does not lead to a
sufficient decrease of the amount of oxygen. It is necessary to perform reactionary
deoxidation using metallic deoxidation agents - most often Al.
153
Degasification of the pool

Degasification i.e. the change of hydrogen and nitrogen from metallic into the
gaseous phase with the absence of slag is characterized by well-known relations:
2/H/ H2(g)
2/N/ N2(g)
The transfer of hydrogen does not cause problems and the amount of hydrogen of
1 cm3/100 g can be achieved. In case of nitrogen, the process occurs much more
slowly. This is due to lower values of diffusion coefficients of nitrogen in steel and
more pronounced decrease of its activity coefficient by the components of melted
steel. The oxygen and sulfur in the solution are significant superficially active
elements, which prevent adsorption of nitrogen and thus slow down the process of its
transfer from the melt into the gaseous phase.
Vaporization of the pool components

Lowering the pressure in VIFs is used to effective removal of unwanted inclusions,
especially Cu, Pb, Sn, Sb, Bi, As. One of the basic factors that influence the speed of
vaporization is partial pressure of the pool component - px - over the metal solution
px pxo .ax pxo .N x . x
p xo ... part. pressure of pure substance x vapors

Nx ... molar fraction of substance x in the solution
x ... coefficient of activity of substance x in the solution
o
Order of elements based on p x : W, Mo, Zr, B, V, Ti, Co, Te, Ni, Si, Cr, Cu, Al, Sn,
Mn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Cd, Mg, Zn, S, P.
154
Examples of VIF usage
In VIFs, special types of steel are made, such as creep resistant, transformer, etc.
In creep resistant steel, oxide net is formed during melting in regular conditions on
the grain edges - this decreases the plastic properties of steel.
In vacuum, the net is disrupted due to the vacuum and the temperature.
Transformer steel (Si up to 6%) can be melted in vacuum without significantly

lowering their formability due to formation of oxide inclusions.
Properties of steels melted in VIFs:
lower amounts of NV high micro-purity

lower amounts of oxygen
Electro Slag Remelting of steel

The theory of the ESR process (Electro Slag Remelting ESR) was patented in 1930
in USA, its practical realization and extension was done in the 60s.
The basics of ESR:

remelting of metal electrode in copper, water-cooled crystallizer
the electrode is evaporated in drops in the slag pool, the drops pass through a
layer of slag and gather in the crystallizer, where the metal gradually solidifies
the ingot is characteristic for directed structure, its grains are oriented in parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the ingot.
slag is heated resistively by so called Joule heat which forms during the pass of
electrical current between the consumable electrode and the main board, then
the forming ingot.
155
Ways of wiring the ESR device
156
ESR Electrodes
The electrode is made from a material that is remelted:

rolled, forged or cast (i.e. ingot)
diameter is greater than 300 mm (uncommonly from 150 to 250 mm)
Crystallizer
made mostly out of copper in double-shell design
the shape of crystallizer is most commonly circular, there are also cubic or slab
crystallizers, or crystallizers of special cross-sections including crystallizers for
production of hollow ingots.
construction-wise, the crystallizer is usually immovable.
in a different construction solution, only a short crystallizer is used, in which the
melted slag and upper section of the ingot is where solidification occurs. The
entire crystallizer is lifted based on the height of the ingot. Crystallizer can be
also immovable and in that case, the main board descends with the ingot.
The parameters of remelting (voltage, current, power, stability of slag, slag surface
height and the electrode-ingot diameter ratio) must be in line so that a constant
melting and growth of the ingot is achieved with the same grain structure throughout.
The depth of submersion of the end of electrodes is kept to the optimum by
automatic voltage or current control. A constant course of melting can be
approximately kept using a smooth measurement of the weight of the electrode or its
length and keeping the power in check.
The biggest ESR device is in SaarStahl GmbH in Voelklingen. It is able to create an
ingot 2.1 m in diameter, up to 5m in length and weighing 160 tons. The process is
done by multiple changes of the electrode. The Inteco company has an ESR with the
crystallizer 1000mm in diameter and creates ingots weighing 14 tons.
157
Slags used in ESR
Slags used in ESR have to meet certain requirements:

stability at operating temperatures - low tension of the slag components vapors
lower melting temperatures - at certain measure of overheating the slag, melting
of the metal is ensured
Optimal electrical resistance (conductivity) - too high electrical conductivity leads
to high currents, in extreme cases the melting of the electrode might not occur. At
low conductivity, it is necessary to raise voltage (to achieve required current),
which can form an unwanted arc
metallurgic suitability for occurrence of certain reactions - the slag has different
composition for desulfurization and different one for dephosphorization
low viscosity
low surface voltage
high inter-phase voltage between the slag and the metal
ability to absorb non-metal inclusions
low content of unwanted elements
For ESR of lower diameter (< 500mm) slag in solid form is used, for higher diameters
of ingots it is pre-melted away from the ESR and then put into the device from the
top. If slag is used in solid form, an exothermal mixture has to be placed below the
electrode at the outset of the process, which ensures formation of liquid slag upon its
ignition.
158
Desulfurization of metal in ESR

Desulfurization occurs on 3 interfaces
in the layer of liquid metal on the electrode,
on the surface of drops of metal falling through the slag (1700-1900 C) - large
reaction interface
on the surface of the liquid part of the ingot.
During ESR, high level of desulfurization can be achieved - between 20-80 % in fact.
The level of desulfurization depends on:
the amount of sulfur in the material being remelted,
its overall composition,
composition of the slag,
composition of the atmosphere over the slag,
on the energy mode during remelting etc.
For ESR, the most frequently used slags are based on CaF2 (e.g. 70 % CaF2 30 %
Al2O3; 80 % CaF2 20 % CaO, 60 % CaF2 20 % CaO 20 % Al2O3). These slags
have relatively low dividing coefficient of sulfur LS = 4 30, with the rising content of
CaO the LS increases. A negative effect of SiO2 was proved on the achieved values
of LS.
High speed of desulfurization is not only a function of LS, but also of the kinetics of
the process. Highly liquid slag allows for more expanded course of diffusion
processes. Similarly, intense oxidation of sulfur may occur from the slag by the gas
phase into SO2.
S + (O2-) (S2-) + O (56)

(S2-) + 3/2 O2(g) SO2(g) + (O2-) (57)
The slag composition is determined based on the required metallurgical function:

desulfurization based on CaO-CaF2
dephosphorization based on CaF2-FeO
Lowering the amount of oxygen and oxide inclusions during

ESR
The change in the overall amount of oxygen and oxides in the remelted steel is the
function of several concurrently occurring processes:
a portion of the inclusions is expelled directly from the steel during the formation
of the liquid layer of melted steel on the electrode
159
during the melting of steel, conditions are created which are ideal for re-solution
of a significant portion of inclusions, which were formed by homogeneous
exothermal reactions during solidification of steel
during crystallization, a directed front of solidification is slowly formed and
thus conditions of rising of inclusions are created.
Behavior of gases during ESR

During ESR, an increase in the amount of hydrogen may occur during the process.
The cause is the reaction of atmospheric air (containing H2O) with base components
of the slag and the transition of hydrogen from slag into the metal pool.
Prevention against the increase of hydrogen in steel during ESR:
lowering the amount of H2 in the steel undergoing the ESP
using slags with lower amount of CaO, MgO, ideally then of the CaF2-Al2O3 type
without physically bound water
use of protective atmosphere over the slag (dried air)
As far as nitrogen is concerned, its amount can be lowered by 15-30 %. The

assumption is the use of slags able to dissolve nitrogen. Dissociation of TiN nitrides
also has to occur based on reaction
TiN(S) /Ti/ + /N/ (58)
and part of the nitrogen may transition into a slag of suitable composition.
Properties of steel remelted using ESR

suppression or complete elimination of segregation processes of accompanying
elements - small volume of liquid metal
directed solidification (from the underlay towards the top) - individual grains of the
structure are oriented parallel to the longitudinal ingot axis - highly homogeneous
steel is created
high micro-purity of steel - division of the remaining non-metal inclusions evenly
through the cross-section of the ingot
high isotropy of the properties of the produced steel
ESR is used for remelting of not only classical steels, but also highly alloyed steels,
superalloys and non-ferrous metals. Steels are utilized in electrical engineering
industry, aviation, in production of complex ball bearings, etc. i.e. where there are
increased requirements on homogeneity and micro-purity of steel.
160
New processes of electro-slag remelting
PESR Pressurized Electro-slag Remelting

Uses remelting in a hermetically enclosed chamber with high pressure of nitrogen,
which alloys the melted steel. With regards to the low transition of nitrogen from
gaseous into solid phase (short-term exposure), nitrogen is added into the traction
zone in form of alloying elements. It is used to prepare special steels and alloys.
VacESR Vacuum Electro-slag Remelting

It is used to produce steels and alloys that are especially pure (e.g. for aviation
industry), it is characterized by low mounts of hydrogen and oxide inclusions.
The Inteco company (Internationale Technische Beratung Austria) developed two

modifications of ESR with the aim to approach the advantages of fluent casting of
steel. The two processes are the following
ESRR Electro Slag Rapid Remelting

ESCC - Electro Slag Continuous Remelting
The basis of the ESRR process is in using crystallizer of so-called T-shape. Its lower,
narrower part corresponds to the required diameter of the resulting remelted ingot.
The upper part of the crystallizer is expanded and its diameter is defined based on
the maximum diameter of the ingots used for remelting. By remelting the ingots
(electrodes) of greater diameter into ingots of smaller diameters, the speed of their
production is increased. Usually, diameters 2-3 times larger than the diameter of the
resulting ingots are chosen (MPT International 5/96, p.48).
161
Questions on the presented study material
1. The principle of heating in induction furnaces

2. Electrical devices of induction furnaces, regulation of power in induction furnaces
3. Penetration depth of the induced current into the slag, analysis of the individual
factors
4. Technology of steel production in induction furnaces, advantages and
disadvantages of IC
5. Production of steel in vacuum induction furnace (VIF), metallurgic processes in
VIF, de-carbonization, deoxidation, degassification, vaporization of pool
components, examples of VIF use
6. Electro-slag remelting of steel (ESR), an ESR schematic, ESR wiring, slags used
in ESR, desulfurization of metal in ESR, the basis of lowering the amounts of
oxygen and oxide inclusions in ESR
7. Behavior of dissolved gasses in ESR, properties of ESR remelted steel
8. New processes of ESR - PESR, VaCESR, ESRR, ESCC
162
THEMATIC BLOCK 14
Ferroalloys production
Ferroalloys are alloys of iron and other metals and non-metals, e.g. FeMn, FeCr,
FeP.
Ferroalloys contain:
basic element - Fe, Si (basis)
main element - Mn, Cr, V (the main reason for its production)
unwanted inclusions - the content is not limited, ferroalloys also contain
various unwanted inclusions
harmful inclusions - their content is limited into a few 1/1000 %
For example, in a carbon-less FeCr there is:

Fe - the basic element
Cr - the main element
Si - unwanted inclusion
C,P,S - harmful inclusion
Ferroalloys are used for alloying, deoxidation and for steel and alloy
modification, which is essential not only in steel production but also in production of
non-ferrous metals.
Why ferroalloys are used instead of pure metals?

ferroalloys are cheaper than pure metals
lower burn of main element is achieved with ferroalloys as opposed to pure
metals
in some ferroalloys, (such as FeSi, FeTi), the density is increased which has
positive effect on the dissolving process and therefore also on the burn
lower melting temperature in some ferroalloys compared to pure metals
(such as FeV, FeW, FeMo)
ferroalloys may have other better physical properties - such as lumpiness
(more easily dissolved in steel)
Industrial production of ferroalloys - 1960s

reduction melting in crucible furnaces
then production in blast furnace (blast furnace FeSi, FeMn - spiegeleisen)
electro-thermic method in EAF - electric arc furnace, reduction environment
alumino-thermic method
163
Division of ferroalloys:
based on the number of alloying elements:

simple ferroalloys - only one main element
complex ferroalloys - contain more main elements (in SiCr or FeSiCr they are
Si and Cr)
based on the amount of the main element
low-percentage (FeSi 15, 18, FeMn 25)
high-percentage
based on the method of use
* deoxidizing
* alloying
based on the method of production
* blast-furnace - non-decarbonized ferroalloys
* electro-thermal - carbo-thermal method
* metalo-thermal - carbon-less ferroalloys
Thermodynamics, kinetics and mechanisms of the processes

involved in ferroalloys production
There is a significant number of technologies for production of ferroalloys of
the same or similar composition. In terms of the metallurgical basis - or rather the
physico-chemical basis, these processes used for ferroalloy production can be
divided into the following groups:
1. Carbo-thermal processes (reduction by carbon)
2. Refinement processes (refinement of products of carbo-thermal processes)
3. Metalo-thermal processes - silico-thermics, alumino-thermics
4. Remelting processes (for achieving some complex alloys)
5. Electrolytic processes
6. Other (e.g. nitration)
Carbo-thermal processes
The principle of carbo-thermal processes is the reduction of metal oxides by
carbon while creating stand-alone metals of these oxides (an analogy of BF
processes).
Reduction reaction is conditioned primarily by stability of oxides at high
temperatures. Stability of oxides is determined by the change in free enthalpy during
the formation of oxides from basic elements.
164
The more negative the G is, the more stable the oxide is. The least stable
ones are MoO3 and WO3, the most stable ones are CaO, MgO, Al2O3 and this is why
they are the most difficult ones to reduce.
with the increasing temperature, the stability of oxides decreases (G is less

negative)
exception: C CO, with the increasing temperature, the stability of CO
increases as well (affinity of C towards O increases)
practical consequence:
at higher temperatures, some oxides can be reduced by carbon
by increasing the temperature, more stable oxides can be reduced
CO is gaseous, it leaks from the reaction area - pCO (advantageous)
lower oxide (such as TiO) is more stable than a higher oxide (TiO2).
Theoretically then, every element that forms a more stable oxide can become
reducing agent of a less stable oxide. For practical realization of this reaction, it is
necessary that the difference in G is great enough (n.104 J). If this difference is not
sufficient then the reduction does not occur completely and the resulting alloy
contains increased amounts of the reducing element.
Usually this element is comprised of more oxides. Lower oxides are more
stable then higher oxides. In some cases, lower oxide can be irreducible even if it is
reducible as a higher oxide.
165
Reduction of oxides by carbon is an endothermic reaction, which excludes the

option of these reactions occurring without an external heat source (such as heat of
the electric arc, etc.)
Reaction of some reductions (by carbon) represent a summary reaction of two
partial reactions:
indirect reduction of oxides by CO H< >0
Boudoard reaction CO2 + C = 2CO H > 0 (171 880 cal.mol-1)
Summary H is always positive (endothermic reaction) as opposed to reduction by
silicon or aluminum - both exothermic reactions!
for example:
MnO + CO = Mn + CO2 endo or exo
CO2 + C = 2CO endo
MnO + C = Mn + CO endo
Diagram of G change dependence on temperature during reduction of

various oxides by carbon:
reduction of MoO3 by carbon will occur easily (G is very negative)

reduction of ZrO2 by carbon will not occur (G is positive)
at higher temperatures, G of metal creation is more negative, reactions
will occur more fully - which means higher yield of metal
During reduction of oxides by carbon, not only pure metals are produced but
also corresponding carbides of these metals (thats why the produced ferroalloys
contain a certain amount of C). Carbides are formed because the G of their
formation is more negative than the G of sole metal production (in reduction of
166
an metal oxide by carbon). The greater this difference is, the more difficult the
production of a ferroalloy with low amount of carbon -the carbide is produced
primarily, which predetermines the higher amount of carbon in the ferroalloy.
Cr2O3 + C = Cr + CO G = -126 000 J.mol-1
Cr2O3 + C = Cr7C3 + CO G = -180 000 J.mol-1
A low amount of carbon in the produced ferroalloy can be achieved only is the
reaction occurs at high content of silicon in the ferroalloy. The change in free
enthalpy of metal silicide formation (MexSiy in general) is usually more negative than
the change of free enthalpy of carbide formation. Silicon displaces carbon from the
carbide bond (MeC) and silicides (MeSi) are formed, the surplus carbon is expelled
from the metal in form of graphite (analogous to the raw iron - outflow of graphite,
high content of Si in raw iron).
Reduction by carbon
(MexOy) + y C(s) x [Me] + y CO(g) metal H= +
(MexOy) + (y+z) C(s) [MexCz] + y CO(g) carbide H= +
Reactions are endothermal and form gaseous product (CO), therefore they are
accelerated by
increased temperature (higher outflow of the reduced element, higher use of
furnace lining, higher consumption of energy)
decreased pressure
Technological principles of carbo-thermal reduction

Products of carbo-thermal reduction are solutions of the reduced Me
component (basic element) in iron, the given solution also contains some amount of
carbon. The ratio of its transition is given by the amount of silicon in the solution,
which decreases the solubility of carbon (the more Si, the less C). It decreases it by
primarily forming silicides with the basic element.
This if the melting is done only within a MeO-C-Fe system, we obtain Fe-C-
Me solution as a product where Me and C make up - to a certain extent - the
carbides dissolved in the resulting solution.
If we reduce MexOy using the left C, but we also want to obtain a product with
low amount of C, a precaution can to be done to increase Si in the product, such as
concurrent reduction of MeO and SiO2 into an Fe-Si-C-Me solution. With the increase
of Si, C decreases. Another method is to reduce silicon into the already reduced Fe-
Me-C system. Increase of Si in the solution leads to expulsion of carbon from the
solution due to higher affinity of Si to Me, Fe (during formation of soluble silicides)
than the affinity of C to Me, Fe. Therefore, this reaction occurs:
[MexCz] + n[Si] - [MexSin] + z C(s)

Conclusion:
Reduction by carbon results in us obtaining either
167
carbonaceous Fe-Me-C solutions at relatively low amounts of Si,

or low-carbon Fe-Me-Si solutions, with an increased content of silicon.
Refinement processes of carbon reduction products

The product of carbon reduction are solutions of Fe-Me-C-(Si), or Fe-Me-
C-Si type. These products can then be directly utilized (such as C FeCr, C
FeSiCr), but more often serve for subsequent production of low-carbon or low-silicon
ferroalloys by way of refinement processes.
The basic refinement processes are:

de-carbonization using oxidation gasses
de-siliconization using oxidation slag.
Decarbonization of Fe-Me-C-Si solution in a converter

Is done using:
gaseous oxygen
mixture of O2 + e.g. argon (analogous to AOD)
gaseous oxide and using vacuum - analogy to the production of AK steels - lower
burn of e.g. Cr during the oxidation of C (analogy to VOD)
In solid state using oxides of MexOy or SiO2 type in the conditions of vacuum and
increase temperatures following these reactions
y[C]Fe-Mn-C + MexOy x[Me] + y CO(g)
[C]Fe-Mn-C + SiO2 SiO(g) + CO(g)
Desiliconization of Fe-Me-C-Si solutions

Is done using oxidation slag, such as periodic melting in hearth furnace. These
are the occurring reactions (for the sake of simplicity, we consider MeO instead of
MexOy):
[Si]Fe-Me-SiC + 2(MeO) (SiO2) + 2[Me]
(SiO2) + 2(CaO) 2 CaO.SiO2
the CaO binds SiO2; CaO influences MeO and SiO2,, which means a decrease in SiO2
Conditions demanded for the refining MeO:
low afinity of Me to O - the higher the affinity, the more difficult the release of [O]
meant for oxidation is
low loss of H
FeO - suitable - dilutes the ferroalloy
MnO - suitable - main alloying element (such as MnO)
(MeO)* - only when we require Me* in the alloy
168
Metalo-thermic processes
The principle of metalo-thermic processes is the reduction of oxides using
metals with high oxygen affinity (such as Al, Si, Si alloys and others). This reduction
releases high amounts of heat:
without external influx of energy, very high temperatures are achieved
products of the reduction (with high melting temperature) are formed in liquid
state, thus the reduced metal is separated in form of drops. The reducing agent
(metal) oxidizes into a corresponding oxide and almost fully moves into the slag.
The most common element for reduction is Al or Si - we then designate these
processes aluminothermy or silicothermy. Reduction of MeO using Al is
characterized by a more negative H (the reaction is highly exothermic) than the Si
reduction. Therefore, heating is essential during reduction by Si. (another reason for
heating: formation of silicides - higher temperature is necessary for their dissolution).
Aluminothermy has the advantage of lower C content in the resulting ferroalloy
(C is between 0,05-0,1 %). Products include: low-carbon FeW, FeMo, FeCr, FeMn,
FeV, FeTi, FeNb, FeTa and ferroalloys TiAl, CrAl.
The initial material for aluminothermy requires refinement in terms of
damaging inclusions (especially S, As, Sn, Pb, P < 0,05-0,1 %), because the slag
that forms has relatively low refining effect.
The basics of metallurgy of metalo-thermic processes

Basic equation:
MexOy + z[R] x[Me] + RzOq
for example for reduction of TiO2 using Al:
(TiO2) + 4/3[Al] [Ti] + 2/3(Al2O3) H= (strongly exothermic)
High temperature moves the balance of the metalo-thermic reaction to the left.
During the design of reaction systems (what to reduce with, the melting agent,
slag...) we consider:
TD aspects: spontaneity of the considered reaction at various temperatures
residual levels of reduction agents in the alloy (influence on quality)
thermal dynamics - sufficiency for complete thermal balance (heat for melting,
heat loss)
TD and kinetic aspects: - influence of slag-forming melting agents
economic aspects: - the price of reduction agents, yield from the concentrate, etc.
Thermodynamic aspects
For simplification, the reaction is presented by the example of TiO2 reduction using
Al.
169
a[Ti ] a (2Al/ 32O3 ) f Ti [Ti] X Al2 /23O3 Al2 /23O3

K Ti Al K Ti Al
a[4Al/ 3] a (TiO2 ) f Al4 / 3 [ Al ] 4 / 3 X TiO2 TiO2
The residual amount of TiO2 in the slag (a criterion of yield from the reaction in case
of balance) is determined by this relation:
1 [Ti ] f [ Ti ] 2Al/ 32O3

X TiO2 X Al2O3
KTi Al [ Al ]4/ 3 f [ 4Al/ 3] TiO2
The amount of TiO2 in the slag will decrease with

lower temperature: exothermic reaction (t , k, XTiO2)
higher fAl: presence of elements that increase Al activity
lower fTi: presence of elements that decrease Ti activity
lower XAl2O3: addition of neutral MgO
influence of basicity of the slag
Metalo-thermic reductions occur in some cases until complete reduction of the

metal (such as Fe, W, Mo). Others only until achieving an equilibrium between the
metallic pool and oxide slag. A significant amount of MeO remains in the slag and
part of the metal reducing agent will alloy the emerging ferroalloy (Al in FeTi).
During the production of FeTi, a FeTiAl solution is formed with 60-80% of Ti at
current high amount of TiO, TiO2 which are bound in the slag with Al2O3. These
bonds can - only to a certain degree - change by a strong base or a strong acid into
slag for the bonding with Al2O3 (which is weakly acid, almost amphoterous). An oxide
of such metal can be added into the slag, which is similar in its chemical properties to
the MeO and may be displaced in the bond with Al2O3 without reducing the slag.
Addition of CaO is suitable, if the MeO is base (TiO, MnO), similarly the BaO
and MgO additives. The released TiO, MnO can be then used for further reduction.
The influence of temperature can be deduced from the thermal dynamics of
the reaction which is strongly exothermic. The shift of balance to the left in high
temperatures is unwanted. It is not advantageous to increase temperature over a
level that ensures complete fluidity of the system. In such a case, it is necessary to
cool the system by adding MgO or reversible slag.
Thermal balance
Thermal dynamics and the absolute value of H are determining factors of
thermal balance of a metalothermic reaction. It is also necessary to consider:
H of the formation of silicides or aluminates in metal
H of formation of silicates or aluminates in the slag
Q necessary for heating and melting of the initial substances and the products
in T of the reaction
170
Q of thermal loss
H of the accompanying exoreactions, Q in heating (eventually), pre-heating of
the batch
For example the reaction
(Fe2O3) + 2[Al] (Al2O3) + 2[Fe] H0298 = 854 kJ/mol
- is strongly exothermic and ensures formation of products (Fe and Al2O3) in
liquid state.
However in the reaction:
3(MnO) + 2[Al] (Al2O3) + 3[Mn] H0298 = kJ/mol
- sufficient temperature is not present for melting of the aluminate slag. If we
exchange MnO for Mn3O4, the H0298 = - 2535kJ/mol and the thermal effect will be
sufficient.
Conclusion:
Enthalpy of the acquired slag, metal and thermal loss are approximately the same
for the individual metals (assumption).
A rule has been established:
Aluminothermic process after ignition occurs spontaneously if the amount of
developing heat corresponding to 1 g of the batch (this includes slag-forming
additives) is greater than appox. 2300-2700 J.
Sometimes this value is compared (not entirely correctly) to the specific
thermal effect of an aluminthermic reaction
H 0298
q cal/g of the batch (MeO+Al)
n MeO M MeO n Al M Al
The value of q does not consider the mass of the slag-forming additives and is
valid for 298 K. However it is a suitable rule for judging (and comparing) the course.
The values of q are tabulated.
The following is evident from these values:
most metals for alloying steel can be aquired by Al reduction from their higher
oxides
when using Si, reduction is only possible for Mn, Mo, Cr (others only with
provision of external heat)
Under spontaneity, we consider not only the condition of negative G, but also
sharp division of metal and slag
optimal amount of Al and Si additives, so that liquid slag is obtained: MeO-Al2O3,
MeO-SiO2 or MeO-SiO2-Al2O3
amount of additives should not be lower than 200 kg (so that the heat loss is not
too great)
171
particle size of MeO, Al, Si should not be greater than 0,3 mm

purity of Al; content of [O] in it is not greater than 0,0500 %
Another way for increasing yield (and often also the option for performing
aluminothermic reduction in terms of thermal balance) is utilizing collateral
exothermic reactions. For this purpose, MeO oxides with low H0 (of MeO formation)
are suitable. In other words - with low affinity to oxygen such as FeO, Fe3O4, Fe2O3.
Iron reduced from FeO or from Fe2O3, Fe3O4 acts favorably in the forming alloy on
the yield with its diluting effect.
Options of the collateral exo reactions:
use of higher Me oxide instead of or with the MnO (e.g. MnO2+MnO, CrO3+Cr2O3
etc.)
use of Me salts that contain oxygen (e.g. KMnO4); use of potassiom salts (KClO3)
use of higher oxide, which reduces only to a lower one and does not enter the
metal alloy, in form of a metal (e.g. CaO2 CaO+..., BaO2 BaO+ ...)
The course of collateral reaction requires increase in consumption of Al or Si.
The overall amount of slag is also increased.
Additional heat in reactions with insufficient H, can be acquired also by
preheating the components before igniting the mixture.
The melting temperature of Al2O3 slag from aluminothermic reduction can be
lowered by increasing the content of MeO, FeO, ZrO2, TiO2.
Kinetics and mechanisms of metalothermic reactions

These conditions should be ensured:
1. Low residual value of XMeO (maximum reduction of MeO)
thermodynamically:
- high MeO
- low RzOy
- low temperature
kinetically: strong approximation of the system to the state of equilibrium,
i.e. strong liquification of the forming slag containing primarily RzOy.
2. Sufficient reaction speed
3. Sufficiently fast removal of granules from the slag layer (before it solidifies)
Note: This is an exothermic reaction, high temperature is necessary for points
2 and 3, but not suitable for point 1.
Use of additives lowering the temperature of melting slags is limited - high
consumption of heat to melt them. It is possible to acquire it as a product of the
collateral reactions.
The speed of the aluminothermic reaction must be controlled and directed
(discharges, health hazards). Suitable grain dimmensions must be used - bigger
172
chunks slow the process, slag and metal must be liquid for a longer period so that the
reaction can finish. In first moments of the reduction, Me is depleded around Al and
an Al-Me drops form, which moves downwards through the slag layer and is further
refined from Al.
Reaction temperatures - 2200-2400 oC
In FeW production - 2500 oC
Re-melting processes
Aim:
To achieve a complex alloy
Multi-component alloys - remelting in an IF or VIF or EAF from pure components or
alloys.
Questions on the presented study material
1. Division of ferroalloys, basic element, main element, unwanted inclusion, harmful

inclusion
2. Advantage of using ferroalloys instead of pure metal
3. Thermodynamics of carbothermic processes
4. Technological principles of carbothermic reduction
5. Refinement processes of carbon reduction products
6. Basics of metalurgy for metalothermic processes of ferroalloy productions
7. Thermal balance of metalothermic processes
8. Kinetics and mechanisms of metalothermic reactions
9. Characteristics of remelting processes
173
APPENDIX TO THE THEMATIC BLOCK 1
Courses of alternating voltage and current in circuits with

ohmic, inductive and capacitive resistance
The circuit of alternating current with ohmic resistance R

phase shift between the current and voltage is null
U
I
R Im Um
resistance
= 0
Circuit of alternating current with inductivity L

- due to self-induction in coil, the current is delayed after voltage by 900)
2
U
I
inductance
Um
Im
Circuit of alternating current with capacity C

- voltage is delayed after current by 900)
2
U
I
Im Um
capacitance

/2
174
Courses of alternating voltage and current in circuits with a

combination of ohmic, inductive and capacitive resistance
The circuit of alternating current with R, L, C series connection
R
2
1
Z R L
2

L C
Z impedance, apparent resistance

C X = XL - XC reactance; tg = (XL-XC) / R
If XL = XC then Z=R which are conditions for creation of serial resonance of the circuit.
In serial resonance, the circuit acts as if only a resistor was connected, i.e. the
current is in phase with voltage. Resonance may occur at constant frequency if we
change L and C or at constant L, C if we change the frez frequency. This frequency is
then called resonance frequency
1
f rez
2 L.C
Circuit of alternating current with C and L connected in parallel
C L 1
Z
1
C
L
If XL = XC then parallel resonance occurs.

Electrical field of the condenser is changed into a magnetic field of inductance and
vice-versa.
- angular speed
= 2 .. f = 6,28 . 50 = 314 s-1 (for 50 Hz)
175
Alternating current power
Apparent power: Papparent = U . I [VA]

Real power: Preal = U . I . cos [W]
Reactive power: Preactive = U . I . sin [VAr]
where is the phase shift between voltage and current teor. <-90; 90> and cos is
the power factor.
Three-phase current
12
0O
Basic connection of three-phase appliances
L1
L2
Star connection
Up = UL1-N = UL2-N = UL3-N = 230 V

Uptp = UL1-L2 = UL1-L2 = UL1-L2 = 400 V
Uptp = 3 .Up
Iptp = 3 .Ip
Preal = 3.Up .Ip .cos
L3
Delta connection
L1
Preal = 3.Uptp .Iptp .cos
Preal = 3. 3 .Up .Ip .cos
Power increases at switching Y

L2 3 times = 1,73-times
L3
176

Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys Production

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Vysok kola bsk Technick univerzita Ostrava

ELECTROMETALLURGY AND FERROALLOYS

prof. Ing. Karel Michalek, CSc.

Edition: first, 2014

Subject synopsis Electrometallurgy and Ferroalloys

1. The present state and perspectives of steel production in electric furnaces.

The present state and perspectives of steel production in

Division of electric furnaces

The scheme of electric resistance furnace

The division of electric arc furnaces (EAF)

b) Powered by direct current (DC)

The original Hroults arc furnace

Studying of Appendix on final pages of didactic text is also a part of this

The principle of formation and composition of electric arc

The composition of the arc:

Cathode area of conductive discharge length of 10-4 mm, adjacent to the

Conditions of electric arc burning

Necessary arc voltage U0 for its burning will be the lower,

Volt-ampere characteristics of the electric arc of two different

Volt-ampere characteristics of the direct current electric arc of two

Stabilization of a direct current arc

Therefore, the following applies:

Moving the arc characteristic towards the lower voltages shortening it

Current-voltage ratios in alternate current electric arc

Current-voltage ratios in alternate electric arc stabilized by a

In order to stabilize, we use for example the inclusion of a suppression coil in

1. The division of electric arc furnaces.

Electric and thermal mode of EAF

Pinput = Pel + Pex

where: Pel active input by the electric energy (especially arcs)

Poutput = Plos + Plining

where: Plos direct thermal losses (combustion gasses, radiation, cooling

Pel = Ptotal,el Plos,el

where: Ptotal,el total active power supplied from the network

Schematic representation of the flow of individual powers in

Simplified equivalent scheme of the arc furnace

U2,p .. secondary phase voltage

Electric and thermal mode of EAF

Po Pel 3 I2 U22, p L I22 3 R I22

Electric and thermal mode of EAF

2. Changing the current of the I2 arc at the given U2,p.

- ~ ionization potential of the vapors and gasses in the arc

Electric characteristics of an arc furnace (associated work

The dependence of the furnace productivity (G) and the

The optimum range of currents is limited by the maximum productivity G (the

Dynamic effects of arcs in EAF

Mixing of the pool under the arcs

Physical and chemical effects of arc in EAF

Physical and chemical effects:

Ultra High Productivity furnaces

Ultra High Chemical Power furnaces

Development and technical parameters of newly constructed EAF

Development of technology to produce steel in arc furnaces -

theoretical consumption of electrical energy to melt 1t of steel - 380 kWh/t

Other sources of heat in an EAF

Thermal effect of exothermic reactions

Use of gaseous oxygen in the conditions of EAF

1. Pre-melting nozzles cutting bigger chunks of batch

2. Refining oxygen nozzles oxidation of accompanying elements and oxidation of

Thermal effect in oxidation of the pool elements (1 kWh = 3600 kJ)